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91Ameri cAn indi An cultu re And re se Arch Jour nAl 40:2 (2016) à à à
DOI 10.17953/aicrj.40.2.meadows
An Honor Long Overdue: The 2013
Congressional Gold and Silver Medal
Ceremonies in Honor of Native
American Code Talkers
William C. Meadows
N
ative American Code Talkers provided valuable contributions to United States
military efforts in both world wars. Code talking used Native American languages
to transmit military intelligence which an enemy could monitor, but not understand.
After it was discovered during the First World War that Germans were able to
monitor American telephone transmissions, small numbers of Eastern Band Cherokee,
Choctaw, Comanche, and others were placed on field telephones to speak messages in
their Native languages as a way to stymie German interception. Developed in combat
late in the war, this was an impromptu experiment with no preexisting basis in Army
signals intelligence. It was a great success. Native languages provided secure and
accurate transmissions that were faster than existing encryption technology, giving the
United States a vital military resource. Two forms of code talking emerged for mili-
tary transmissions: Type 1 used specially encoded vocabularies inserted into Native
American languages, while Type 2 used simply the everyday vernacular of a language
that was unknown to the enemy.1
e success of Native language communicators in World War I set an important
precedent in signals intelligence that was expanded during World War II. In 1940 and
1941, prior to Pearl Harbor, the Army recruited small groups of Chippewa-Oneida
(seventeen men), Comanche (seventeen men), and Meskwaki (eight men) who were
trained as code talkers. e formation of eight Hopi as code talkers in the 81st
Infantry Division occurred in mid-1943. e Marines’ recruitment of Navajo began in
W C. M is professor of anthropology and Native American studies at Missouri
State University. His ongoing research, publications, and congressional testimony contributed to
the passage of the Code Talker Recognition Act of 2008.
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92 à à à
April of 1942. e larger size of the Navajo program (420 men) and more extensive
documentation made the role of the Navajo better known, and subsequently they
received more recognition than the smaller code-talking units of seventeen men or
less. Consequently, other groups have long been viewed as somehow less important,
unequal to the Navajo, and in some instances, even dismissed as having not served as
code talkers by both Native Americans and non-Natives.2
During World War II, the difference in size between Army and Marine programs
was the result of the Army’s decision not to expand its program. Now-declassified
National Security Agency documents reveal that representatives of the Army, Navy, and
Marines met between September 1943 and July 1944 to discuss the feasibility of using
and expanding Native American language communicators. Based largely on questions of
distrust, security, and the inability of US Armed Forces personnel to monitor messages
sent in Native American languages, the Army and Navy decided to keep the existing
formally recruited and trained groups, but not to form others. e Marines remained
largely silent on the issue.3 From the start, many commanders were simply not inter-
ested and/or did not trust code talking as an effective means of communication. Marine
officers were reluctant to use Navajo Code Talkers even after being notified of their
purpose and deployment in the Pacific war theater, but once the Navajo had a chance
to demonstrate their value, their reluctance quickly changed. Soon after, Marine units
began requesting more Navajo “talkers” and the program expanded in late 1942.4
With the exception of the Navajo, then, the potential use of Native American
Code Talkers was highly underutilized in World War II. Of the more than 25,000
total Native American service personnel, only 420 Navajo together with approximately
260 or more men from other tribes are known to have served as Native language
communicators. Although several tribes had considerable numbers of fluent speakers
in service (Kiowa, Lakota, Cheyenne, Muscogee, Anishinaabeg, Cree, Choctaw, and
Comanche), their numbers did not approach the size of the Navajo. Of the non-
Navajo code talker groups, the Comanche and Chippewa-Oneida, with seventeen men
each, were the largest. Because only small numbers of code talkers were needed per
division, as demonstrated by the Comanche and Hopi in the Army and the Navajo
in the Marines, the potential for developing larger, non-Navajo code-talking units was
largely a missed opportunity.5
Even the Marines maintained only approximately thirty-eight to forty code talkers
per division during World War II’s Pacific campaign. Commanding officers in several
units used personal initiative to organize small numbers of individuals from the same
tribe, or speaking mutually intelligible dialects, into Type 2 code-talking groups.
6
Due to the limited numbers of Native speakers in their respective units, these groups
remained unofficial and small. It is important to remember that rather than sheer
numbers, placement was of great importance. Moreover, as a practical matter, to gather
sizable numbers of men from other tribes would have required significant recruiting
efforts at home, in addition to a series of logistical problems such as identification,
linguistic assessments, and the many transfers and replacements that would have been
required of already-enlisted Native servicemen—men assigned to units that were
dispersed and at different stages of training.
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 93
recognition and tHe code taLker recognition ac t of 2008
After the Navajo Code program was declassified in 1968 and the Hopi recognized their
remaining code talker in 1993, in 1989 France awarded the Comanche and Choctaw
Code Talkers with the Knight of the National Order of Merit. US Congressional
Gold and Silver Medals were awarded to the Navajo Code Talkers in 2001, followed
by release of the film Windtalkers in 2002, and as a result other tribes began seeking
equal recognition for code talkers from their respective populations.
7
e Navajo
Code Talker Association was instrumental in lobbying for recognition of the hundreds
of Navajo code talkers, but other tribes with much smaller numbers of code talkers
employed different methods. Efforts for recognition came not from the code talkers
themselves—who typically were highly modest and sometimes reluctant to speak
about their service—but rather from relatives, tribal representatives, non-Native indi-
viduals, scholars, and state and federal government officials.
Native veterans’ modesty and reluctance to speak about war and their service
is documented as early as World War I.
8
Several factors underlie this trend. Some
individuals are modest and view their service simply as fulfilling their duty, not as
special or needing recognition. In addition, for many Native groups, cultural factors
limit individuals from speaking about their combat experiences; speaking about one’s
war service or about oneself in public contexts may be considered to be inappropriate
or even prohibited. While some tribes have veterans’ ceremonies that include public
recitations of combat experiences, another individual often will speak for the veterans
being recognized. When veterans speak about combat, many focus on the humorous
or lighter aspects rather than tragic ones, which force the individual to relive the events
and can have negative impacts on family and community members. Among the Navajo
and some Puebloan groups, veterans are required to relate their combat experiences to
religious leaders as part of cleansing rituals to rid themselves of the negative effects of
combat, after which they are instructed never to speak of the events again.
Prior to 2008, only the Navajo had received US government recognition for their
unique and effective service as code talkers, under the Honoring the Navajo Code
Talkers Act of 2000.
9
A lengthy grassroots movement that began in the late 1980s
finally resulted in a 2004 Senate committee hearing on the contributions of Native
American Code Talkers in American Military History. Subsequently, after four years
of legislation and lobbying, the Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008 was signed
into law on October 15, 2008.10 In recognizing tribes that were not covered by the
Navajo Act of 2000, this act directs that one Congressional Gold Medal be struck
and awarded to each tribe, as well as one Silver Medal to be awarded to each surviving
Native American individual who has been identified as a code talker. e act defines
a “code talker” as a “Native American who (a) served in the Armed Forces during a
foreign conflict in which the United States was involved; and (b) transmitted (encoded
and translated) secret coded messages for tactical military operations during World
War I and World War II using their native tribal language (non-spontaneous commu-
nications). In the cases of those veterans already deceased, the Silver Medal is awarded
to surviving family members.
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In testimony heard at the Senate committee hearing in 2004 on the Contributions
of Native American Code Talkers in the United States Armed Forces, individuals
expressed great concern that recognition and awards be made expediently to ensure
that the few surviving code talkers received recognition before they passed away.
Unfortunately, between 2004 and 2013 several of the remaining code talkers such as
Charles Chibitty (Comanche), Clarence Wolfguts and Charles Whitepipe (Lakota),
Frank Sanache (Meskwaki), Franklin Shupla, Travis Yaiva, and Rex Pooyouma (Hopi),
and the elder children of several World War I code talkers did pass away. However,
tribal members and descendants continued their efforts to see these men honored
by Congress.
At issue in these efforts was whether tribes or families would receive CGMs, or
both. In 2004, Choctaw Nation Principal Chief Gregory Pyle expressed that “e
Choctaw Nation feels each of the Choctaw Code Talkers should be the recipient of a
specially minted medal that expresses the appreciation of the United States Government
to these brave men who dedicated their skills, their languages, and their lives.”11 Earlier
versions of the proposed 2008 Act called for a CGM to be issued to each code talker
or their family, and many descendants had hoped for this; as noted, in 2001 each of
the original twenty-nine Navajo Code Talkers or their surviving families had received
a CGM. Similarly, National Native American Veteran’s Association President Don
Loudner (Hunkpati Dakota) supported awarding individual CGMs as had been issued
for each of the original twenty-nine Navajo Code Talkers (the others received Silver
Congressional Medals), asking “Why should they honor one tribe [with CGMs] and
not the others?”12 Members of other tribes also maintained that it would be wrong to
honor all the code talkers from only one tribe with individual gold medals. at the
Navajo were neither the first code talking unit, nor the only one in either world war to
have a Type 1, formally encoded vocabulary, supported these views. e bill was changed
to issue one gold medal per tribe and one silver medal for each surviving code talker or
his descendants. According to Robert J. Dalessandro of the DOD, tribes submitted the
names that they vetted as code talkers to the DOD, who had staff members verify that
they served in World War I or II.13 us verification of military service was undertaken
by the Department of Defense (DOD), but determining who was a code talker was left
to the respective tribes. As of June 2016, a total of 212 individuals from thirty-three
tribes in eleven states have been identified as having served as code talkers.14
e Congressional Gold Medal
e Congressional Gold Medal (CGM) is among the highest civilian awards in the
United States, together with the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Presidential
Citizens Medal. e CGM is awarded to individuals “who have performed an achieve-
ment that has an impact on American history and culture that is most likely to be
recognized as a major achievement in the recipient’s field long after the achievement.”
e CGM is also awarded as the “highest expression of national appreciation for distin-
guished achievements and contributions.”
15
Awarded at the discretion of Congress,
the CGM requires co-sponsorship by a two-thirds or super-majority congressional
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 95
vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate in front of their respective
committees (the House Committee on Financial Services and the Senate Committee
on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs). Congress can also authorize the president
to present the CGM if desired. Although Congress has approved legislation containing
specific requirements for other awards and decorations, no permanent statutory provi-
sions exist for the creation of Congressional Gold Medals.16
e first Congressional Gold Medal was awarded by the Second Continental
Congress in 1776 to General George Washington. Solely military figures were awarded
CGMs until after the Mexican-American War, when the scope and range of reward
recipients was broadened. Since that time, the medal has been presented to former US
presidents, actors, athletes, authors, entertainers, explorers, public servants, humanitar-
ians, lifesavers, musicians, physicians, scientists, and foreign dignitaries.17 e United
States Mint designs Congressional Gold Medals to commemorate specific persons and
achievements. No standard design exists, and each medal is unique. In the 240-year
history of the CGM, more than 150 medals have been awarded to individuals or
groups, including the group recipients awarded the 152nd CGM pursuant to the Code
Talkers Recognition Act of 2008.18
In response to a proposal to create a single medal design for all code talkers covered
by the 2008 Act, tribes insisted on individual tribal designs. Since 2008, many tribes
have collaborated with the US Mint in designing their respective medals, through an
artist from the tribe or a tribal committee. e US Treasury Department and the
Mint contacted each tribe to learn what they wanted inscribed on their medals. Once
chosen, designs were presented to a number of committees, including the Commission
on Fine Arts and the Citizens Coin Advisory Commission. Recommendations were
then presented to the individual tribes involved for review and comments. A number of
artists created the designs, often including members of the Artistic Infusion Program,
a group of independent designers and artists who contract with the Mint, while other
artists at the Mint oversaw the actual sculpting. Each medal bears the initials of the
designer and the sculptor. Great efforts were made to ensure that the symbols desired
by each tribe were incorporated into the medals. e Department of Defense also
carefully checked historical accuracy regarding the types of radios, rifles, uniforms,
cartridge belts, and other period items associated with the soldier in each design.19
e most common design elements on the front of the medals include the tribe’s
name, the words “Code Talkers,” and the image of a Native American soldier on a field
phone and in combat; and on the back, contemporary tribal seals, traditional tribal and
clan designs, and wording that lists the war they served in, “Act of Congress 2008,”
and English spellings of Native words denoting “Code Talkers.” CGMs are considered
non-portable and are intended to be displayed rather than worn, with the exception
of a few miniature versions suspended from a ribbon that have been created. e US
Mint frequently offers for public sale bronze, 3-inch and 1.5-inch duplicate medals
and medallions.
Ruth Frazier McMillan, daughter of Choctaw Code Talker Tobias Frazier, had
two dreams regarding the honoring of her tribe’s code talkers; to see the Congressional
Gold Medals awarded, and to see the official renaming of the fifty-five mile stretch
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of Oklahoma State Highway 3 between Antlers and Broken Bow, Oklahoma as the
“World War I Choctaw Code Talkers Highway.” Fourteen of the World War I Choctaw
Code Talkers lived in this area and frequently walked along the highway. Many descen-
dants still live in this area. While McMillan had lobbied for both projects, the idea
to name the highway originated with her. In June of 2011 the Choctaw received the
preliminary design for their gold medal.20 Later that summer, McMillan expressed, “It’s
a long time coming, but as long as it happens, I’ll be happy. e main reason is to let
our people be proud of their history and their ethnic background . . . to broaden some
minds, perhaps. Everybody needs to know what our people did.”
21
Despite battling
liver cancer, on September 6, 2013 McMillan flew from Seattle to Oklahoma to attend
the unveiling of the highway sign she had long lobbied for. Soon after returning home
she passed away on October 9, just weeks before the Congressional ceremony.22
e Gold Medal Ceremony
On November 20, 2013, members of the 113th United States Congress held a
Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony for all thirty-three tribal nations and their indi-
vidual code talkers. Invitations to the ceremony were e-mailed October 28, 2013 from
the offices of House Speaker John Boehner and other officials. Tickets were nontrans-
ferable and additional guests were not permitted.23 Members of all thirty-three tribes
attended, but because all medal designs had not been completed by that time, only
twenty-five tribes received their medals at the ceremony. e morning of November
20, I joined over forty Lakota from the Crow Creek Reservation on a large bus that
read “Crow Creek Chiefs” down the side for our ride from our hotel in Arlington,
Virginia to the Capitol. After being dropped off, we walked to the main entrance of
the US Capitol Visitor Center on the north side of the lower level. e weather in
Washington, DC was crisp and clear, with a beautiful blue sky. On providing govern-
ment-issued photo identification, each invitee received an entry ticket and program
and joined the line of tribal delegations waiting to enter. At 10:00 am Emancipation
Hall opened for seating on a first-come, first-served basis. Emancipation Hall holds
625 people, but nearly 900 attended. In terms of medal recipients and attendees, it was
one of the largest CGM presentation ceremonies ever held.
While most people wore Western dress, a wide array of Native attire could be
seen across the hall. Chairman Wallace Coffee (Comanche) donned an eagle-feath-
ered bonnet, while both the Comanche Tribal Princess and the Comanche Indian
Veterans Association (CIVA) Princess wore beaded buckskin dresses and beaded
crowns. Lenora Parker and her brother John Parker (Comanche) wore complete
sets of Native attire, including Leonora’s special dress honoring the Comanche Code
Talkers. Members of the Choctaw delegation wore Southeastern-style ribbon shirts
and beaded sashes, belts, and necklaces. Basil Heath (Yanktonai) wore a beaded buck-
skin shirt with eagle-feathered bonnet. e White Mountain Apache Tribal Princess
and another woman came in full Apache dress, while several members of the Hopi,
Ho-Chunk, and other tribal delegations also donned their tribal clothing.
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 97
Military insignia also could be seen across the room. e CIVA wore matching
vests, berets, shirts, and pants. Menominee, Oneida, and many other groups wore
the insignia of their veterans’ organizations. Numerous veterans wore the insignia
of their branch of service and units, and women donned decorated dance shawls.
Vann Codynah (Comanche) wore a vest bearing his tribal logo and “Comanche Code
Talkers” across the back. Relatives of the Hopi Code Talkers donned buttons with
pictures of their code talker relative, while some Lakota and members of other tribes
carried black-and-white framed photos of their families’ code talkers.
At 11:00 am proceedings began with a prelude by the United States Army Band,
“Pershing’s Own.”24 Speaker of the House John A. Boehner welcomed those in atten-
dance. Referencing the efforts of the wives, daughters, and sons of the code talkers
to bring their family member’s story to recognition, Boehner noted, “Many of these
families are here today, and join me in applauding their perseverance [applause and
standing ovation]. Because of them, deeds that may have well been relegated to legend
will now live on in memory. And heroes who for too long went unrecognized, will now
be given our highest recognition.”25 e United States Armed Forces Color Guard
presented the colors, followed by the playing of the national anthem by the United
States Army Band and the United States Army Choir. Only a few code talkers were
still alive, all in their late eighties or older, and for many, one of the most moving
portions of the ceremony was seeing ninety-six year-old Edmund Harjo (Seminole), in
a wheelchair, patriotically holding his hand over his heart during the national anthem.
Harjo, who served in the 195th Field Artillery Battalion in Europe during World War
II, was the only surviving non-Navajo World War II Code Talker physically able to
attend the ceremony, and he quickly became a focus of attention.
e Color Guard then retired the colors; Dr. Barry Black, chaplain of the United
States Senate, offered an invocation. Remarks on the resolution were then read by
Representatives Tom Cole and Ron Kind, and Senators Timothy P. Johnson and
James M. Inhofe. e United States Army Chorus then provided a musical selec-
tion. A second set of remarks made by House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi, Senate
Minority Leader Mitch McConnell, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, and House
Speaker John A. Boehner followed.
As each Native nation being recognized was announced, a representative came
forward, forming a line in front of the proceedings.26 While representatives of thirty-
three Native nations were called forward, only those twenty-five whose medal designs
had been completed and minted in time for the ceremony received Congressional Gold
Medals.
27
ose who did receive gold medals at this time were the Central Council
of Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska, Cherokee Nation, Cheyenne River
Sioux Tribe, Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma, Comanche Nation, Crow Creek Sioux
Tribe, Fort Peck Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of Montana, Ho-Chunk Nation of
Wisconsin, Hopi Tribe, Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma, Muscogee Creek Nation, Oglala
Sioux Tribe, Oneida Tribe of Indians of Wisconsin, Osage Nation, Pawnee Nation
of Oklahoma, Ponca Tribe of Oklahoma, Pueblo of Acoma Tribe, Sac and Fox Tribe
of the Mississippi in Iowa/Meskwaki Nation, Santee Sioux Nation, Seminole Nation
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98 à à à
Figure 1. Tribal representatives called forward
to receive the Congressional Gold Medal for
their respective tribe at the US Capitol. All
photographs taken by the author, November 20,
2013.
Figure 2. Edmund Harjo (Seminole), age 96,
with the Seminole Nation Code Talker Gold
Medal at the US Capitol.
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 99
Figure 3. Governor Gregory Pyle (Choctaw), Senator Dan Boren, and members of the Choctaw delega-
tion with the Choctaw Nation Code Talker Gold Medal.
Figure 4. Closeup of the Standing Rock Sioux Tribe Code Talker Congressional Gold Medal.
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100 à à à
of Oklahoma, Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate, Standing Rock Sioux Tribe, Tonto Apache
Tribe, White Mountain Apache Tribe, and Yankton Sioux Tribe.28
Following the presentation of the Congressional Gold Medals to tribal representa-
tives, Admiral James A. Winnefield Jr., vice chair of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, offered
poignant closing remarks:
During Native American Heritage Month, I have the great privilege of representing
the finest military in the world in recognizing hundreds of Native Americans who
wore the cloth of our nation in the distinctive way we celebrate today, and in such
a courageous way, defending a country that did not always keep its word to their
ancestors. . . . We can best honor these great warriors among us not just with well-
deserved and long overdue recognition, but also with our own efforts to continue
leveraging our nation’s diversity and to forever honor our veterans.29
e program concluded with Chaplain of the House of Representatives Father
Patrick J. Conroy, SJ, offering the benediction and the postlude performed by the
United States Army Band. An array of cheers and shouts arose from the crowd, soon
joined by the ululations of women from several tribes. Tears flowed freely from indi-
viduals who were moved by the long-overdue recognition. As reported by The Hopi
Tutuveni, John Parker (Comanche) “choked up as he recalled his code-talker father
Simmons Parker, and how he and fellow Native American soldiers spoke little about
their service. . . . ‘ey didn’t really go on about it, they kept it on the down side,’
Parker said, but ‘Dad couldn’t have been more proud to serve the country the way he
did .’ ”
30
e gathering soon turned into a mass of congratulations, with individuals
taking photos of their own as well as other tribal delegations with their respective
medals. Individuals called family members back home on cell phones to allow them to
hear and see the proceedings and to transmit pictures of the medals and celebrations.
Senator Chuck Grassley (R-Iowa) later described the spirit of the ceremony well:
“e ceremony was long overdue but the recognition was heartfelt. All of us are
grateful for the contribution of the Meskwaki and others that used their language in
service to our country. e code talkers saved lives. ey used something unique to
them to help preserve the United States from sworn enemies.”31
e Silver Medal Reception
Following the Gold Medal Ceremony, individuals proceeded south down Capitol Hill
to the ground-level Potomac Atrium of the National Museum of the American Indian
(NMAI) for the Congressional Silver Medal presentations and a reception. NMAI
Director Kevin Gover (Pawnee/Comanche) addressed the crowd, followed by Dennis
Zotigh (Kiowa) who sang a Kiowa War Mothers Song in honor of the event. Jackie
Old Coyote (Apsaalooke) then read a statement regarding four Apsaalooke tribal
members who worked in two separate teams during World War II.
Ka-hay. My name is Jackie Old Coyote. I’m from the Apsaalooke Nation. Today
we have a delegation of family from the four recipients of the silver medals. ey’re
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 101
coming up here to stand beside me while I say a brief statement on behalf of the
Apsaalooke People. e recognition and honoring of our beloved warriors, today,
is deeply appreciated. Most of us have long celebrated their sacrifices and contri-
butions in our own communities. e lands that nurtured the courageous spirits
of all the code talkers, represented here today, are diverse. But there is a common
thread. Strength of language, strength of culture, and strength of spirit. . . . Our
fathers did not consider themselves heroes. ey didn’t even consider themselves
code talkers. ey said, simply, ‘We broke radio silence and we spoke to each other
in Crow, like we always do.’ ey followed the traditions and teachings of their
ancestors and they acted as the warriors they were reared to be. ey said, ‘When
there is gunfire at the edge of the camp, we answer.’ So these congressional medals
that are acknowledging all the remarkable efforts of all the nations and all the code
talkers, they hold our hero’s lineage, but they also distinguish the unique nature
of our Native American veterans, heroes and their nations, while simultaneously
saying we’re US Citizens. e undying spirit imbued by those heroes sustains and
propels all Americans and unites us in our single homeland, the US. So I thank
the Congress and especially the National Museum of the American Indian for not
only hosting this celebration but for standing strong in our Nation’s capital . . . and
the very presence of this cherished and hard won institution also represents the
strength of indigenous language, culture, and spirit. We thank you for being here
today. We thank you for including the Apsaalooke Nation and warriors and we say
Aho [thank you] and safe travels to you.32
Figure 5. Members of the Oglala Sioux Tribe Nation receiving silver medals at the National Museum
of the American Indian.
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102 à à à
Tribal delegations were then called to the Rasmuson eater (first floor) or the
Patron’s Lounge (fourth floor) where each code talker received a silver medal. For each
tribe a table was arranged with a poster bearing the name of the tribe, their medal
design, and the actual silver medals. In order to receive them, a representative for each
tribe signed for the designated number of medals for their respective group. In ten to
fifteen minute intervals the tables were rearranged for the next set of tribes and the
process was repeated. Each tribal contingent again took the opportunity to take photo-
graphs with the gold and silver medals and call family members back home.
A total of 212 silver medals were issued to representatives of these twenty-five tribes
for later distribution to the families of each respective code talker.33 Following the silver
medal distribution, some toured the Smithsonian Institution’s traveling exhibit “Native
Words, Native Warriors” on display in the NMAI, some returned to the Potomac
Atrium to visit, and others began to leave. Immediately after the ceremony the United
States Mint opened their Code Talkers Recognition Congressional Medals Program,
making available for public sale 3-inch bronze duplicates and 1.5 inch bronze medallions
of all code talker medals.34 e bronze medallions and coins were so popular that they
sold out the following day. However, the Mint continues to cast them for public sale.
Pending completion of their medal designs and minting, a total of forty-eight
men from the following eight Indian nations will receive their gold and duplicate
silver medals directly from the United States Mint at a future date: the Cheyenne and
Arapaho Tribes, Crow Nation, Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, Laguna
Pueblo Tribe, and Lower Brulé Sioux Tribe. As of June 2016, a few tribal medals
remain to be finalized.35 Appendix A lists all thirty-three tribes and 254 individuals
thus far recognized under the Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008 as of June 2016.36
e South Dakota Reception
Because many Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota served as code talkers in both world wars,
Siouan groups from North and South Dakota were invited to attend a third recep-
tion. Senators Tim Johnson and John une of South Dakota hosted a special Silver
Medal ceremony in the Dirkson Senate Office Building to individually present the
silver medals signed for earlier that afternoon at the NMAI. Beside the doors stood
signs listing each tribe and individual code talker from North and South Dakota. A
representative from Standing Rock Reservation, Senators Heidi Heitkamp and Tim
Johnson, and Representative Kristi Noem made statements. Arvol Looking Horse
(Cheyenne River Lakota), the Keeper of the Lakota Sacred Pipe, wearing a ribbon
shirt and eagle-feather bonnet, then offered the blessing. Members of each Indian
nation were called forward one family at a time and presented a Silver Congressional
Medal for the service of their family’s code talker in World War I or II. Included were
families and representatives from the Cheyenne River, Crow Creek, Lower Brulé,
Oglala, Sisseton-Wahpeton, Standing Rock, Yankton, Santee, and Rosebud reserva-
tions. Arvol Looking Horse presented the medals to the recipients from Cheyenne
River, offering a prayer for each. One man began to cry when he received the medal for
his grandfather. e widows of some code talkers were present to receive the medal;
Marie Red Cloud did so for her late husband Melvin Red Cloud (Oglala Lakota).
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 103
Many of the South Dakota families expressed their appreciation for the reception
hosted by the senators and representatives from their state. Andrea Page (Standing
Rock Lakota), who has researched her mother’s uncle John Bear King and other
Lakota Code Talkers since 1994, described what the reception meant for her:
e third ceremony was impressive and, I thought, much more meaningful.
roughout the entire day, the speakers were inspiring, trying to get the message
across.ey described how important this ceremony was to everyone as well as
the importance of the code talkers’ service to our Nation. In my opinion, I think
the third ceremony was more memorable because it was more intimate. e two
people close to the whole experience from the beginning were [Senator] John
une and [Senator] Tim Johnson.ey were there from the presentation of the
first Bill in 2001. And, even [State Representative] Kristi Noem. Each one shared
more about code talking. When Noem spoke I found it difficult to take notes, so
I stopped. I was so compelled to listen to her. I thought it was time, and I felt full
of joy when they actually acknowledged the names of the individual code talkers.I
think it made the ceremony, the day, more meaningful. I don’t mean to take away
from the tribal recognition. e first ceremony was emotional as well and so
deserved for each tribe. When the tribal representatives stood in line, in front
of the gold medals, my heart was pounding. It was so important, you know. But,
growing up in such a family oriented society, to hear your relative’s name and have
your family name be recognized, now that was spectacular.37
Figure 6. Members of the John Bear King family (Hunkpapa Lakota) at the South Dakota Code Talkers
Silver Medal Reception, Dirksen Senate Building, Washington, DC.
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Additional Tribal Community Celebrations
Following the November 20, 2013 ceremonies, the final distribution of silver medals
varied greatly from tribe to tribe. While Section 5d of the Code Talkers Recognition
Act of 2008 provides for the Smithsonian in Washington DC to curate the medals
for the tribes upon tribal request, tribes overwhelmingly preferred to take the medals
home. Because only contingents of each tribe were able to attend the Congressional
Gold Medal Ceremony, many distributed silver and bronze medals after returning
home, holding later, more formal presentations in their home communities from
December of 2013 through 2016 as their medal designs were completed. As the gold
medals are valued at approximately $35,000 each, many tribes arranged for their own
security teams or to have the US Mint deliver the medals to their respective community.
Some tribes and families distributed them later that day at the reception at the
NMAI. Rather than have a ceremony at home, the Choctaw funded 123 descendants
to attend the ceremony in Washington, DC. Upon receiving their silver medals at the
NMAI, the Choctaw families took photos, then Chief Pyle and a Choctaw contingent
immediately flew home with the gold and silver medals for security reasons. For secu-
rity, and to facilitate their viewing by descendants and other tribal members, all but
one of the Choctaw families have chosen to keep the silver medals on display at the
tribal museum in Tushkahoma, Oklahoma. e gold medal is currently being held in a
bank vault until the new Choctaw Cultural Center is completed in Durant, Oklahoma.
e Choctaw tribe purchased a bronze medal for each of the twenty-three families
that can be exchanged with the silver at the family’s discretion, and three hundred of
the 1.5-inch bronze medallions for the descendants of all their code talkers down to
the great-grandchild and great-grand-niece/nephew level.38
e Comanche Nation assisted 137 descendants of code talkers to attend the
Gold Medal ceremony at the US Capitol, providing a bus for tribal members from
Oklahoma and flights for others. e “Comanche Bus” was unique in that it had a
synthetic wrap over the exterior of the vehicle depicting larger-than-life images of
the Comanche Code Talkers and information about them. During the more than
1,400-mile trip to the Capitol people took notice of the bus, stopping to visit with
the Comanche on board and to take pictures of the bus at gas stations. On the
road veterans saluted while passing the Comanche contingent and semi-truck drivers
acknowledged them by blowing their horns. e manager of the Heartbreak Hotel in
Memphis was so honored to have the Comanche stay at their facility that she arranged
for sixteen members to receive free passes to tour Graceland on their return trip to
Oklahoma. Forty-two other Comanche living near the Washington, DC area also
attended.39
e night before the ceremony the Comanche gathered for a banquet at their
Washington hotel. Four of the descendants were asked to rise and speak about the
proceedings; several Comanche described this portion of the trip as the most emotion-
ally moving. During the Silver Medal presentation at the NMAI, the Comanche tribe
called all of the family members to the front of the room, where they briefly viewed the
medals and took photographs. e tribe also purchased a bronze medal for each family
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 105
member of the seventeen Comanche code talkers. A tribal security contingent soon
escorted the medals back to a bank vault in Oklahoma, where they were kept until
their own tribal ceremony could be held. e following day the Comanche contingent
visited the National Mall, including the Vietnam Wall, Lincoln Memorial, NMAI, and
other sites. Later the Comanche Indian Veterans’ Association and Comanche Business
Committee presented a wreath to be placed on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at
Arlington National Cemetery.40
In Lawton, Oklahoma, on Friday February 21, 2014, the Comanche held a banquet
entitled the “Homecoming Ceremony in Honor of the Comanche Code Talkers” at the
Great Plains Coliseum. A recording of the Washington, DC gold medal ceremony
was shown during the event. e tribe then distributed a silver medal to each of the
seventeen Comanche Code Talkers’ next-of-kin, and bronze medals to other family
members. Each next-of-kin was also presented with a photo of their respective code
talker relative, a code-talker vehicle tag, and for the men, a vest, and for the women,
a service blanket.41 After considering the Comanche Nation Museum and the Patriot
Room at the Comanche Tribal Complex, a conference room with more than 400
pictures of Comanche veterans, the Comanche gold medal was placed on display in the
Comanche Nation Museum in Lawton, Oklahoma. On June 6, 2014, the seventieth
anniversary of D-Day, the Comanche also took a contingent of tribal members to Utah
Beach in France. Led by the Comanche Indian Veterans Association, they visited, as
George Red Elk described, “the sand that our dads fought on.” Using funds provided
by the tribe, the Comanche Indian Veterans Association had seventeen gravesite
markers engraved with each code talker’s name, rank, and the words “US Army World
War II, Comanche Code Talker, Congressional Gold Medal 2008,” and for those who
also saw combat, “OK Military Hall of Fame 2011.” ese granite markers were placed
at the grave of each Comanche Code Talker in 2014.42
In Fort Yates, North Dakota, on December 12, 2013, the Standing Rock Sioux
distributed their silver medals at a formal presentation at the pavilion of the Prairie
Nights Casino. A number of veterans and traditional dancers paraded in, carrying
veterans’ staffs and the medals for the tribe. Vietnam War veteran and tribal liaison
Rick Red Eagle McLaughlin carried in the gold medal and presented it to the tribe.
Following speeches and the singing of honor songs, the silver medals were presented to
individual families. McLaughlin described the community’s response:
ey were so surprised and so overwhelmed, and they were just excited. It was
great. And there were a few tears here and there, you know. It was just a humbling
experience for me. It’s really for the soldiers, to remember them. ey’re the ones
that brought this home. . . . It’s an honor to remember them. We finally got them
remembered and it’s really awesome. And the people are still talking about it.43
e following day in December, the Ho-Chunk honored seven individuals recog-
nized as code talkers at an invitation-only event held at their tribal hotel and casino
in Baraboo, Wisconsin. Vietnam veteran Andrew undercloud composed a song
containing words in Ho-Chunk that translates into English to “e code talkers
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confused the Japanese.” undercloud had only learned of his paternal uncle’s partici-
pation in coded communications within the past year.44
On December 14, the Santee Sioux of Nebraska posthumously honored World War
II Code Talker Walter John. Members of the Crow Creek, Yankton, and Winnebago
tribes also attended, and Yankton WWII veteran Elmo Eddy was also recognized.
45
e Meskwaki held a similar event at their annual New Year’s Sobriety Powwow on
January 3, 2014, at the Meskwaki Settlement High School Gym near Tama, Iowa.46
e Hopi, who began an annual Hopi Code Talkers Recognition Day program in
2013, held a celebration at their second annual program on April 23, 2014 at the Hopi
Veterans Memorial Center near Kykotsmovi, Arizona. e gold and silver medals
were brought together for the community to see. Since then the gold medal, and, at
the request of some families, a number of the silver medals, are being stored in a vault
until a decision regarding public display is made.47
On May 31, 2014, I attended an honor dance at the American Legion Park in
Poplar, Montana, on the Fort Peck Reservation, for eleven Assiniboine and thirty-
eight Sioux Code Talkers. Two of the forty-nine silver medals received by the tribes
had already been presented. On January 16, 2014, Tribal Chair A. T. Stafne and Dr.
Ken Ryan traveled to Havre, Montana, to present one of the medals to the tribe’s
only surviving code talker, Gilbert Horn (Assiniboine). According to Ryan, his uncle
Gilbert Horn “was deeply honored.” e following day Stafne and Ryan traveled to a
ceremony held at the Fort Belknap College at Fort Belknap Agency to present a silver
medal to the granddaughter of Jimmy First Smoke, the other Assiniboine Code Talker
at Fort Belknap.48 Similar ceremonies continued throughout early 2014 to the present.
Most recently I have spoken at the Hopi Code Talker Recognition Day in 2013, and
the medal ceremonies for the pueblos of Acoma in 2014 and Laguna in 2016.
native iMpressions of tHe goLd MedaL cereMony
e ceremony was held according to congressional dictates, not Native ones. While
numerous people stated that they and their families were overwhelmingly happy to
the see the medals finally awarded, some in attendance expressed disappointment in
the manner in which they were presented. Most notably, descendants mentioned that
tribal representatives were not allowed to speak at the gold medal ceremony; individual
names of the code talkers were not read aloud, with the medals simply handed to the
tribal leaders with no individual or formal presentation; and the rapid way the silver
medals were distributed at the NMAI seemed hurried and impersonal. As the son of
one code talker expressed,
Well, I thought it was going to be more emotional than it was . . . they didn’t even
give any of the [tribal] leaders a chance to talk. ey just introduced them, they
walked up, set them down, and when they introduced them they walked around
and handed them the gold medal. It was my thought that they were going to put it
over their neck and give everybody a chance to talk, but they didn’t do that. To me
it was kind of a generic thing.49
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It is obviously difficult to meet everyone’s expectations in such a large endeavor,
but much of the disappointment appears to have come from lack of information about
the exact content of the November 20th ceremonies at the Capitol and the NMAI
being disseminated in tribal communities. Several individuals with whom I spoke on
November 20th related that they did not have a clear idea of how the ceremony would
be conducted. It is likely that the presentation was planned to focus on groups because
only one actual surviving code talker was able to attend, large numbers of people were
involved (thirty-three tribes and 212 individuals), and similar CGM presentations to
other groups had previously been conducted in this way. In 2001 President Bush had
presented individual medals to four of the remaining five Navajo Code Talkers (out of
the original twenty-nine), and images of that ceremony may have led some to assume
that tribal leaders would receive their medals in a similar fashion.
e US Mint had offered to ship the silver medals and their decorative boxes to
any tribal community desiring this service for security, and on November 19 Meskwaki
Tribal Council Chairwoman Judith Bender had signed the agreement for the US Mint
to hold the medals until they returned home, when they were shipped directly to the
community. In what appears to have been a miscommunication between Meskwaki
tribal representatives and members, some tribal members do not seem to have found
out about this arrangement prior to the following day’s ceremony. Some who had
hoped to receive the silver medals on behalf of their now-deceased relatives were upset
after attending the November 20th ceremonies because tribal representatives did not
distribute the medals to the families of the eight Meskwaki code talkers.50
eresa Mahoney, whose great-uncle Edward Benson was a Meskwaki code talker,
explained, “Part of the excitement of going to the ceremony was the recognition they
would receive, the recognition that comes with getting the medals presented to you
and shaking someone’s hand and someone saying ‘congratulations.’ It was disappointing
that that was taken away from some family members.” Daniel Waubaunasee, son
of Meskwaki Code Talker Judie Wayne Waubaunasee, did not understand why the
tribe flew him from Hawaii to Washington, DC for the ceremony and then did not
distribute the silver medals. Melissa Youngbear felt that the tribal council usurped the
recognition of the ceremony. “I felt like I was being used . . . that I was there for their
glory.”
51
e medals were received by the Meskwaki Tribal Controller on December
12, 2013, and later awarded at a tribal program in early January 2014.
significance
In 2001 the Navajo Code Talkers were the first Native Americans to receive
Congressional Gold Medals; the later Code Talker Recognition Act of 2008 and the
2013 awarding of medals gave equal recognition to all code talkers. is is especially
important as the extent of code talking has long been unknown in both Native and
non-Native communities. As awareness of code talking increased, those who served
also garnered many community awards. However, no other CGMs have been issued to
Native Americans and thus the CGMs for code talkers represent landmark events for
Native Americans. While the CGM is by no means the only award from the dominant
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culture, it is a significant one, particularly in light of the long-overlooked contribu-
tions of Native American veterans in the United States Armed Forces.52 at the only
CGMs thus far awarded to Native Americans were given to code-talking groups does
set their military service apart from that of other Native peoples in the world wars, but
it by no means diminishes other service.
e Code Talker Recognition Act of 2008 and the 2013 awarding of congressional
gold and silver medals holds a wide range of meanings that includes several overarching
forms of significance for Native Americans, but also for minorities in the United States
generally. For tribes and individuals, the awards highlight a significant irony: their
unique, highly valuable military contribution was the use of the very Native languages
that governmental boarding schools had tried to eradicate for decades. e awarding
of code talker CGMs suggests increasing recognition that tribes are sovereign entities
with distinct cultures and contributions to American society. More broadly, recent
efforts to recognize minority groups who have experienced racial inequality, and whose
military service has long been overlooked and unrecognized, represent a positive step
in the evolution of race relations in America.
A review of CGM awards demonstrates that they were largely bestowed on Euro-
American military commanders until 1858, after which civilian contributions began
to be recognized. While I cannot account for the ethnicity of every CGM recipient,
only recently have minorities begun to receive the award. African-Americans and
Africans have only been recognized since 1973, including Roberto Clemente (1973),
Joe Louis (1982), Jessie Owens (1988), General Colin Powell (1991), Nelson Mandela
(1998), e Little Rock Nine (1998), Rosa Parks (1999), Jackie Robinson (2003),
Martin Luther and Coretta Scott King (2004), e Tuskeegee Airmen (2006), and the
Montfort Point Marines (2011). e only Asian-American recipient is the Japanese-
American 442nd Regimental Combat Team (2010). Asians have also only recently
received the CGM, including the fourtheenth Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso (2006), and
Daw Aung San Suu Kyi (2008). Jewish recipients include Simon Wiesenthal (1980),
Elie Wiesel (1984), Rabbi Menachem M. Scheerson (1994), and Frank Sinatra (1997),
a strong lifelong supporter of Jewish causes. Although some minority recipients lived
to be recognized, many were posthumous awards.53
e recent trend in minority recognition also reflects increasing agendas focusing
on recognizing minority rights and recognition, and the growing importance of the
politics and symbolism of memorialization and commemoration in the United States.54
Bestowing the CGM to code talkers coincided with the popular idea of the “Greatest
Generation” and the need to recognize the rapidly diminishing number of World War
II veterans, including national efforts such as the “Honor Flight” programs to take
elder veterans to visit historic battle sites and the National World War II Memorial
in Washington, DC. ese efforts parallel popular beliefs about World War II as one
that was clearer in terms of right and wrong—the last “Good War”—despite its clearly
racialized and segregated aspects for African Americans and Japanese Americans.
Both government officials and tribal representatives recognized that the awarding
of the CGM was a gesture aimed towards leveraging diversity and equality. Admiral
James Winnefield Jr. noted that the event was a “well-deserved and long overdue
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 109
recognition, but also with our own efforts to continue leveraging our nation’s diver-
sity and to forever honor our veterans.”55 Similarly, Jackie Old Coyote (Crow) stated
the recognition and honoring of their veterans “distinguish the unique nature of our
Native American veterans, heroes, and their nations, while simultaneously saying
we’re US Citizens. e undying spirit imbued by those heroes sustains and propels all
Americans and unites us in our single homeland, the US.”56
Similar efforts to redress past racial bias are occurring. Under a congressional
directive in the National Defense Authorization Act of 2002, the Army reviewed
the record of every Jewish American and Hispanic American recipient of the
Distinguished Service Cross, during or after World War II, for possible upgrade to
the Congressional Medal of Honor. From 6,505 recipients, an eligible pool of 600
soldiers who may have been Jewish or Hispanic was found. In March 2014, twenty-
four Congressional Medals of Honor were bestowed upon Hispanic, Jewish, and
African American servicemen for service during World War II, Korea, and Vietnam.
e awards sought “to correct potential acts of bias spanning three wars . . . to ensure
that eligible recipients were not bypassed due to prejudice.”57 is review of minorities’
service records immediately raises the question of why Native American soldiers were
not included, but this is a separate inquiry beyond the scope of this paper. Perhaps
more importantly, why was the US government willing to issue the CGM to several
Native nations, while simultaneously failing to address outstanding grievances relating
to land, health, education, housing, and sovereignty? To answer this question, I will
first note that while the CGM is expensive to produce, it does not involve the treaty
obligations that can often entail larger, annual fiscal expenses.
e Navajo Code Talkers did receive forms of recognition since 1968, but clearly
it was their CGM in 2001—the first formal government recognition on the federal
level—that prompted other tribes with code talkers to seek equal recognition, which
then resulted in the 2008 legislation. us a major factor in getting the 2008 act
passed involved educating Americans about the existence of other, non-Navajo code
talkers. While the Navajo were well-documented, other tribes with smaller contingents
of code talkers were not, and required considerable research and public presentations
including the 2004 Senate Committee Hearing on code talkers, the persistent lobbying
of tribal delegations of Choctaw, Comanche, Lakota, Meskwaki, and others between
2004 and 2008, and the dedication of Congressional leaders such as Dan Boren, Tim
Johnson, John une, and others.58
Other factors contributing to the second CGM award also coalesced from 2000
to 2008. As discussed above, the timing of the Navajo Code Talkers Act and CGM
in 2000 and 2001 was closely followed by the 2002 release of the movie Windtalkers,
which contained serious factual flaws, but greatly increased public knowledge of the
Navajos’ service.59 How the code talkers were honored, in terms of the types of medals
and personal recognition, was a significant factor in how Native people viewed the
event. In 2001, four of the original twenty-nine Navajo code talkers from the first
group honored under the 2000 Act and their families were personally presented with
Congressional Gold Medals, while the remainder of the Navajo code talkers and their
families received Congressional Silver Medals at a later observance in Arizona. Under
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the 2008 Act, Congress issued only one gold medal to each Native American nation
and a silver medal for each individual code talker or surviving family. As Navajo was
not the first Native American code formed during either world war, some of the other
smaller groups hoped for, and one could argue deserved, similar gold medals for each
of their code talkers. However, the large number of individual medals involved would
have significantly raised the cost involved. e 2013 ceremony was also conducted on
congressional terms, but unlike the 2001 Navajo Gold Medal ceremony, due to the
need to recognize so many tribes and individuals simultaneously, the distribution of
honors emphasized tribal nations, with less focus on individuals and no reading of
individual names.
Native Americans have been involved in every Euro-American conflict in North
America since colonial times and continue to serve in the military in significant
numbers, but have not always received equal treatment. Andrew Jackson used the
Cherokee to defeat the Creek Red Sticks, before betraying them with removal. Many
Indian veterans, both voluntary enlistees and draftees, were not yet US citizens during
World War I. Indians from Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Utah, including
returning World War II veterans and code talkers, were denied the right to vote until
1948, to use the GI bill for housing loans from banks, and the right to purchase alco-
holic drinks. ey also faced discrimination from segregated hotels and restaurants.60
e Native American Code Talker awards in 2001 and 2013 acknowledge a
national level of contribution as well as the increased recognition of tribal groups as
sovereign entities with distinct cultures, languages, and contributions. More impor-
tantly perhaps, the CGMs symbolize another step towards equality, which was a
significant factor behind Native American military participation in both world wars.
Although recognition of Native contributions in American culture remains unequal
and long overdue, it is increasing in many areas. A major means of marking one’s pres-
ence, importance, and control of the history of an area is signage. Signs and historical
markers aid in the continued survival and control of knowledge with specific locales
and groups. While Euro-American signage has dominated regions at the neglect
of Native culture and history, Native American signage in both English and Native
languages is increasing across the county.61 Increasing public knowledge of the code
talkers has fostered international recognition, documentary publications and films,
visually striking veteran’s monuments, highways named for code talkers, and signage.
Code talkers represent one of Native America’s most prized and honored traditions as
members of their respective Native nations, as United States citizens, and as veterans.
concLusion
It was an honor long overdue. Federal recognition came almost sixty-eight years after
the end of the World War II in 1945 and nearly ninety-five years for those who served
in World War I. As Eugene Talas, Hopi Veteran’s Services Director, expressed
I think it brought closure to everyone, all of the family members. ey were really
honored that that finally happened for them, for those families. Its been a long time
so they were elated that it finally came to pass. . . . e silver medals, that was more
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 111
of a personal touch for them to actually receive the silver medals from a representa-
tive of the US Mint. at one went really good. e families were all happy.62
e ceremony marked the efforts of many individuals and tribes who had lobbied for
recognition since the late 1980s. As Choctaw Nation Chief Gregory E. Pyle remarked,
e Code Talker Recognition Act paved the way for Congressional medals to
honor American Indian Code Talkers. It has been a delayed and challenging path
since the beginning of the crusade for acknowledgement. Many people worked
tirelessly in an effort to educate others about the Code Talkers. ey walked the
halls of Congress to raise awareness and are now going to see the realization of
their goal.63
e ceremony should remind us of the importance of human languages and of
the earlier shortsightedness of Euro-American efforts to eradicate Native American
languages and inhibit bilingualism as a part of forced assimilation through government
and missionary-run Indian boarding schools. In anthropology the attempt to eradicate
the culture of a group, including language, is known as ethnocide. e ceremony is
also a reminder of the irony of these attempts. at these men persevered in retaining
their Native languages during an era of forced assimilation speaks not only of their
resilience, but also of their graciousness and willingness to use their languages during
a time of war for the same government that tried to eradicate those languages. is
act should also help to allay fears over multilingualism that has troubled American
educational and political circles in recent decades. e use of code talkers is widely
acknowledged to have saved many lives; indeed, some Americans would not be alive
today had it not been for the use of these languages in both world wars.
From statements made by participants, the 2013 ceremonies led many indi-
viduals to reflect on the importance of their respective tribal languages. As many
Native American languages continue to decline, the importance of language, as well
as its unique use by the code talkers, resonates strongly in Native communities. Judith
Bender, chairwoman of the Sac and Fox Tribe of the Mississippi in Iowa (Meskwaki)
stated, “As we continue our efforts to preserve our Meskwaki language, today reminds
us of its importance to generations past and those yet to come.”
64
Following the
ceremony Ho-Chunk Nation President Jon Greendeer similarly remarked, “I believe it
strengthens our sacred language.”65 Hopefully the Code Talker Recognition Act of 2008
will foster further recognition of the value of language diversity for future generations.
Unfortunately, only a handful of non-Navajo code talkers lived to see their service
recognized. None of the members of the formally recruited groups (Type 1) with
formal codes (Comanche, Meskwaki, Chippewa-Oneida, Hopi) in World War II are
living, and only a handful of others who served in smaller, de facto, Type 2 code talking
units are living.66 After attending the CGM ceremony, Edmund Harjo (Seminole)
passed away four months later on March 31, 2014. Gilbert Horn (Assiniboine) passed
away on March 27, 2016.
e ceremony produced a wide range of emotions for individuals: honor, pride,
release, tears, closure, and for some, a coming to terms with the post-traumatic stress
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that they watched their fathers struggle with over the years. Perhaps above all else,
individuals expressed the wish that their code talker relatives could have been there to
receive the awards. At the Gold Medal Ceremony, Vann Codynah, son of Comanche
Code Talker Haddon Codynah, remarked, “It’s been a long time coming. I just wish
my Dad was here for this. But it’s good. It’s a good thing today.” As we walked to the
Silver Medal Reception, Andrea Page (Lakota), who has been involved in recognition
efforts for the Lakota and others for nearly twenty years, smiled as she remarked,
“Great things happen when you come to this city!”67
During the ceremony I thought of the rich experiences I have had working with
different code talkers and their families since 1991. I was thrilled for all the families
and tribes involved. For myself, the gold medal ceremony was an important marker
along an ongoing journey. e ceremony represented over twenty years of work on
code talkers of numerous nations, several publications, the 2004 Senate Testimony,
and countless submissions of data, letters, emails, and public presentations to lobby for
and promote knowledge of the code talkers, as well as my ongoing research.68
Code talking is a topic of great interest to Native Americans and non-Natives
today. e long overdue congressional recognition now gives more code talkers a
well-deserved chapter in Native American and American history. Although the recent
recognition was long delayed, the passage of time has not diminished the significance
of the service of these men, and will remain a great source of pride for those tribes and
families whose members used their languages for the defense of the United States in
both world wars. Long after the code talkers and their immediate relatives are gone,
Figure 7. L–R: Robin Roberts (Meskwaki), Andrea Page (Hunkpapa Lakota), Don Loudner (Hunkpati
Dakota), and the author at the Silver Medal Ceremony, National Museum of the American Indian.
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 113
this event will also be an important reference point for later generations. is article
has tried to capture a number of vignettes of the ceremony, its details, significance,
and individual feelings through participant-observation. is history and recognition
will live on as a source of enduring pride, treasured by the families of individual code
talkers in particular and as a unique part of the culture and heritage of the numerous
tribes involved, and for those involved this is priceless.
Section 6.2 of the Code Talker Recognition Act of 2008 permits those code
talkers who have not yet been recognized to apply for congressional medals.69 As
mandated by the act, the Department of Defense will continue to search its records
and coordinate with tribes, and if the agency identifies any additional eligible tribes or
individuals, it will prepare additions to this list. e list of code talkers recognized on
November 20, 2013 will likely increase (see Appendix A). As Don Loudner, president
of the National Native Americans Veterans Association reflected on the gold medal
ceremony, “Everybody thought it was good. ey really, really were surprised at the
amount of code talkers they had, because they didn’t realize that there were that many.
So far we have thirty-three tribes that we have found. . . . But we know there are more
than that.”70 Several tribes are continuing their research on other individuals and I am
currently working on additional groups in World War I and World War II that have
yet to be recognized. ere is still more research to be undertaken—and more men
who deserve an honor long overdue.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my appreciation to the following individuals who contributed
to the development of this article: Texas representative Kay Granger, Rob Delessandro
of the Department of Defense, and Betty Birdsong and William Norton of the
Treasury Department graciously shared their experiences in legislating, designing, and
minting of the Congressional medals for the Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008.
I also offer my sincere thanks to the following individuals for visiting with me about
their experiences at the gold medal ceremony and subsequent celebrations in their
home communities: Judy Allen (Choctaw); Don Loudner, National President Native
American Veterans Association (Hunkpati Dakota); Andrea Page, Mary Black Cloud
Monsees, Rick Red Eagle McLaughlin, Jennifer Montel (Lakota); Robin Roberts and
Jonathan Buffalo (Meskwaki); George Red Elk, Lanny Asepermy, Vann Codynah,
Lydia Meat Yellowhair, Mary Parker Moon, and Nona Mihecoby Carnes (Comanche);
Eugene Talas and Clark Tenakhongva (Hopi), Dr. Ken Ryan (Assiniboine), and
Sandra Winneshiek (Ho-Chunk). I would also like to express my gratitude to Dean
Victor Matthews and Provost Frank Einhellig of Missouri State University, who
graciously provided travel funds to attend and document the 2013 Congressional Gold
Medal Ceremony in Honor of Native American Code Talkers; and to my teaching
assistant, Sarah Reid, for proofreading this article.
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appendix a
Author’s note: is list has been adjusted from the original. It has been alphabetically
reordered both by tribe and individual name of recipient’s first, and then last name).
Acoma - WW II - Paul R. Histia.
Apache - WW II - Paul Burdette, Nelson Danford, Andrew V. Tsinajinnie.
Assiniboine (Fort Berthold Reservation) - WW II - Charles Adams, Matt D. Adams,
Joseph R. Alverez, Archie M. Cantrell, John Cantrell, Duncan Dupree, Jimmy First
Smoke, Jay H. Kim, Joseph Hamilton, Gilbert Horn Sr., Jesse Mason Jr., Adam Redd,
Lawrence Red Dog.
Cherokee - WW I - George Adair.
Chippewa Cree Indians - WW II - Lex C. Porter.
Choctaw - WW I - Albert Billy, Mitchell Bobb, Victor Brown, Ben Carterby, Benjamin
Colbert, George Davenport, James Davenport, Joe Davenport, James Edwards, Tobias
Frazier, Ben Hampton, Noel Johnson, Otis Leader, Taylor Lewis, Solomon Louis/
Lewis, Pete Maytubby, Jeff Nelson, Joseph Oklahombi, Robert Taylor, Walter Veach,
Calvin Wilson. WW II - Forrester Baker, Schlicht Billy, Andrew Perry, Davis Pickens.
Comanche - WW I - Calvin Atchavit, Gilbert Gilbert, Samuel Tabbytosevit, Samuel
George Clark, Edward Albert Nahquaddy Sr. WW II - Charles Chibitty, Haddon
Codynah, Robert Holder, Forrest Kassanavoid, Wellington Mihecoby, Edward Albert
Nahquaddy Jr., Perry Noyabad, Clifford Otitivo, Simmons Parker, Melvin Permansu,
Elgin Red Elk, Roderick Red Elk, Larry Saupitty, Morris Tabbyetchy (Sunrise),
Anthony Tabbytite, Ralph Wahnee, Willis Yacheschi.
Muscogee Creek Nation - WW II - omas MacIntosh, Leslie Richards.
Crow - WW II - Barney Old Coyote, Henry Old Coyote, Samson Birdinground,
Cyril Notafraid.
Hopi - WW II - Frank Chapella, Floyd Dann Sr., Perry Honani Sr., Warren
Kooyaquaptewa, Charles Lomakema, Persaval Navenma, Rex Pooyouma, Franklin
Shupla, Orville N. Wadsworth, Travis Yaiva.
Laguna - WW II - Joseph R. Day.
Kiowa - WW II - Leonard Cozad Sr., James Paddlety, John Tsatoke.
Menominee - WW II - David Matchopatow, William Matchopatow, John C.
O’Katchicum, Dan Waupoose, Mose Wausakokamick.
Meskwaki (Sac and Fox) - WW II - Edward Benson, Dewey Roberts, Frank Sanache,
Willard Sanache, Melvin Twin, Judy Wayne Wabaunsee, Mike Wayne Wabaunsee,
Dewey Youngbear.
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 115
Mohawk - WW II - Mike Arquette, Joseph Barnes, omas Cole, Louis S. Conners,
Angus B. Cook, Joe King, Louis E. King, Angus J. Laughing, Alex W. Lazore, Charles
Lazore, Louis L. Oake, Alex Oakes, Alex W. Peters, Joe Harry Pike, Mitchell Sunday,
Albert Tarbell, Reginald White.
Oneida - World War II - Rupert S. Adams, Hudson Doxtator, Rimton L. Doxtator,
Lloyd Schuylar.
Pawnee - WW II - Frank Davis, Brument Echo Hawk, Grant Grover (Gover),
Philip Gover, Enoch Jim, Chauncey Matlock, Harold Morgan, Floyd Rice, Henry C.
Stoneroad.
Ponca - WW II - William T. Snake.
Seminole - WW II - Edmund Harjo, Tony M. Palmer.
Sioux (Unspecified): WW I and II - Willie Iron Elk; WW II - Roy Bad Hand,
Simon Broken Leg, Iver Crow Eagle Sr., Jeffrey Dull Knife, Little Pony Eagle, Joshua
E. Martinez, Patrick N. McKenzie, Anthony Omaha Boy, Benny Red Bear Sr. (May
be same person as Benny White Bear), Benny White Bear, (May be same person as
Benny Red Bear, Jr.), Charles Whitepipe.
Fort Peck Assiniboine and Sioux - WW II - Everett D. Bear, Anton Hollow, Herman
Belgarde, Arthur Belgarde, Dominick Belgrade, James Black Dog Jr., Matthew E.
Black Dog, Harvey Buck Elk, James J. Eder, Lloyd Half Red, William Hawk, Earl
Jones, Frank Jones, Ralph N. Jones, Pat Kidder, Joseph Lambert, Richard Left Hand
under, Ben Little Head, Louis E. Longee, Mark Long Tree, James M. Melbourne
Jr., Raymond L. Ogle, Williams G. Ogle, Archie Red Boy, Shirley Quinton Red Boy,
Herman Red Elk, Jr., Gerald Red Elk, William J. Red Fox, Joseph E. Russell, Fred R.
Shields, Julian Shields, Gregory B. Swift Eagle, James Turning Bear, Winfield Wilson,
James T. Yellow Owl, Douglas Young Man.
Sioux (Brulé) - WW I - Moses Elk Horn.
Sioux (Cheyenne River) - WW II - Eddie Eagle Boy, Narcisse Eagle Chasing, Phillip
La Blanc.
Sioux (Crow Creek) - WW II - Joseph O. Reddoor, Edmund St. John.
Sioux (Oglala) - WW II - Garfield T. Brown, Baptiste Pumpkinseed, William Redcloud.
Sioux (Rosebud) - WW II - Clarence Wolf Guts, Noah White Bird Sr.
Sioux (Santee) - WW I - Guy George Chapman; WW II - Walter John.
Sioux (Sisseton) - WW II - Guy Rondell.
Sioux (Standing Rock) - WW I - Alphonse Bear Ghost, Julius Bear Shield, Louis Big
Horn Elk, Richard Blue Earth, John Brave Bull, August Brought Plenty, John Brought
Plenty, omas Crow Necklace, Louis Crow Skin, Albert Grass, Joseph Gray Day,
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116 à à à
Joseph Pretends Eagle, John Elk, Paul Good Iron, omas Gray Bull, Benjamin Gray
Hawk, George Jacob Halsey, Michael Halsey, Harvey E. Lean Elk, Harry E. Lean Elk,
Charles Little Chief, George Many Wounds, William Menz, David Molash, George
Molash, John Red Bean, George James Red Fox, Asa Red Stone, George W. Santee,
Lawrence See the Elk, George Sleeps from Home, Luke Speaks Walking, Clyde
Standing Bear, James Tattooed, Alexander Traversie, George Two Bear, Joseph Two
Bears, Edward Two Horses, Richard White Eagle, Paul White Lightning, Frank Young
Bear, Francis Benjamin Zahn, Barney Mulhern, Raymond Ackerman, Roscoe White
Eagle; WW II - John Bear King.
Ho-Chunk (formerly Winnebago) - WW II - Clifford Blackdeer, Howard Littlejohn,
Bill Mike, Jessie Mike, Emanuel undercloud, Bill Whitebear, Benjamin Winneshiek.
Sioux (Yankton) - WW I - Daniel Ross, Rufus Ross; WW II - Barney Lambert.
Tlingit - WW II - Richard Bean Sr., Robert Jeff David, Harvey Jacobs, Mark Jacobs,
Jr. George Lewis.
Other individuals for which specific tribal affiliation could not be confirmed: WW II -
Jerald Red Elk (Sioux) (may be same person as Gerald Red Elk); John C. Smith (listed
under general Sioux).
notes
1.
William C. Meadows, The Comanche Code Talkers of World War II (Austin: University
of Texas Press, 2002); William C. Meadows, “North American Indian Code Talkers: Current
Developments and Research,” in Aboriginal Peoples and Military Participation: Canadian and
International Perspectives, eds. P. Whitney Lackenbauer, R. Scott Sheffield, and Craig Leslie Mantle
(Kingston, ON: Canadian Defence Academy Press, 2007), 161–214; William C. Meadows, “‘ey
Had a Chance to Talk to One Another’: e Role of Incidence in Native American Code Talking,”
Ethnohistory 56, no. 2 (2009): 269–84, doi:10.1215/00141801-2008-058.
2.
See Doris A. Paul, The Navajo Code Talkers (Pittsburgh: Dorrance Publishing Co., Inc.,
1973), 7; and Gary Robinson, The Language of Victory: American Indian Code Talkers of World War
I and World War II (Bloomington, IN: iUniverse LLC, 2011), 118, in which Navajo Code Talker
Harold Foster states there were no other code talkers except the Navajo (shortly thereafter he met
some of the Comanche and Choctaw Code Talkers in Oklahoma). During the time the Hopi were
seeking recognition, several Navajo spoke out in opposition to Hopi claims of having been code
talkers. Over the last twenty-five years of researching and public speaking on code talking, I have
encountered numerous individuals, Native and non-Native, who were surprised to learn of code
talkers other than the Navajo or strenuously deny that there were any others. An anonymous reviewer
of my book manuscript The Comanche Code Talkers also maintained that only the Navajo had code
talkers and accused me of “making up” the Comanche code talkers and others. e wealth of inde-
pendent documentation countering this belief is of course significant, and as knowledge of the range
of code talkers has increased much of this opposition has receded, with more Navajo now acknowl-
edging the existence of other Native code-talking groups, with or without formal codes.
3. Meadows, The Comanche Code Talkers, 40–50, 67–72.
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 117
4. Paul, The Navajo Code Talkers, 55; Chester Nez with Judith Schiess Avila, Code Talker: The
First and Only Memoir by One of the Original Navajo Code Talkers of WWII (New York: e Berkley
Publishing Group, 2011), 113, 131; Samuel T. Holiday and Robert S. McPherson, Under the Eagle:
Samuel Holiday, Navajo Code Talker (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013), 16.
5. Meadows, The Comanche Code Talkers, 56–64. Approximately 285 of the Navajo code talkers
saw combat.
6.
Meadows, The Comanche Code Talkers, 40–64; William C. Meadows, “ Honoring Native
American Code Talkers: e Road to the Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008 (Public Law
110-420),” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 35, no. 3 (2011): 3–36; Meadows, “‘ey had
a Chance to Talk to One Another’”; Meadows, “North American Indian Code Talkers.”
7. John Rice and Joe Batteer, Windtalkers, directed by John Woo (MGM/Lion Rock Productions:
2002); DVD released October 15, 2002.
8. “Yank Indian Was Heap Big Help in Winning the War,” Stars and Stripes 2, no. 17 (May 30,
1919): 1, 3.
9.
“Honoring the Navajo Code Talkers Act,” S. 2408, 106th Congress (1999–2000), Public
Law 106–554, 114 Stat. 2763 A-311-2763A-312, approved December 12, 2000, Congressional
Record vol. 187, Wednesday, December 7, 2011, H8252–H8258. e Navajo were recognized with
Congressional Gold Medals for the original twenty-nine members and silver medals for 318 other
members in 2001. is list also contained twenty-eight names “Listed, But Not Confirmed,” twenty-
three names “Pending/Waiting for Records,” and fifteen names “Not Listed.” In 2003 the White
House confirmed nine additional members for silver medals, totaling 356 Navajo Code Talkers. Jim
Snyder, “White House Confirms 9 Navajo Code Talkers,” Farmington Daily Times, November 4, 2003,
available at https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/indigenous_peoples_literature/conversations/
messages/12179.
10.
US Senate Hearing 108–693, Committee on Indian Affairs, September 22, 2004, https://
www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-108shrg.96125/pdf/CHRG-108shrg.96125.pdf; Public Law
110-420; 122 Stat. 4774-4777; Meadows, “Honoring Native American Code Talkers.”
11.
Letter Submitted by Gregory E. Pyle, Chief of the Choctaw Nation, Hearing Before the
Committee on Indian Affairs, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress, Second Session,
on Contributions of Native American Code Talkers in American Military History (Washington,
DC: US Government Printing Office, 2004), 57–58; see also “Choctaws Seeking Medals For Code
Talkers,” Leo Kelley, Adanews.com (Ada, OK), November 6, 2006, http://www.theadanews.com/
local/x212580029/Choctaws-seeking-medals-for-code-talkers/print.
12.
Bernie Hunhoff, “e Last Lakota Code Talker,” South Dakota Magazine, May–June 2007,
http://www.southdakotamagazine.com/clarence-wolf-guts. In 2007 the Hopi Tribe made similar
statements concerning the plan by the US Postal Service to issue a Navajo Code Talker postage stamp.
13. Robert Delessandro, e-mail to the author, October 24, 2013. is process presents a potential
problem in that individual tribes are being allowed to essentially determine who was a code talker. At
least two groups have vetted nearly all of their veterans from one war as code talkers. Upon checking
individual service records I have discovered several individuals in one group whose military records
as well as personal statements indicate that they were never in the war theater, and thus did not serve
as code talkers.
14.
Betty Birdsong, program manager, Office of Design, United States Mint, e-mails to the
author, December 17, 2013, and June 22 and 24, 2016.
15.
US House of Representatives, History, Art & Archives, “Congressional Gold Medal
Recipients,” http://history.house.gov/Institution/Gold-Medal/Gold-Medal-Recipients/.
Ameri cAn indi An cultu re And re se Arch Jour nAl 40:2 (2016)
118 à à à
16. Matthew Eric Glassman, “Congressional Gold Medals, 1776–2014,” Congressional Research
Service 7-5700, RL30076, February 18, 2015, 1, 17–18, http://www.senate.gov/CRSReports/crs-
publish.cfm?pid=’0E%2C*PL%5B%3C%230%20%20%0A.
17. Ibid., 4; US House of Representatives, History, Art & Archives, “Congressional Gold Medal
Recipients.”
18. Glassman, “Congressional Gold Medals, 1776–2014,” 21–36; US House of Representatives,
History, Art & Archives, “Congressional Gold Medal Recipients.”
19.
“Switzerland County Woman Helps Honor a Group of Native-American War Heroes
Known as the Code-Talkers,” Madison Courier, December 23, 2013, http://madisoncourier.com/
Content/News/Switzerland-County/Article/Switzerland-county-woman-helps-honor-a-group-of-
Native-American-war-heroes-known-as-the-CODE-TALKERS/178/287/80772.
20. Ibid.
21. Rebecca Jacobs, “Code Talkers Have Served the Military Well—and Often Secretly: Choctaw
Nation Code Talkers from World War I,” Indian Country Today, August 8, 2011.
22. Judy Allen (Choctaw) to the author, January 16, 2014.
23. While the US government shutdown from October 1 to October 16, 2013 caused some to
worry that the medal ceremony might be postponed, most persons with whom I spoke were confident
that the shutdown would end well before and that the ceremony would take place. Author’s fieldnotes
on Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony in Honor of Native American Code Talkers, Emancipation
Hall, US Capitol, Washington, DC, November 20, 2013; e-mail invitation to the author from Office
of Senator John Boehner, October 28, 2013.
24.
e ceremony streamed live on www.Speaker.Gov/Live. e coverage is now available
online on C-SPAN, http://www.c-span.org/video/?316374-1/native-american-code-talkers-receive
-congressional-gold-medal.
25.
Author’s video recording of Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony in Honor of Native
American Code Talkers, Emancipation Hall, US Capitol, Washington, DC, November 20, 2013.
26. e ceremony was unfortunately marred by an incredibly irresponsible act. As tribal repre-
sentatives were being called forward in alphabetical order by tribal name, a gaffe appeared on the
closed-caption screen, situated in full view of the audience and on live coverage. At the 39:40 mark in
the ceremony, the closed caption screen reads, “Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe. Alcoholic . . . Choctaw
Nation.” An inquiry of the private closed-caption company working for the Capitol was reportedly
undertaken; however, to date no one has been held accountable. Michael Steel, press spokesman for
House Speaker John Boehner, stated, “Closed captioning services for all major congressional events are
provided by a private company that has no affiliation with the House or Senate. Unfortunately, the indi-
vidual transcribing today’s event apparently mis-heard the word “Choctaw.” e transcription company
was given a list of the tribes before the ceremony, so this should not have happened, and we will make
a full inquiry.” Several individuals at the event and subsequent Internet posts believe the incident was
not an accident, and that to believe that “alcoholic” was mistaken for any tribal name is preposterous.
Vincent Schilling, “A Tribe Named Alcoholic? Closed Caption Gaffe at Code Talker Ceremony,” Indian
Country Today Media Network.com, November 21, 2013, http://indiancountrytoday medianetwork.
com/2013/11/21/tribe-named-alcoholic-closed-caption-gaffe-code-talker-ceremony-152367.
27.
Vincent Schilling, “Watch Code Talkers Receive Congressional Gold Medals at 11,” Indian
Country Today Media Network.com, November 20, 2013, http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.
com/2013/11/20/watch-code-talkers-receive-congressional-gold-medals-11-152340.
28.
Ceremony Program, Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony in Honor of Native American
Code Talkers, Emancipation Hall, US Capitol, Washington, DC, November 20, 2013; United States
Mint Coins and Medals Program, “Code Talkers Recognition Congressional Medals Program,” http://
www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/medals/?action=codeTalkers.
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 119
29. Author’s fieldnotes on Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony in Honor of Native American
Code Talkers, Emancipation Hall, US Capitol, Washington, DC, November 20, 2013.
30. “33 More American Indian Tribes Recognized as Code Talkers,” The Hopi Tutuveni 21, no.
23 (December 3, 2013): 6, http://www.hopi-nsn.gov/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/12-3-2013_
Vol21-No23.pdf.
31. John Speer, “Congressional Gold Honor [sic] Meskwaki Code Talkers: ‘Long Overdue’ Medals
to Tribes,” Tama News-Herald/The Toledo Chronicle, November 29, 2013, http://www.tamatole-
donews.com/page/content.detail/id/516370/Congressional-Gold-honor-Meskwaki-Code-Talkers.
html?nav=5006.
32.
Jackie Old Coyote (Apsaalooke), author’s fieldnotes, National Museum of the American
Indian, 2013.
33. Birdsong, e-mail to the author, December 17, 2013.
34.
United States Mint, “Code Talkers Recognition Congressional Medals Program” (2016),
http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/medals/?action=codeTalkers.
35. Ibid.
36.
Ibid.; Birdsong, e-mail to the author, December 17, 2013; “Enclosure: Individual Code
Talkers by Tribal Affiliation,” copy of January 29, 2013 memo from Department of Defense, Secretary
of Defense, 1000 Defense Pentagon, Washington, DC, to Timothy F. Geithner, Secretary of the
Treasury, Washington, DC, courtesy of Betty Birdsong.
37. Andrea Page (Standing Rock Lakota) to the author, December 1 and April 3, 2013.
38. Judy Allen (Choctaw) to the author, January 16, 2014, and July 5, 2016.
39.
“Historical Day for Comanche Heroes,” Comanche Nation News, special edition, December
12, 2013, 1–7, Issuu.com/comanchenation/docs/codetalker_special-edition.
40. Ibid.; George Red Elk (Comanche) to the author, February 16, 2014. e group also placed a
wreath at Arlington National Cemetery on the grave of fellow Comanche Wellington Permansu, then
sang the Comanche Memorial song, the Adobe Walls songs, and a Comanche Christian church hymn.
41.
Lydia Meat Yellowhair (Comanche) and Mary Parker Moon (Comanche) to the author,
February 23, 2014; Lanny Asepermy (Comanche) to the author, February 24, 2014.
42. George Red Elk (Comanche) to the author, February 16, 2014. e Comanche Code talkers
were inducted into the Oklahoma Military Hall of Fame in 2011.
43. Rick Red Eagle McLaughlin (Standing Rock Sioux) to the author, April 3, 2014.
44.
Jason Stein, “Ho-Chunk Pay Tribute to Code Talkers in Special Ceremony in Baraboo,”
Journal Sentinel (Milwaukee, WI), December 13, 2013, http://www.jsonline.com/news/wisconsin/
ho-chunk-pay-tribute-to-code-talkers-in-special-ceremony-in-baraboo-b99163399z1-235824421.
html; Sandra Winneshiek (Ho-Chunk) to the author, March 10, 2014.
45.
“Santee Sioux Honors Code Talker,” Yankton Daily Press & Dakotan, December 15, 2013,
www.yankton.net/community/article_eda0c21e-6609-11e3-9576-0019bb2963f4.html.
46. Robin Roberts (Meskwaki) to the author, December 7, 2013; Jonathan Buffalo (Meskwaki)
to the author, February 14, 2014.
47. Eugene Talas (Hopi) to the author, March 3, 2014, and July 5, 2016.
48.
“Code Talkers Honoring Set for Memorial Day,” Fort Peck Journal, February 14, 2014; Dr.
Ken Ryan (Assiniboine) to the author, March 13, 2014.
49. Author’s fieldnotes, 2013–2014.
50.
James Q. Lynch, “Meskwaki Officials Had Silver Code Talker Medals Shipped for
Security Reasons,” Globe Gazette (Iowa), December 24, 2013, http://globegazette.com/news/local/
meskwaki-officials-had-silver-code-talker-medals-shipped-for-security/article_e0231772-109d-5da6-
879c-f5b998827d44.html.
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120 à à à
51.
James Q. Lynch, “Code Talkers’ Families to Get Medals, but Hard Feelings Remain,” Globe
Gazette (Iowa), December 4, 2013, http://globegazette.com/news/local/code-talkers-families-to-
get-medals-but-hard-feelings-remain/article_60ff84d1-a091-53e0-8c4e-30bcb8db1992.html.
52.
Indeed, Native Americans have achieved numerous notable awards from the larger non-
Native society, including the Pulitzer Prize (Scott Momaday), an Olympic Medal (Billy Mills), three
Presidential Medals of Freedom, several National Heritage Fellows in the arts, official “Code Talker
Days” in individual states, the induction of the Comanche, Choctaw, and Pawnee Code Talkers into
the Oklahoma Military Hall of Fame, and honors between individual tribes.
53. Similarly, only recently have four Native Americans received the Presidential Medal of Freedom,
issued since 1963: Wilma Mankiller (Cherokee) as a foreign head of state or government (1998), Joe
Medicine Crow (Crow) for military service (2009), Susan Shown Harjo (Cheyenne/Muskogee) for
political and government activism (2014), and Billy Frank Jr. for activism (2015; posthumous). Billy
Mills (Lakota) has been the only Native American to receive the Presidential Citizens Medal (2012),
a medal issued since 1969. Presidential Medal of Freedom Recipients, US Senate, http://www.
senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/two_column_table/Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom_Recipients.
htm; List of Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_
Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom_recipients; Presidential Citizens Medal, http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Presidential_Citizens_Medal; “President Obama Names Recipients of the Presidential Medal of
Freedom,” White House, Office of the Press Secretary, November 16, 2015, https://www.whitehouse.
gov/the-press-office/2015/11/16/president-obamanames-recipients-presidential-medal-freedom.
54. Ibid.
55.
Author’s fieldnotes, Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony in Honor of Native American
Code Talkers, November 20, 2013.
56. Jackie Old Coyote (Apsaalooke), author’s fieldnotes, November 20, 2013.
57.
Associated Press, “Obama to Award Medal of Honor to 24 Overlooked Army Veterans,”
February 22, 2014, http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2014/02/22/obama-to-award-medal-honor-
to-24-army-veterans.html?
58. Meadows, “Honoring Native American Code Talkers.”
59. Lawrence H. Suid, “Windtalkers Sends Wrong Message,” Naval History 16, no. 5 (US Naval
Institute, October 2002): 36–38.
60.
Tom Holm, Strong Hearts, Wounded Souls: Native American Veterans of the Vietnam War
(Austin: University of Texas Press, 1986); Alison R. Bernstein, American Indians and World War
II: Towards a New Era in Indian Affairs (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 121–40);
Sally McClain, Navajo Weapon: The Navajo Code Talkers (Tucson: Rio Nuevo Publishers, 1994),
229–30; omas Britten, American Indians in World War I (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico
Press, 1997), 10–17, 57–58; Jere’ Bishop Franco, Crossing the Pond: The Native American Effort in
World War II (Denton: University of North Texas Press, 1999), 88–94, 190–200; Kenneth William
Tow ns en d, World War II and the American Indian (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press,
2000), 112–16; Meadows, The Comanche Code Talkers 7–14, 175–76; Susan Applegate Krouse,
North American Indians in the Great War (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007); Nez and
Avila , Code Talker, 8, 107, 217–18, 231; Holiday and McPherson, Under the Eagle, 183–84. For
sources on Native views of military service and enlistment factors see Holm, Strong Hearts, 19–21,
117–28, 166–67; Bernstein, American Indians and World War II, 40–63; Britten, American Indians
in World War I, 51–72; Townsend, World War II and the American Indian, 2–3, 62, 72–80; Krouse,
North American Indians, 17–21; and Meadows, The Comanche Code Talkers, 7–14, 83–90.
61. William Meadows, Kiowa Ethnogeography (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008), 176–77.
62. Several individuals expressed surprise that President Obama did not attend and participate
in the ceremony, instead issuing Presidential Medals of Freedom that same day to Oprah Winfrey
Mead ows | an Hon or Long o ver due 121
and Bill Clinton at the White House a short distance away. While the Presidential Medal of Freedom
is normally issued by the President, Congressional Gold Medals are presented at the discretion of
Congress, which can include the President if desired. Some legislators and tribal representatives stated
that the president was not invited to participate in this event. Author’s fieldnotes, November 20, 2013.
63. “Tribes to Receive Congressional Gold Medals in Honor of Code Talkers,” Choctaw Nation
press release, September 30, 2013, https://www.choctawnation.com/news-events/press-media/
tribes-receive-congressional-gold-medals-honor-code-talkers.
64.
James Q. Lynch, “Meskwaki ‘Code Talkers’ Earn Congressional Gold Medal,” Globe Gazette
(Iowa), November 21, 2013, http://globegazette.com/news/iowa/meskwaki-code-talkers-earn-
congressional-gold-medal/article_86889e2c-0433-5453-82c0-5d3b468686ee.html.
65. Cassandra Colson, “Ho-Chunk ‘Code Talkers’ Honored at Congressional Ceremony,” Jackson
County Chronicle, November 26, 2013, http://lacrossetribune.com/jacksoncochronicle/news/local/
ho-chunk-code-talkers-honored-at-congressional-ceremony/article_c2c87d42-56d8-11e3-b8a9-
0019bb2963f4.html.
66. Meadows, “Comanche Code Talkers.”
67. Vann Codynah (Comanche) and Andrea Page (Lakota) to the author, November 20, 2013.
68. Author’s fieldnotes, 2013.
69. Section 6.2 of the Code Talker Recognition Act of 2008 states, “e Secretary, in consulta-
tion with the Secretary of Defense and the tribes, shall . . . in the future, determine whether any
Indian tribe that is not recognized as of the date of the enactment of this Act, should be eligible to
receive a gold medal under this Act.” However, government representatives have indicated that subse-
quent awards will not include a ceremony at the US Capitol. “Code Talkers Recognition Act of 2008,”
Public Law 110-240; 122 Stat. 4774-4777, approved October 15.
70. Don Loudner (Hunkpati-Dakota) to the author, April 6, 2014.
