The political economy of higher education in the time of global markets: Whither the social responsibility of the university?

Full text

CHAPTER(
ELEVEN(
The$
Political$
Economy$
of$
Higher$
Education$
in$
the$
Time$
of$
Global$
Markets:$
Whither$
the$
Social$
Responsibility$
of$
the$
University?$
Daniel'
Schugurensky'
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304$
CONCLUDING$
ANALYSES$
vescence&
of&
the&
late&
1960s,&
including&
the&
university&
movements&
(particularly&
the&
French&
May)&
and&
the&
writings&
of&
such&
authors&
as&
Freire,&
Althusser,&
and&
Illich.&
Among&
other&
things&
this&
vision&
proposed&
a&
reduction&
in&
the&
gulf&
beC
tween&
mental&
and&
manual&
work&
(and&
thereby&
the&
stratified&
social&
relations&
that&
derive&
from&
the&
division&
of&
labor)&and&
an&
integration&
of&
theoretical&
and&
practical&
knowledge.&
It&
also&
called&
for&
making&
students&
subjects—rather&
than&
objects—of&
their&
learning&
process,&
so&
that&
they&
will&
he&
active,&
critical,&
and&
creative&
citizens&
as&
well&
as&
good&
workers&
and&
to&nurture&
among&
them&
a&
comprehensive&
understanding&
of&
the&
relations&
between&
productive&
forces&
and&
the&
social,&
political,&
and&
culmral&
spheres.&
Although&
advocates&
of&
this&
viC
sion&
did&
not&
challenge&
basic&
research,&
in&
general&
they&
expressed&
a&
preference&
for&
"socially&
relevant"&
research&
that&
addressed&
the&
needs&
of&
the&
most&
marC
ginalized&
members&
of&
society&
or&
that&
contributed&
to&
the&
project&
of&
social&
transformation.&
As&
Newson&
and&
Buchbinder&
(1988)&
noted,&
these&
competing&
visions&
of&
the&
university&
are&
not&
just&
speculative&
exercises&
of&
academics.&
As&
with&
other&
viC
sions&
of&
societies&
and&
institutions,&
they&
mobilize&
people&
in&
certain&
directions&
and&
away&
from&
others.&
Moreover,&
these&
three&
visions&
invoke&
values&
(an&
imC
portant&
dimension&
of&
academic&
culture)&
that&
include&
clear&
principles&
about&
the&
purposes&
and&
ways&
of&
conceiving&
of&
the&
main&
tmiversity&
missions&
(reC
search,&
teaching,&
and&
extension)&
in&
their&
relationship&
to&
larger&
society.&
These&
visions&
are&
also&
embedded&
in&
material&
(rather&
than&
abstract)&
social&
processes&
and&
in&
concrete&
structures&
of&
rewards&
and&
punishments&
shaped&
by&
political&
and&
economic&
forces.&
In&
turn,&
these&
forces&
are&
not&
impersonal&
but&
are&
brought&
into&
play&
through&
human&
agency.&
When&
their&
book&
was&
written,&
Newson&
and&
Buchbinder&
noted&
that&
a&
fourth&
competing&
vision,&
which&
they&
labeled&
"service&
university,"&
had&
began&
to&
emerge&
and&
gain&
prominence.&
This&
vision,&
which&
conceives&
of&
the&
univerC
sity&
as&
an&
enterprise,&
academics&
as&
entrepreneurs,&
and&
knowledge&
as&
a&
comC
modity,&
has&
been&
able&
to&
attract&
the&
attention&
of&
a&
critical&
mass&
of&
university&
actors&
and&
to&
compete&
successfully&
with&
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THE$
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THE$
POLITICAL$
ECONOMY$
OF$
HIGHER$
EDUCATION$
307$
TABLE$
I$ I$
.$
I$
The$
10$
C's$
of$
the$
heteronomous$
university$
Commercial*
university*
Controlled*
university*
Cultivation*
of*
private*
and*
foreign*
universities*
Cutbacks*
Customer*
fees*
Conditional*
funding*
Client7oriented*
programs*
Coordination*
(collaboration*
and*
competition)*
Cooperation*
with*
business*
Corporate*
rationality*
Casualization*
of*
labor*
Contracting*
out*
trolled*
university*
consists*of*
a*
triad*
of*
(8)*
cutbacks,*
(9)*
conditional*
funding,*
and*
(10)*
coordination,*
which*
in*
turn*
combines*
dynamics*
of*
"collaboration"*
and*
"competition"*
in*
the*
system*
(see*
Table*
ii.i).*
Four*
clarifications*
regarding*
the*
use*
of*
the*
term*
heteronomy$
are*
worth*
mentioning*
here.*
First,*
it*
is*
true*
that*
universities*
have*
been*
conditioned*
by*
state*
and*
private*
interests*
before.*
However,*
the*
emerging*
pattern*
constitutes*
a*
new*
structural*
and*
globalized*
model*
of*
dependency*
to*
the*
market*
and*
sub7
jection*
to*
the*
state*
that*
goes*
beyond*
the*
classic*
control*
of*
a*
specific*
insti7
mtion*
by*
a*
businessperson*
through*
endowments*
or*
donations*
and*
beyond*
conjunctural*
infringements*
on*
institutional*
autonomy*
by*
the*
government*
in*
a*
particular*
university*
or*
nation7state.*
Second,*
the*
term*
heteronomy,$
as*
used*
in*
this*
context,*
does*
not*
imply*
that*
universities*
are*
being*
(or*
are*
going*
to*
be*
in*
the*
near*
future)*
stripped*
of*
any*
vestige*
of*
institutional*
autonomy.*
It*
rather*
indicates*
that*
this*
space*
is*
being*
reduced,*
or*
gradually*
taken*
over*
if*
you*
pre7
fer,*
by*
external*
powers*
that*
are*
increasingly*
capable*
of*
imposing*
their*
own*
logic*
and*
interests.*
It*
is*
not*
so*
much*
that*
the*
university*
is*
operated*
by*
nonacademic*
actors*
as*
that*
its*
daily*
practices*
(its*
functions,*
internal*
organi7
zation,*
activities,*
structure*
of*
rewards,*
etc.)*
are*
subsumed*
into*
the*
logic*
im7
posed*
by*
the*
state*
and*
by*
the*
market.*
Third,*
heteronomy*
is*
an*
abstract*
con7
cept,*
and*
hence*
its*
application*
to*
the*
analysis*
of*
a*
specific*
reality*
should*
be*
appropriately*
contextualized.*
Finally,*
the*
transition*
to*
the*
heteronomous*
university*
is*
not*
a*
smooth,*
linear,*
and*
consensual*
process*
that*
is*
welcomed*
by*
all*
members*
of*
the*
academic*
community;*
this*
process*
is*
usually*
obstructed*
by*
the*
resistance*
of*
those*
who*
espouse*
alternative*
visions*
of*
the*
university.*
It*
would*
take*
more*
space*
than*
available*
here*
to*
discuss*
each*
one*
of*
the*
10*
C's*
of*
the*
heteronomous*
university*
(a*
detailed*
description*
of*
each*
one*
of*

308$
CONCLUDING$
ANALYSES$
these%
features%
can%
be%
found%
elsewhere,%
in%
Schugurensky%
[1994]).%
In%
these%
pages%
I%
prefer%
to%
discuss%
four%
of%
these%
trends%
that%
are%
particularly%
significant%
in%
terms%
of%
the%
issues%
discussed%
in%
this%
book.%
The%
first%
one%
is%
the%
cultivation%
of%
private%
and% foreign%
universities,%
a%
development%
that%
has%
been%
especially%
evident%
in%
Latin%
America.%
In%
the%
last%
two%
decades%
this%
region%
has%
experienced%
a%
faster%
growth%
of%
the%
private%
sector%
than%
any%
other%
region%
in%
the%
world.%
A%
few%
decades%
ago%
the%
private%
sector%
was%
relatively%
insignificant%
in%
terms%
of%
stuF
dent%
enrollment,%
but%
today%
they%
represent%
approximately%
40%
percent%
of%
total%
enrollments.%
Moreover,%
in%
the%
midF1990s%
five%
Latin%
American%
countries%
had%
a%
higher%
enrollment%
rate%
in%
the%
private%
sector%
than%
in%
the%
public%
one,%
an%
unF
usual%
situation%
in%
the%
university%
system%
anywhere%
in%
the%
world%
(Garcia%
GuaF
dilla$
2002).$
A%
second%
important%
trend%
is%
the%
steady%
consolidation%
of%
a%
corporate%
raF
tionality.%
This%
can%
be%
observed%
not%
only%
in%
the%
adoption%
of%
a%
variety%
of%
corF
porate%
values%
and%
practices%
(see%
Slaughter%
and%
Leslie%
[1997]%
and%
Slaughter%
and%
Rhoades%
[2004]),%
but%
also%
in%
the%
growth%
of%
a%
distinct%
administrative%
class,%
including%
specialists%
in%
public%relations,%
fundFraising,%
and%
marketing.%
AnaF
lyzing%
data%
from%
the%
United%
States,%
Lewis%
(1996,%
1998)%
noted%
that%
in%
the%
1930s%
institutions%
of%
higher%
learning%
spent%
19%
cents%
on%
administration%
for%
every%
dollar%
spent%
on%
instruction,%
a%
figure%
that%
rose%
to%
27%
cents%
in%
1950%
and%
to%
45%
cents%
by%
the%
end%
of%
the%
1980s.%
Moreover,%
between%
1975%
and%
1990%
colF
lege%
and%
university%
enrollments%
rose%
only%
10%
percent,%
fullFtime%
faculty%
memF
bers%
increased%
21%
percent,%
and%
administrative%
positions%
grew%
42%
percent.%
In%
contrast,%
in%
the%
period%
1985F1990%
institutions%
of%
higher%
learning%
hired%
about%
twice%
as%
many%
nonteaching%
staff%
members%
as%
faculty%
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who%
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classes%
and%
workloads.%
In%
addition,%
administrative%
salF
aries%
are%
usually%
higher%
than%
faculty%
salaries,%
and%
in%
the%
last%
three%
decades%
this%
takenFforFgranted%
inequality%
has%
grown%
significantly.%
Indeed,%
the%
earnings%
of%
many%
top%
university%
presidents%
in%
the%
United%
States%
are%
spiraling%
up%
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$i%
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year,%
a%
trend%
that%
was%
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few%
years%
ago;%
the%
number%
of%
university%
presidents%
earning%
$500,000%
or%
more%
annually%
doubled%
in%
2003F2004%
from%
the%
previous%
year.%
The%
faster%
rise%
of%
administrative%
budgets%
relative%
to%
teaching%
budgets%
(faculty%
pay%
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the%
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of%
that%
of%
presidents)%
is%
a%
particularly%
disturbing%
trend%
for%
public%universities,%
which%
are%
recurrently%
faced%
with%
hudF
get%
crises,%
forcing%
them%
to%
raise%
tuition%
and%
fees%
and%
freeze%
staff%
positions.%

THE$
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THE$
POLITICAL$
ECONOMY$
OF$
HIGHER$
EDUCATION$
313$
of#
testing#
and#
approving#
new#
drugs.#
Because#
of#
drastic#
budget#
cuts#
by#
the#
federal#
government#
in#
the#
1990s,#
this#
unit#
turned#
to#
cost=recovery#
methods#
to#
continue#
its#
work.#
As#
a#
result,#
today#
the#
pharmaceutical#
industry#
con=
tributes#
almost#
half#
the#
agency's#
$70#
million#
annual#
operating#
budget#
to#
cover#
its#
drug#
tests.#
The#
study#
fotmd#
that#
the#
directorate's#
close#
ties#
with#
the#
pharmaceutical#
firms#
has#
led#
to#
the#
concealment#
of#
scientific#
or#
technical#
in=
formation#
about#
the#
safety#
and#
efficacy#
of#
new#
drugs.#
A#
related#
issue#
for#
concern#
is#
that#
university#
researchers#
may#
have#
a#
finan=
cial#
interest#
in#
the#
company,#
a#
situation#
that#
provides#
fertile#
soil#
for#
conflicts#
of#
interest.#
In#
some#
fields,#
for#
instance,#
biomedical#
research,#
nearly#
one#
in#
four#
scientists#
has#
financial#
ties#
to#
industry,#and#
more#
than#
two=thirds#
of#
academic#
institutions#
in#
the#
United#
States#
and#
Canada#
hold#
shares#
and#
other#
equity#
in#
firms#
that#
sponsor#
biomedical#
research#
(Bekelman,#
Li,#
and#
Gross#
2003).#
This#
does#
not#
prove#
that#
the#
potential#
conflict#
of#
interest#
actually#
influences#
the#
nature#
of#
the#
research#
findings,#
hut#
it#
certainly#
creates#
enough#
suspicions#
to#
raise#
serious#
doubts#
about#
the#
ethics#
of#
industry=contracted#
re=
search,#
especially#
if#
the#
researchers#
and#
universities#
are#
in#
some#
way#
afigned#
with#
the#
financial#
interests#
of#
the#
sponsoring#
company.#
As#
Jerome#
Kassirer#
(former#
editor#
of#
the#
New$
England$
Journal$
of$
Medicine$
who#
currently#
teaches#
at#
Yale#
University)#
has#
noted,#
physicians#
who#
participate#
in#
research#
studies#
often#
become#
spokespeople#
for#
the#
very#
companies#
that#
sponsor#
their#
re=
search#
or#
they#
go#
on#
to#
join#
their#
advisory#
hoards#
(Kassirer#
2005).#
As#
a#
result#
of#
all#
this,#
there#
is#
a#
general#
concern#
that#
the#
heteronomous#
university#
can#
gradually#
lead#
to#
the#
erosion#
of#
the#
academic#
environment#
and#
the#
ascendance#
of#
a#
business#
environment.#
In#
this#
transition,#traditional#
aca=
demic#
values#
and#
practices,#
such#
as#
free#
flow#
of#
information,#
collegiality,#
co=
governance,#
or#
public#
access#
to#
knowledge,#
may#
he#
replaced#
with#
values#
and#
practices#
from#
the#
business#
world,#
such#
as#
secrecy,#
competition,#
hierarchical#
management#
systems,#
or#
the#
commodification#
of#
knowledge.#
This#
concern#
is#
not#
just#
based#
on#
speculation.#
A#
former#
president#
of#
the#
University#
of#
Wa=
terloo#
(Canada)#
recently#
published#
an#
essay#
in#
which#
he#
lamented#
that#
"we#
have#
become#
a#
little#
too#
economy=centric#
in#
our#
focus,#
at#
the#
expense#
of#
some#
other#
values#
and#considerations#
that#
go#
to#
the#
heart#
of#
our#
enterprise"#
(Downey#
2003,#
p.#
29).#
It#
is#
true#
that#
this#
is#
not#
a#
new#
development.#
In#
Higher$
Learning$
in$
America,$
published#
in#
1918,#
Thornstein#
Veblen#
described#
how#
the#
business#
world#
(particularly#
business#
culture)#
dominated#
the#
inner#
life#
of#
universities#
to#
the#
detriment#
of#
the#
free#
production#
of#
knowledge.#
However,#

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Vlil$
CONTENTS$
5.#
Reforming#
the#
Reforms:#
Transformation#
and#
Crisis#
in#
Latin#
American#
and#
Caribbean#
Universities#
141#
!"#$#%!&'
(%)%*'
+&'
Globalization#
and#
the#
Challenge#
to#
National#
Universities#
in#
Argentina#
and#
Mexico#
164#
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!&'
,/%0123'
40)$%2'
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5%)).23'
0*1'
!*1).0'
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7.#
Latin#
American#
Identities#
in#
Transition:#
A#
Diagnosis#
of#
Argentine#
and#
Brazilian#
Universities#
203#
70)8.$0'
7%$$#2'
8.#
Brazil's#
Local#
Solutions#
to#
Global#
Problems#
221#
9.*'9.:;*.)'
0*1'
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>=).:0'
9.#
Mexico's#
?2"$:=$%2@&'
Faculty#
Compensation#
Based#
on#
Piecework#
250#
?2".$0'
70)0'
(.*2#:%*'
0*1'
A:0*%$'
B)1%)#C0'
ID.#
Graduate#
Student#
Unionization#
as#
a#
Postindustrial#
Social#
Movement:#
Identity,#
Ideology,#
and#
the#
Contested#
US#
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275#
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299#
The#
Political#
Economy#
of#
Higher#
Education#
in#
the#
Time#
of#
Global#
Markets:#
Whither#
the#
Social#
Responsibility#
of#
the#
University?#
301#
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12.#
The#
Global#
Economy,#
the#
State,#
Social#
Movements,#
and#
the#
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Concluding#
Remarks#
and#
an#
Agenda#
for#
Action#
321#
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II.$
A*1.I'
353#