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Neuropsychological stimulation of executive functions in children with typical development: A systematic review
Abstract
This systematic review aimed to characterize empirical studies on neuropsychological interventions to stimulate executive functions in children with typical development. Searches were conducted according to the PRISMA method. Nineteen (19) studies on the analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of intervention programs in pre-school and school children were obtained. There was a predominance of studies that used computerized cognitive training, most of them involving the stimulation of working memory. Others used pen and paper forms, or hybrid tasks, and some programs used a school curriculum approach aiming to improve self-regulation. Results provide preliminary evidence on the effectiveness of such on the executive performance in children with typical development. Each executive component, as well as each type of intervention has its peculiarities. Computerized trainings and pen and paper tasks tend to improve the targeted executive functions, but transfer effects are still inconsistent. Regarding the effects of programs using school curriculum approach, they seem to be more generalizable, with functionality gains accomplishing mainly socio-emotional regulation. Multimodal approaches may be even more effective. Follow-up studies should be targeted in order to track the maintenance of direct and transfer effects regarding mainly cognitive and social development associated to school achievement.
... Some of these programmes are based on methodologies that include computer tasks, paper and PEFEN PROGRAMME ON PRESCHOOL CHILDREN 5 pencil tasks, or a combination of both. In some cases, they are (or could be) integrated into the school curriculum (Cardoso et al., 2018). These latter programmes are implemented by the teachers themselves and incorporate activities in which students work simultaneously and globally on multiple aspects of EFs (Cardoso et al., 2018). ...
... In some cases, they are (or could be) integrated into the school curriculum (Cardoso et al., 2018). These latter programmes are implemented by the teachers themselves and incorporate activities in which students work simultaneously and globally on multiple aspects of EFs (Cardoso et al., 2018). In addition, they seem to be more generalised due to their more ecological mode of implementation (Traverso et al., 2019). ...
... Diamond and Lee (2011) identified different classroom curricula interventions that have proven to be effective for the improvement of EFs: (a) the Tools of the Mind (Tools) based on the use of games for training inhibition, memory, flexibility and creativity; (b) Montessori approach, which includes activities not directly related to EFs as well as active meditation; (c) the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) focused on self-control, regulation of emotion and interpersonal problem-solving; and (d) the Chicago School Readiness Project (CSRP), whose objectives were stress-regulation and behaviour management. However, a recent review highlights how these kinds of interventions are scarce, especially at preschool, due to their relative novelty (Cardoso et al., 2018). ...
The objective of this study was to test the effectiveness of a programme for the stimulation of executive functions (Programa para la Estimulación de las Funciones Ejecutivas - PEFEN) in preschool children (aged 5 years) with no pathologies. A total of 40 children participated. They were distributed into two groups (intervention and control groups) and were evaluated at two different moments in time (before and after the intervention) using the Child Neuropsychological Maturity Questionnaire (CUMANIN) and the Behavior Rating Instrument of Executive Function-Preschool (BRIEF-P). The programme’s duration was three months. The results revealed statistically significant differences between both groups in the subscales of psychomotricity, spatial structuring and visual perception of the CUMANIN as well as in the emotional control subscale of BRIEF-P. In conclusion, the Intervention Group presented higher scores in different neuropsychological domains related to executive functions. This research seems to suggest that programmes such as PEFEN may be useful to improve and stimulate the EFs of normal developing children who do not present any difficulties.
... A escalabilidade deste tipo de aplicação, após devidamente investigadas e validadas em suas potencialidades, seria possível através da tecnologia atual. Como vantagem do uso de programas computadorizados, estes podem ser capazes de adaptar-se automaticamente ao desempenho dos indivíduos durante as aplicações, em relação ao nível de dificuldade das tarefas apresentadas [25,26]. ...
... Entretanto, apesar da grande quantidade de pesquisadores envolvidos nesta busca por programas que possibilitem a estimulação dessas funções, restam diversas questões relacionadas ao rigor científico, às metodologias empregadas e os efeitos da estimulação na vida dos sujeitos participantes de tais programas, principalmente na área da tecnologia [9,30]. Nesse sentido, a maioria dos programas computadorizados, incluindo jogos digitais, disponíveis na literatura até o momento trabalham com a categoria de estimulação da memória de trabalho [25,36]. Já intervenções que visam estimular os demais componentes das FE isoladamente, como o controle inibitório ou flexibilidade cognitiva [36], por meio de jogos digitais em ambiente escolar necessitam maiores investigações [9,36,37], uma vez que a maior parte desse tipo de intervenção computadorizada foca nos componentes da memória [9,25]. ...
... Nesse sentido, a maioria dos programas computadorizados, incluindo jogos digitais, disponíveis na literatura até o momento trabalham com a categoria de estimulação da memória de trabalho [25,36]. Já intervenções que visam estimular os demais componentes das FE isoladamente, como o controle inibitório ou flexibilidade cognitiva [36], por meio de jogos digitais em ambiente escolar necessitam maiores investigações [9,36,37], uma vez que a maior parte desse tipo de intervenção computadorizada foca nos componentes da memória [9,25]. ...
As Funções Executivas são um grupo de habilidades cognitivas que orientam o comportamento dos indivíduos para realização de objetivos, além de serem relacionadas à regulação e controle dos pensamentos, emoções e inibição de tendências comportamentais. Investigações demonstram que é possível trabalhar especificamente com a estimulação de componentes das Funções Executivas, de modo que indivíduos possam obter ganhos cognitivos, promovendo benefícios em diversas áreas da vida. A estimulação tem maior potencial benéfico quando ocorre na infância e juventude, de maneira especial no ambiente escolar. Os jogos digitais se constituem de um artefato cultural presente na vida de crianças e adolescentes, e cada vez mais utilizados em processos educativos. Portanto, são necessárias investigações baseadas em evidências robustas acerca da estimulação cognitiva através do uso de jogos digitais no contexto escolar, dadas as consequências benéficas do amadurecimento cognitivo saudável na vida adulta. Este artigo apresenta os desafios na área do desenvolvimento e uso jogos digitais voltados à estimulação das Funções Executivas em aplicações com crianças e adolescentes, bem como a avaliação dos resultados de aplicações no contexto escolar.
... Finally, a critical analysis of the six reviewed Zambian studies will be provided. A great deal of prior research [21,26,27,72,73] has investigated different aspects of executive functions, including executive functions in relation to mobile technology [73]; health behaviour [21]; cerebral palsy [26]; culture [27] and socio-economic status [28]. However, limited studies have focused on the Zambian preschool population [7], and there are also quite a few studies on cost-effective EF interventions for lowincome contexts. ...
... The following are some of the literature reviews that have been done. Cardoso and colleagues [72] systematically examined nineteen (19) studies that evaluated the effectiveness of executive functions interventions among typical preschool and primary school children and reported that, while the transfer of intervention gains remains inconclusive, most of the executive functions interventions used computerised school curriculum approaches and only targeted working memory relative to other executive functions components. An apparent limitation of the meta-analytic review by Cardoso and colleagues is their exclusive focus on studies undertaken in the western context. ...
The development of executive function has received a considerable amount of attention in the literature and is known to predict a range of social, cognitive, and emotional outcomes in both children and adults. However, little is known about factors that contribute to its development in the Zambian context due to the fragmented literature available in Zambia. A literature review was conducted using five electronic databases (University of Zambia Institutional repository, Google Scholar, PubMed, BioMed Central, and EBSCO Host) to identify factors that affect executive functions in preschool and primary school children in Zambia. This review established that early childhood education, socioeconomic status, physical health, and culture as factors that fall under three categories, namely research, environmental, and biological, affect the development of executive functions among children in Zambia. This review suggests that teachers, caregivers, and early childhood stakeholders in Zambia need to pay attention to both environmental and biological factors when designing executive function interventions for preschool children. A focus on improving early childhood education, nutrition, access to good quality health care, and intensifying appropriate cognitive-stimulating parenting and teaching practices that boost EF in public preschools and primary schools are required.
... Positive effects of WM training would imply a potential advantage for a comparatively larger population than atypically developing children (Sala & Gobet, 2017). WM training could be useful in promoting optimal cognitive functioning according to a specific developmental stage, and in turn allow reducing differences in performance especially in those children that-despite typical development-are more behind compared to their peers (Cardoso et al., 2018;Diamond & Ling, 2016;Jolles & Crone, 2012;Karbach & Unger, 2014). ...
... Moreover, evidence of long-term transfer to reading and math is scarce (Blakey & Carroll, 2015;Rode et al., 2014;Söderqvist & Bergman Nutley, 2015), while no consistent effects on fluid intelligence have been reported. Overall, process-based WM training in typically developing children has not yet consistently demonstrated far transfer effects and especially if these are maintained over time (Cardoso et al., 2018;Redick et al., 2015;Sala & Gobet, 2017;Titz & Karbach, 2014). This may be due to a series of inconsistencies between interventions, such as training regimes, WM tasks used for training, and intensity, duration, and frequency of training and the combination of these features. ...
Process-based working memory (WM) training in typically developing children usually leads to short- and long-term improvements on untrained WM tasks. However, results are mixed regarding far transfer to academic and cognitive abilities. Moreover, there is a lack of studies jointly evaluating the different types of transfer, using an adequate design and considering motivational factors. In addition, evidence is needed about how pre-training performance is related to individual differences in training-induced transfer. Therefore, this study aimed to implement and evaluate the efficacy of a computerized process-based WM training in typically developing school-age children. Near and far transfer effects were evaluated both immediately after training and after 6 months, as well as individual differences in training-induced transfer. The sample was composed of 89 typically developing children aged 9–10 years (M = 9.52, SD = 0.30), who were randomized to a WM training group or an active control group. They were evaluated at pre-training, post-training, and follow-up phases with measures of visuospatial and verbal WM, reading comprehension, math computation, and fluid intelligence. Results showed that the training group significantly improved performance in verbal WM and fluid intelligence compared to the active control group, immediately after training and after 6 months. Trained children with lower initial performance in verbal WM or fluid intelligence showed greater transfer gains. No group differences were found in motivational factors. Findings of this study suggest that process-based WM training may promote transfer to cognitive abilities and lead to compensation effects of individual differences in typically developing school-age children.
... In this study, a gamified cognitive group training was carried out, targeting multiple EF directly and indirectly. Although it has been recently claimed that multimodal training approaches might be more effective than one-dimensional approaches, such as computerized training (Cardoso et al., 2016), most studies using school-based interventions targeted only one core EF domain (Cardoso et al., 2016;Diamond & Lee, 2011;Otero et al., 2014). While direct trainings might promote larger training gains and smaller transfer effects, indirect trainings seem to have opposite effects (Diamond & Ling, in press). ...
... In this study, a gamified cognitive group training was carried out, targeting multiple EF directly and indirectly. Although it has been recently claimed that multimodal training approaches might be more effective than one-dimensional approaches, such as computerized training (Cardoso et al., 2016), most studies using school-based interventions targeted only one core EF domain (Cardoso et al., 2016;Diamond & Lee, 2011;Otero et al., 2014). While direct trainings might promote larger training gains and smaller transfer effects, indirect trainings seem to have opposite effects (Diamond & Ling, in press). ...
Background
Given the strong relationship between executive functions and academic achievement, there has been great interest in improving executive functions. School‐based group interventions targeting executive functions revealed encouraging results in preschoolers and young school children; however, there is a paucity of studies in older primary school children (age 10–12). This is surprising considering that deficits in executive function performance can often be observed in this age group.
Aims
Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine whether an innovative customized school‐based group intervention could improve core executive functions (updating, inhibition, and shifting) in the age group concerned.
Sample
In total, 118 ten‐ to twelve‐year‐old school children were recruited from eight participating classes.
Methods
They were randomly assigned to one of two‐six‐week conditions of either a cognitive games group comprising of card and board games training executive functions (experimental group) or a wait‐list control group (regular school lessons). In the cognitive games group, the class teachers held a 30‐min training session twice a week. ANCOVAs (using pre‐test values as covariate) were used to compare executive function performance between groups.
Results
Results revealed that the cognitive games group improved specific executive functions (updating and shifting) compared to the control group. These findings indicate that a school‐based group intervention can improve executive functions, even in ‘older’ primary school children.
Conclusion
This study provides empirical evidence for the effectiveness of a classroom‐based cognitive training in older primary school children and is of practical relevance for educators.
... However, the ubiquity and easy access to this technology may hinder the development and use of highorder cognitive functions. Cognitive skills that are not trained may not fully develop (Au et al., 2015;Cardoso et al., 2018;Gunzenhauser & Nückles, 2021;Jones et al., 2020), potentially leading to faster cognitive decline with age (Lövdén et al., 2020) and a deterioration in the quality of life (Chinaveh, 2010;Ebert et al., 2014). For example, problem-solving, a high-order cognitive function, is a conglomerate of cognitive functions that work together as a single functional unit and in a temporal sequence (phases) to fix and achieve different goals, often related to the resolution of a need (Diamond, 2013). ...
Background: Chat generative retrained transformer (ChatGPT) represents a groundbreaking advancement in Artificial Intelligence (AI-chatbot) technology, utilizing transformer algorithms to enhance natural language processing and facilitating their use for addressing specific tasks. These AI chatbots can respond to questions by generating verbal instructions similar to those a person would provide during the problem-solving process. Aim: ChatGPT has become the fastest growing software in terms of user adoption in history, leading to an anticipated widespread use of this technology in the general population. Current literature is predominantly focused on the functional aspects of these technologies, but the field has not yet explored hypotheses on how these AI chatbots could impact the evolutionary aspects of human cognitive development. Thesis: The “neuronal recycling hypothesis” posits that the brain undergoes structural transformation by incorporating new cultural tools into “neural niches,” consequently altering individual cognition. In the case of technological tools, it has been established that they reduce the cognitive demand needed to solve tasks through a process called “cognitive offloading.” In this theoretical article, three hypotheses were proposed via forward inference about how algorithms such as ChatGPT and similar models may influence the cognitive processes and structures of upcoming generations. Conclusions: By forecasting the neurocognitive effects of these technologies, educational and political communities can anticipate future scenarios and formulate strategic plans to either mitigate or enhance the cognitive influence that these factors may have on the general population.
... Several studies have analyzed the effect of a particular intervention program, such as card/board games or computerized cognitive training, on executive functions in childhood or adolescence . In general, these programs have shown improvement effects on executive functions in these age groups (Cardoso et al., 2018;Dias and Seabra 2015;Riccio & Gomes 2013). However, the influence on executive functions associated with specific prefrontal areas (i.e., DLPF, OFC, APF) of educational and cognitive interventions has not been directly compared in adolescents. ...
... O presente estudo apresentou o processo de desenvolvimento de um programa de atividades para estimulação de AR (FE e RE), baseado no modelo teórico proposto por Blair e Ursache (2011), voltado para crianças pré-escolares que deve ser aplicado pelo professor em contexto escolar. A proposta de desenvolver um programa para promoção de AR pauta-se na literatura da área, uma vez que um dos tipos de intervenções indicados como mais eficazes para a estimulação de habilidades de AR são as intervenções curriculares ou baseadas em currículos escolares (Cardoso et al., 2018;Pandey et al., 2018). ...
... There is a plethora of software, online and mobile applications, which address children's population and are supported by conducted scientific research (Jaeggi et al., 2017;Rachanioti et al., 2018). Nevertheless, a limited number of studies have investigated the effect of EFs training on TD preschool children (Rueda et al., 2012;Thorell et al., 2009;Bergman Nutley et al., 2011), while Cardoso et al. (2018) underline the importance of such programs for EFs stimulation. Early preventive cognitive training programs will provide sufficient stimulation, such that the neurocognitive skill is experienced and improved (Dias & Seabra, 2015). ...
The predictive role of the three core Executive Functions (EFs), namely working memory, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility on later academic achievement has long been examined and confirmed. Additionally, research evidence indicates the existence of heterogeneity in several academic and EFs measures within the population of high ability children. The present chapter begins with a definition of EFs, followed by recent research on the interrelation of EFs with early oral language development. Research data on the EFs and preliteracy skills of high ability preschool children are also presented. The chapter continues with the development and the efficacy of Cogni-Prelit (Cognition and Preliterature) digital application, which stimulates and enhances core EFs with embedded preliteracy activities in high ability preschoolers. The user’s interface, the application flow, with details for each step, the type of data stored in a central database after each training session and a game example are described. Finally results from its implementation in a group of 12 high ability preschool children are presented. Preliminary findings are promising for its efficacy.
... Several studies have analyzed the effect of a particular intervention program, such as card/board games or computerized cognitive training, on executive functions in childhood or adolescence . In general, these programs have shown improvement effects on executive functions in these age groups (Cardoso et al., 2018;Dias and Seabra 2015;Riccio & Gomes 2013). However, the influence on executive functions associated with specific prefrontal areas (i.e., DLPF, OFC, APF) of educational and cognitive interventions has not been directly compared in adolescents. ...
Executive functions are critical decision-making capabilities that depend on the integrity of the prefrontal cortex. This cortical region and its dependent functions are in full development and formation during adolescence. Therefore, cognitive and educational interventions have the potential to influence the development of executive functions during this evolutionary period. We aimed to explore the effects of cognitive reflection versus typical educational interventions on executive functions in teenage students. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three interventions: cognitive reflection group (CRG), educational task group (ETG), non-intervention group (NIG). Cognitive reflection tasks, typical school tasks, and no added educational intervention, were the respective interventions in each group. The neuropsychological battery of executive functions and frontal lobes (BANFE), which allows for the evaluation of executive functions dependent on specific prefrontal regions, was used in this study. Scores in general executive functions and scores related to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPF) were increased after the intervention in all groups, except in the ETG. However, when functions typically associated with the anterior prefrontal cortex (APF) were analyzed separately, the post-intervention scores significantly increased only in the ETG group. These findings suggest that certain educational interventions can interfere with those executive functions related to the DLPF but they can improve the APF-dependent executive functions.
... A tool such as anticipation boards help to prepare the individual for an activity, identifying cognitive flexibility, included in executive functioning, as the most complex skill demanded during the process [12]. These boards allow us to break down the steps that make up an activity using pictograms and phrases. ...
In people with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), skills related to anticipation and mental flexibility are often impaired, so their thinking tends to be very rigid and their behavior is based on establishing routines. For this reason, children with ASD may show disruptive behaviors when faced with disturbing but necessary activities, such as going to a doctor's appointment. Therefore, it is very convenient and necessary for their families to prepare in advance for the visit and to explain the details of the procedure to be performed at the consultation. The use of anticipation boards in these situations allows to prepare such situations and to reduce stress for both the ASD child and their families or caregivers. In this context, the use of technology can provide great benefits for anticipating a new event, or whatever risks the control of their routines, as well as enhancing developmental skills such as communication, autonomy, social interaction, etc. This article describes a software tool, for mobile devices such as tablets, that allows the planning of the attendance of children with ASD to the necessary medical appointments throughout their childhood and adolescence, as well as communication with specialists. This app, named PlanTEA, has undergone a preliminary evaluation that has yielded very positive results. Most participants found the app useful in helping to anticipate (94.1%) and improve communication (94.2%) for people with ASD in medical contexts, considered it easy to use, with no technical support needed to use it (almost 100%), and would recommend its use (94.2%). This first evaluation has also allowed us to define the next steps to be taken to improve and enhance this tool and thus reach a wider population within the autistic disorder. As a result of the evaluation carried out and the comments received, it is proposed to extend its use to adult users and those with high-functioning autism, which supposes expanding and extending the functionalities of the current version of PlanTEA.
... As mentioned before, a central aspect that differentiates computer-based training and interventions based on multi-componential models of self-regulation at school is the scarcity of transfer effects recorded in the first case in favor of more generalizable effects, with gains in functionality in terms of socio-emotional regulation in the second case [23]. ...
Among the interventions recently developed to enhance Executive Functions (EFs) in preschoolers, Quincey Quokka’s Quest (QQQ) is an illustrated book proposing EF activities embedded within a shared reading framework (Howard et al., 2017). In the present study, the Italian version of QQQ (QQQIT) was tested in 20 typical developing 4–5 year old children. Standardized tests were used to assess EFs pre- and post- intervention. QQQIT was conducted once a week for 8 weeks in small groups. A positive trend was registered in QQQIT performances from the first to the last sessions and a significant improvement, in comparison to the control condition, was obtained in the Color and Form Game test. These results, supporting the feasibility of the QQQIT intervention and its efficacy in increasing shifting abilities, confirm the usefulness of ecological interventions to empower specific EF components in preschool contexts.
... This targeted intensive cognitive training induces more effective neural system operations, providing cerebral plasticity (16). Executive functions and working memory training with game elements significantly improved working memory, but also motivation, training performance, and school performance in low-attending children (17,18). ...
Background: Individuals with obesity are known to present cognitive deficits, especially in executive functions. Executive functions play an important role in health and success throughout the whole life and have been related to food decision-making and to the ability to maintain energy balance. It is possible to improve executive functions through targeted training. This would involve brain plasticity changes that could be studied through connectivity MRI. The general hypothesis of this study is that executive functions training in children with obesity can improve food choices and produce cognitive and neuroimaging changes (structural and functional connectivity), as well as improve emotional state and quality of life.
Methods: Randomized controlled double-blind trial with 12-month follow-up. Thirty children with obesity will be randomly allocated into “executive training” (Cognifit with adaptive difficulty + Cogmed) or “control task” group (Cognifit without adaptive difficulty). Both groups will attend 30–45 min of individual gamified training (Cogmed and/or Cognifit systems) by iPad, five times per week during 6 weeks. Cogmed and Cognifit software are commercially available from Pearson and Cognifit, respectively. Participants will receive an iPad with both apps installed for a 6-week use. Participants will also receive counseling diet information via presentations sent to the iPad and will wear a Fitbit Flex 2 tracker to monitor daily activity and sleep patterns. Main outcomes will be cognitive, emotional, food decision, and quality-of-life measures, as well as neuroimaging measures. Participants are evaluated at baseline (T0), after treatment (T1), and 12 months since baseline (T2).
Discussion: Longitudinal study with active control group and 3 time points: baseline, immediately after treatment, and 1 year after baseline. Threefold treatment: executive function training, psychoeducation, and feedback on activity/sleep tracking. We will evaluate the transfer effects of the intervention, including emotional and functional outcomes, as well as the effects on neural plasticity by connectivity MRI.
Trial registration: This project has been registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (trial registration number NCT03615274), August 3, 2018.
... To date, several studies have not only developed WM tasks using a conventional procedure but also with a computer-based testing program for preschool children and other range of ages with both typical [16]- [18] and atypical development [19]- [20]. This computer-based administration method is considered more efficient and accurate compared to the conventional one. ...
Working memory (WM), a central component of executive function (EF) which facilitates the capability to store and modulate information, develops rapidly during early childhood, and has proven to contribute to children's academic achievement. WM generally has two types of measures, each of which mainly involves the WM's verbal and visuospatial aspect. However, research on the standardized and developed assessment of WM aspects for early age children in Indonesia remains inadequate, especially embedded with information technology. This study aimed to develop a WM measurement tool using a computer-based application test to support the integration between the computer-based and behavioral measurements of WM aspects in early age children. Construct validity of the WM computerized test was determined by comparing the conventional and computerized EF tests on 36 children (15 boys and 21 girls) age 48-72 months old. Two computerized WM tasks that specified WM's verbal aspect, namely the Backward Animal Task and Shining Star respectively, were administered individually to each child by a trained tester. The Spearman correlation analysis resulted in Shining Star as the most suitable computer-based WM task for early age children. Both conventional and computer-based measures of the visuospatial aspect of WM had similar task mechanisms and rules. They equivalently required visual and kinesthetic modalities, which emphasized the common nonverbal aspects of WM. This result provides an initiative for the evidence-based development of the computer-based WM test in Indonesia for early age children, which is critically important to help individuals with psychological and behavioral problems during Covid-19.
... Of the few recent studies that have used computer-based tasks, none have focused on planning (Cornoldi et al., 2015;Grunewaldt et al., 2016;Thorell et al., 2009). Thus, based on the recent systematic review by De Oliveira et al. (2016), it would seem that not only is there a need for more empirical evidence about the efficacy of EF intervention programs in children, but that very few studies have attempted to explore enhancement of the function of planning in normally-developing children, with none so far using computerized tasks specifically designed to enhance this EF component. ...
2018): Efficacy of a computer-based cognitive training program to enhance planning skills in 5 to 7-year-old normally-developing children, Applied Neuropsychology: Child, ABSTRACT We designed and evaluated the efficacy of a computer-based cognitive training program (Executive Function Enhancement Program [EFEP]) to stimulate executive functions through enhancing planning in normally-developing children. A total of 111 Colombian children participated in the study. Fifty-nine (53%) of the children were assigned to the experimental condition (application of the EFEP program) with two levels of planning performance, and fifty-two (47%) to the waiting list control condition with the same two levels of planning. The training program was applied three times a week over six weeks, with post-intervention assessment two weeks after the end of training. A follow-up assessment was carried out three months later. Results showed that the intervention program was particularly effective in the children with lower pre-intervention performance in planning, demonstrating that the program is an efficient therapeutic instrument for enhancing the executive function of planning in children between 5 and 7 years old.
... A meta-analysis showed that this kind of integrative approach can have a strong impact on academic performance as well as on socioemotional control abilities in children presenting mild to moderate cognitive impairment (Cardoso et al., 2018). It is illustrated by the "Maltti" (meaning "patience" in Finnish) method developed by Paananen et al. (2017). ...
Various approaches have been proposed for the remediation of cognitive functions in children with neurogenic cognitive impairment or for the optimization of these functions in typically developing children. The functional approach stimulates various cognitive processes, such as working memory, attention, and executive functions, in a simultaneous and broad manner via computerized and adaptive cognitive exercises. It has been widely used in children with or without cognitive impairment but its efficacy remains uncertain. The cognitive approach stimulates specific cognitive processes in a targeted and individualized manner. It is likely to have a higher efficacy especially in children with acquired cognitive impairment, but this approach is currently not the most frequently used. The integrative approach implements cognitive remediation directly within the school curriculum, which is adapted to the children's cognitive profile. It has led to robust remediation effects at the level of attentional and executive behaviors in everyday life but necessitates a flexible school curriculum and group-based intervention. Finally, biopsychologic approaches, such as meditation and mindfulness, will increase the children's emotional balance, but they do not appear to have reliable cognitive remediation effects. Future studies need to determine the precise conditions under which the different remediation approaches show highest levels of efficacy and specificity.
... Overall, the indirect trainings may elicit larger transfer effects and smaller training gains . In contrast, direct trainings promote smaller transfer effects but larger training gains, with the majority of school-based interventions focusing only on one EF domain (Cardoso et al., 2018;Diamond & Lee, 2011;Otero et al., 2014). ...
Considering the convincing evidence that executive functions predict academic achievement significantly, strategies to foster executive functions in the early school years are highly requested. Besides traditional cognitive training, combined physical and cognitive interventions are intended to be a feasible way of enhancing both children’s daily physical activity and executive functions. The purpose of the present study was therefore to test the effectiveness of a six-week combined physical-cognitive intervention, and to compare it to both a sedentary cognitive intervention and a waitlist control group. Using a between-subjects experimental design, 189 children aged between four and six years (M = 5.34, SD = 0.59) were recruited from 14 kindergarten classes, which were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: (a) combined physical and cognitive training, (b) sedentary cognitive training, or (c) waitlist control group. Before and after the interventions, all three core executive functions of updating, inhibition and shifting were measured. Physical activity was objectively measured using accelerometers during one intervention session. Linear mixed models revealed that children from both the combined physical-cognitive and the sedentary cognitive intervention improved their updating performance compared to the children of the control group. Inhibition and shifting remained unaffected by both interventions. With respect to children’s daily physical activity, linear mixed models showed that only the combined physical-cognitive intervention could significantly increase the amount of step counts. The results underline the feasibility of combined physical-cognitive interventions to enhance children’s daily physical activity and their cognitive performance.
... Typically, CCT has been applied to several pathological conditions characterised by cognitive impairment, such as brain injury (Phillips et al., 2016), neurodevelopmental disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Cortese et al., 2015), and learning disabilities (Peijnenborgh et al., 2016). However, there is also growing interest in the impact of CCT in healthy samples (Cardoso et al., 2018;Lampit et al., 2014). In fact, CCT has been promoted by commercial companies since it is considered to be effective for a very wide range of conditions and outcomes, from several neurological and mental diagnoses to sports performance, general cognitive ability, everyday memory and even driving ability (Simons et al., 2016). ...
Computerised cognitive training (CCT) has been applied to improve cognitive function in pathological conditions and in healthy populations. Studies suggest that CCT produces near-transfer effects to cognitive functions, with less evidence for far-transfer. Newer applications of CTT in adults seem to produce certain far-transfer effects by influencing eating behaviour and weight loss. However, this is more unexplored in children and adolescents. We conducted a systematic review of 16 studies with randomised controlled design to assess the impact of CCT on cognitive functioning and real-life outcomes, including eating behaviour, in children and adolescents with typical development (PROSPERO registration number: CRD42019123889). Results show near-transfer effects to working memory, with inconsistent results regarding far-transfer effects to other cognitive functions and real-life measures. Long-term effects show the same trend. Far-transfer effects occurred after cue-related inhibitory control and attentional training, although effects seem not to last. CCT may be a potential weight-loss treatment option but more research is needed to determine the specific characteristics to enhance treatment outcomes.
... In this area of research, the training of the main executive components in the context of a processes-based approach prevails. It involves activities that demand the processes which are intended to train, adjusting the difficulty level in function of the performance of the participants (Cardoso et al., 2016;Jolles & Crone, 2012;Karbach & Unger, 2014;Rueda, Cómbita, & Pozuelos, 2016). Even though there are studies in which diverse EF are trained, the available ones oriented to train particularly the inhibition in children with a typical development are still insufficient to understand the efficacy of the interventions. ...
Inhibition refers to a basic executive component that can be conceptualized as consisted of different inhibitory processes (i.e., perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition). These processes emerge during the first years of life, and since then are involved in different relevant every day activities. Different individual and contextual factors can modulate their developmental trajectories. The possibility of train in separate ways each inhibitory process is a subject of analysis. In such a context, the aims of this work were: (a) to design, implement and evaluate training of perceptual, cogni-tive and response inhibition processes, in a sample of school-aged children (6 to 8 years old); and (b) to analyze near, far, short-and long-transfer effects. An experimental design with three training groups (one for each inhibitory process) and an active control group was implemented. Near transfer effects were not observed. We found effects on a visuospatial working memory task in the short term, after the training in the response and cognitive inhibition, and effects on a fluid intelligence task in both the short and long term after the training in cognitive inhibition. The results contribute to a conceptualization of multidimensional inhibitory processes and the plausibility of training them during childhood. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Yet, the Covert Orienting of Visuospatial Attention Task (COVAT) were used to investigate the associations spatial attention and motor difficulties [16]. The Go/no-Go test and neuroimaging was used to investigate the neural processes of inhibitory control in children with DCD [17]; and also in a experimental study investigating the impact of a neutral or positive reinforcement in inhibitory control of children with DCD [18]. And finally, Animal Stroop Task was used to compare results between children at risk for DCD and typical children [19]. ...
The aim of this study was to describe the tests used to assess working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility,
and analyzed the main research results related to executive functions in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder or
with poor motor skills. Methods: This review used as data sources studies in MEDLINE, Web of Science, APA PsycNET, EMBASE,
and Google Scholar with children with poor motor skills, DCD, and typical development. Quality of the studies was conducted
using the Newcastle Ottawa Scale. Results: 1475 papers found, 31 matched the review criteria; 31 different executive function tests
used to assess children with poor motor skills and DCD. Across the 31 studies, included in this systematic review, eleven studies
examined only the working memory; ten studies measured only inhibition, a single study measured only cognitive flexibility, three
studies examined the working memory and inhibition, one study examined inhibition and cognitive flexibility, one study examined
working memory and cognitive flexibility and four studies examined the three executive functions. In conclusion, many tests were
used to assess children with poor motor skill and DCD requiring verbal, nonverbal, or complex visuospatial processing, with or
without motor demand involved. In some tests the different demands or different types of stimulus involved cause secondary loss in
execution. The executive functions deficits in children with poor motor skills and DCD are in a wide ranging and extend across basic
all functions assessed (working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility). The pervasive and persistent nature of the executive
function deficits suggests a need for a more aligned methodological approach to investigate this phenomenon.
... In addition to the well-known whole school programs, there have been several attempts to improve specific subcomponents of EF (e.g., working memory; inhibitory control; shifting) through targeted training programs for individual children (e.g., Nutley et al., 2011;Rueda, Checa & Combita, 2012). Targeted EF interventions, inspired by the experimental psychology tradition, tend to observe limited success for wider transfer, beyond the specific tasks where training took place (Cardoso et al., 2018;Dunning, Holmes, & Gathercole, 2013;Moreau & Conway, 2014). It seems that children are more likely to use new cognitive skills, such as EF strategies, when they are also given support to contextualize those skills, with help in knowing how and when to apply them. ...
Metacognition and executive function have evolved largely in parallel across disparate disciplines. Additionally, limited empirical evidence—particularly in early childhood—exists integrating the two constructs. However, theories of both implicate regulation of lower-order processes providing greater flexibility to cognition and behavior by increasing focus on perceptions and understanding of one's learning and self-regulatory agency over habitual reactions to the environment and automaticity. Furthermore, considerable research identifies both metacognition and executive function as important processes that predict positive outcomes including academic achievement and learning. In the current paper, we review extant associations between early metacognition and executive function and theorize about their integration with the purpose of informing young children's ability to be active agents of their own learning and development. In addition, we argue that metacognition and executive function interventions can provide pertinent and important evidence regarding the development of enhanced perceptions of one's learning and agency. Specifically, we propose that by integrating metacognition and executive function in developmental theory, research, instruction, and interventions, children's awareness and control, or agency, in relation to their own learning can be enhanced. To this end, ways to study and integrate these skills are suggested, with an emphasis on how researchers and practitioners can bring metacognition and executive function together—in early childhood—to enhance perceptions of learning and agency and contribute to theory and practice across disciplinary boundaries.
... Overall, studies converge on showing that the gains resulting from training single components of EFs in children can be hardly generalized and transferred to other activities, and do not necessarily benefit problem-solving abilities [18]. Multimodal approaches, also including curriculum-based programs, seem to be more effective and produce gains extending to socio-emotional regulation [22]. Thus, directly training problem-solving skills in real-life-related situations appears to be the best choice. ...
The use of technology for educational purposes is a consolidated reality, and many new tools are constantly being devised and offered for use with both normally developing children and children with special needs. Nonetheless, a detailed analysis of the processes being stimulated and of the goals being pursued is often lacking or absent. In this work we describe the design, development and preliminary testing of an integrated system which combines the use of smart devices, a physical cube, augmented reality (AR) technology, a smart TV, and a software application especially designed to stimulate cognitive and social functions in pre-school children. The system was tested with three groups of children (25 children in total) during kindergarten activities. The results show that the system is easy to understand, elicits high levels of participation and social interaction, favors strategic behaviors, and can be used by the children with limited need of instruction and support by the adult. The implications for empowerment in typically developing children and the possibilities for use with children who have specific impairments in social communication are discussed.
... General principles and guidelines to govern the program were created, and activities developed, adapted, and selected. The authors used the bibliographic review performed in Stage 1 38 , analysis of other programs 823,25,39, , analysis of games known to the public (for example, Finders Keepers, Uno, and Mastermind), and neuropsychology paradigms (go no-go, cancellation tests). Other tasks were created specifically for the intervention. ...
Objective:
The goal of this study was to describe the construction process and content validity evidence of an early and preventive intervention program for stimulating executive functions (EF) in Elementary School children within the school environment.
Methods:
The process has followed the recommended steps for creating neuropsychological instruments: internal phase of program organization, with literature search and analyses of available materials in the classroom; program construction; analysis by expert judges; data integration and program finalization. To determine the level of agreement among the judges, a Content Validity Index (CVI) was calculated.
Results:
Content validity was evidenced by the agreement among the experts with regards to the program, both in general and for each activity. All steps taken were deemed necessary because they contributed to the identification of positive aspects and possible flaws in the process
Conclusion:
The steps also helped to adapt stimuli and improve program tasks and activities. Methodological procedures implemented in this study can be adopted by other researchers to create or adapt neuropsychological stimulation and rehabilitation programs. Furthermore, the methodological approach allows the reader to understand, in detail, the technical and scientific rigor adopted in devising this program.
... Of the few recent studies that have used computer-based tasks, none have focused on planning (Cornoldi et al., 2015;Grunewaldt et al., 2016;Thorell et al., 2009). Thus, based on the recent systematic review by De Oliveira et al. (2016), it would seem that not only is there a need for more empirical evidence about the efficacy of EF intervention programs in children, but that very few studies have attempted to explore enhancement of the function of planning in normally-developing children, with none so far using computerized tasks specifically designed to enhance this EF component. ...
We designed and evaluated the efficacy of a computer-based cognitive training program (Executive Function Enhancement Program, EFEP) to stimulate executive functions through enhancing planning in normally–developing children. One hundred and eleven Colombian children participated in a training program applied three times a week over six weeks with post-intervention assessment two weeks after the end of training. Results
showed that the intervention program was particularly effective in the children with lower pre-intervention performance in planning, demonstrating that the program is an efficient therapeutic instrument for enhancing the executive function of planning in children between 5 and 7 years old.
School neuropsychology is a specialty of neuropsychology that seeks to understand the relationship between cognitive and socioemotional functions, their neural correlates, and learning, considering individual and sociocultural factors that influence cognitive stimulation throughout individual’s life. In this chapter, the goal is to characterize the field of School Neuropsychology, addressing its definition and scope in terms of assessment and intervention. Generally, this specialty is an extension of the Clinical Neuropsychology of childhood and adolescence but seeks to develop as a field of its own. One promising prospect is the participation of neuropsychologists in educational planning, as well as the contribution of teachers in the development of neuropsychological instruments and intervention programs. However, it is important to recognize that there are limits in the training of school neuropsychologists, and investments in quality extension and specialization courses are needed to train professionals with knowledge of both Clinical and Developmental Neuropsychology and Education. The chapter concludes that the current stage of development of School Neuropsychology still represents an initial step in a long road that is just beginning to be traveled, highlighting the potential of the area.
This chapter closes section I—“Theoretical and practical foundations on child neuropsychological assessment and intervention,” highlighting the importance of returning the results (feedback) and the report of the child neuropsychological assessment. The authors point out that, despite being an important step, the report and the assessment feedback often have problems, such as the technical language of the reports and the lack of information about the instruments used. The chapter describes the process and usefulness of the feedback and report and offers tips to improve its execution. For example, in the feedback, one should emphasize the child’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses, not specific diagnoses. One should communicate the results verbally and clarify their implications. In addition, strategies, therapeutic referrals, interventions, and the impact on the child’s life should be discussed. It is essential to emotionally welcome family members, avoid excessive technical language, and use resources such as everyday examples and educational materials. For guidance to the school, the report and feedback should focus on academic aspects and offer practical suggestions for improving the patient’s school development. Specific therapeutic referrals may be recommended, as well as cognitive stimulation programs. Feedback should be clear and comprehensive and consider environmental, neurodevelopmental, and emotional influences.
This chapter complements the previous one but focuses on parental guidance. Thus, the specific approach of executive functions shows how the family and especially parents can collaborate in the stimulation or in a neuropsychological intervention process in childhood. The author addresses the Neuroscience of Education and the importance of conducting the educational process based on scientific evidence. Specifying his focus on executive functions, he points out that parents and teachers play a crucial role in guiding and educating children in these skills. Various sources of information, such as websites, games, and children’s books, are provided to assist in this process. Psychoeducation is addressed as a useful tool in training parents and caregivers on child development and for effective interventions with their children. The chapter provides professionals with knowledge and tools that will help them work with the family.
The focus of the chapter is on executive functions and strategies, programs, and approaches to stimulate them, both from a remedial and promotive perspective and with utility in clinical and school settings. The chapter presents executive skills and their development, highlighting that children with deficits in these skills may face academic, social, and emotional difficulties. The authors point out that rehabilitation and habilitation of executive functions involve interventions that modify the environment, teach executive skills, and motivate using these skills. Among the approaches that are used, they mention computerized training, computerized and non-computerized games, aerobic exercise, martial arts, mindfulness practices, school curricula, and supplemental curriculum programs. The chapter summarizes evidence in the area and some strategies and tips for stimulating executive skills for different age groups.
The chapter discusses neuropsychological intervention, bringing an original perspective and classification of the theme. Thus, it divides neuropsychological intervention into: (1) rehabilitation, (2) habilitation, and (3) early-preventive intervention, depending on its objective of remediation or promotion and target population (with structural or functional changes or typical development). An intervention process can be planned and implemented after the neuropsychological evaluation, in which cognitive abilities and difficulties are identified. Based on this assessment, individualized goals are set to improve the patient’s functionality and quality of life. The chapter provides approaches and models, as well as strategies and techniques that are used in these interventions. Psychoeducation, cognitive training, compensatory strategies, environmental adaptation, and behavioral techniques are some of the strategies used during the neuropsychological (re)habilitation process. In addition to preventing and stimulating neurocognitive development, the approach seeks to improve the quality of life of individuals.
Executive functions are related to the control of cognition, emotion, and behavior. They are essential to lifelong outcomes, including school performance. Naturalistic interventions embedded in children’s daily activities and environments have greater effects. Therefore, this pilot study aimed to develop a naturalistic program suitable for schools, based on Goal Management Training (GMT), and to analyze its effects on executive functions and behavior. The participants consisted of 35 students from 2nd to 5th grade with executive dysfunction complaints. They underwent neuropsychological assessments of working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and intellectual capacity. Teachers and parents answered questionnaires on executive functions and behavior. Students were randomly assigned to an active control group, who participated in sessions on citizenship, and an experimental group (EG), stimulated through the executive function program, both with 16 sessions conducted by psychologists. After the intervention, all participants were reevaluated. The two-way Wald-type statistic (WTS) revealed greater improvement in executive functions for the EG, including working memory and inhibition. Additionally, parents and teachers, blind to the experimental conditions, reported improvements in some measures of executive functions and behavior. The results are encouraging, but further studies should test the intervention when implemented with larger samples and by teachers.
La mémoire de travail (MT) est un déterminant important des capacités d’apprentissage, et ceci particulièrement dans un contexte scolaire. Dans cet article, nous présentons les connaissances théoriques actuelles concernant la nature de la MT, en soulignant son ancrage dans d’autres domaines cognitifs tels que les connaissances en mémoire à long terme, le contrôle attentionnel et exécutif ainsi que le traitement de l’ordre sériel. Nous développons ensuite des pistes pour aider le corps enseignant à optimiser les apprentissages de leurs élèves face aux limitations naturelles ou atypiques de la MT.
Executive Functions are a group of cognitive abilities that guide the behavior of individuals towards achieving goals, regulation and control of thoughts, emotions, and inhibition of behavioral tendencies. The healthy development of the executive components are predictors of several aspects in the life of individuals, such as success in professional life, academic performance, and socio-affective relationships. Studies indicate that impairments in the Executive Functions are directly related to several known clinical conditions, e.g., depression and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Investigations show that it is possible to foster the components of Executive Functions, so that individuals can obtain cognitive gains, promoting benefits in several aspects of one’s life, especially when it occurs during childhood and adolescenthood. Digital games are a cultural artifact present in the lives of children and adolescents and have been increasingly used in educational settings. Therefore, investigations based on robust evidence are needed about cognitive stimulation using digital games in the school context. This chapter presents five challenges in the field, and how to evaluate them: (I) Development of Digital Games for Cognitive Stimulation and Assessment; (II) Methodologies using Digital Games; (III) Applications within the School Environment and Brazilian Scope; (IV) Difficulty Curves in Digital Games; (V) Cognitive Stimulation in the School Context after Social Isolation by COVID-19.
New technologies such as multitouch-multiuser tabletops (MMT) and virtual reality (VR) provide modern neurorehabilitation options. The aim was to describe the structure of acquired social communication deficits in children with neurological disorders (ND) and implement a new PowerVR method- combined MMT/VR interfaces, into social neurorehabilitation. The study was designed based on the Structured Social Rehabilitation Model. Sixty children with ND aged 8-13 years participated: 28 with epilepsy, 10 with traumatic brain injury (TBI), 3 with tic disorders, 3 with stroke, 16 with other ND. A total of 16 patients (M = 10.5 years, SD = 1.8) completed trainings with pre- and post-intervention assessments. Forty-four patients participated in base-level assessment (M = 10.2 years, SD = 1.6). Two age-matched patients practiced in pairs on MMT and individually in VR. The most impaired components in patients were theory of mind (ToM) skills. A total of 64% of children presented behavioral problems related to executive dysfunctions. Patients lacked conflict resolution (median 38% out of 100%) and empathy skills (25%). After trainings, communication and cooperation, pragmatics, social attention, conflict resolution, and empathy skills improved. Patients' general verbal ToM and understanding false beliefs (p < .005) increased. Children's ability to start conversations improved; they experienced less bullying. Findings suggest that the combined technology-based intervention PowerVR offers increased power for multicomponent training of socio-emotional skills.
La capacità di controllare la propria risposta ai cambiamenti interni o esterni, definita con il termine «autoregolazione», è di primaria importanza per tutto il corso della vita e comporta un lento processo di completamento della durata di oltre due decenni. Questo lavoro si propone di descrivere l’emergere dell’autoregolazione, individuarne i meccanismi cognitivi sottostanti e osservare la loro evoluzione dalla nascita all’adolescenza. Inoltre, i disturbi della regolazione del processamento sensoriale verranno proposti come possibili manifestazioni precoci di alcuni disturbi dello sviluppo, quali l’autismo e il disturbo di attenzione e iperattività.
The inhibitory control is a component of the executive functions that allows the individual to inhibit inadequate behaviors, resist distractions and select a relevant stimulus when executing activities. In the neuropsychology field, evidences of stimulation and improvement of the inhibitory control through school interventions is sought by using computerized software, such as digital games. These research studies constitute an important investigation area within the executive functions in ecological approaches. This paper presents a systematic mapping study on inhibitory control stimulation in elementary school children with the use of digital games. The investigation encompassed an automated database search with further backward snowballing procedure with the final selection for additional publications as research strategy. The automated search considered six databases: SCOPUS, PubMed, IEEE Explore Digital Library, ACM Library, Springer Link, and Scielo. The initial database search found 641 works published between 2014 and 2019. After the exclusion and inclusion criteria were considered, three publications related to digital games or mobile applications were found and selected for analysis, which focused on inhibitory control or correlated processes stimulation in school-based interventions with elementary school children. Results indicated that investigations within the field are incipient, pointing to an emerging research area.
This study assesses EF and socioemotional development in 30 MPT children between 4 and 6 years, comparing them with 31 FT children. Working Memory was assessed with Digit Span and Corsi Block, verbal inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility with The Shape School Test, visuomotor inhibition with Go/No-Go and socioemotional development with SDQ for parents. In our study, MPT preschoolers had a poorer working memory, inhibitory control and verbal cognitive flexibility, and more emotional problems compared. Our results suggest that there is no safe gestational age in prematurity, for this reason, EF of preterm children should be evaluated at an early age, so early intervention plans can be implemented, preventing preterm from entering primary education in disadvantage.
Despite the crucial role played by the executive functions (EF) to cognitive, emotional, and social development of children before and during school years, little attention has been given to construct and analyze the efficacy of programs that intend to develop them. The program of neuropsychological stimulation of cognition in students: emphasis on EF, or PENcE (an acronym from its original name in Portuguese, Programa de Estimulação Neuropsicológica da Cognição em Escolares: ênfase nas Funções Executivas), is an early and preventive intervention program for school-aged children, and implemented at school three times a week for 5 months. The PENcE was structured in four modules, each focusing on a different executive component: organization and planning, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. The objectives of this study were to verify the effectiveness of the PENcE among elementary school children and to investigate whether there are transfer effects to other executive, cognitive, and academic abilities. The sample consisted of 113 children attending 3rd or 4th grade at two public elementary schools. Eight classes participated in the study, divided into two groups: an experimental group (EG) (four classes; n = 64), which received the intervention, and a control group (CG) (four classes; n = 49), which continued their regular school activities. The EF and academic skills of both participant groups were evaluated before and after the intervention. The EG showed significantly greater improvements in inhibitory control, working memory, and abstract planning relative to the CG, with a small to medium effect size. There were transfer effects to other cognitive and academic abilities. These findings suggest the PENcE may be a useful method of improving EF and could benefit both school-aged children and education professionals.
Cognitive training has been shown to improve executive functions (EFs) in middle childhood and adulthood. However, fewer studies have targeted the preschool years—a time when EFs undergo rapid development. The present study tested the effects of a short four session EF training program in 54 four-year-olds. The training group significantly improved their working memory from pre-training relative to an active control group. Notably, this effect extended to a task sharing few surface features with the trained tasks, and continued to be apparent 3 months later. In addition, the benefits of training extended to a measure of mathematical reasoning 3 months later, indicating that training EFs during the preschool years has the potential to convey benefits that are both long-lasting and wide-ranging.
Training working memory (WM) using computerized programs has been shown to improve functions directly linked to WM such as following instructions and attention. These functions influence academic performance, which leads to the question of whether WM training can transfer to improved academic performance. We followed the academic performance of two age-matched groups during 2 years. As part of the curriculum in grade 4 (age 9–10), all students in one classroom (n = 20) completed Cogmed Working Memory Training (CWMT) whereas children in the other classroom (n = 22) received education as usual. Performance on nationally standardized tests in math and reading was used as outcome measures at baseline and two years later. At baseline both classes were normal/high performing according to national standards. At grade 6, reading had improved to a significantly greater extent for the training group compared to the control group (medium effect size, Cohen’s d = 0.66, p = 0.045). For math performance the same pattern was observed with a medium effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.58) reaching statistical trend levels (p = 0.091). Moreover, the academic attainments were found to correlate with the degree of improvements during training (p < 0.053). This is the first study of long-term (>1 year) effects of WM training on academic performance. We found performance on both reading and math to be positively impacted after completion of CWMT. Since there were no baseline differences between the groups, the results may reflect an influence on learning capacity, with improved WM leading to a boost in students’ capacity to learn. This study is also the first to investigate the effects of CWMT on academic performance in typical or high achieving students. The results suggest that WM training can help optimize the academic potential of high performers.
Executive functions (EF) provide top-down control of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Such abilities are related to learning, emotional control, and adjustment. A promising line of research on EF examines early interventions to promote EF development; however, in developing countries, evidence of EF-related early interventions remains limited. In this study, 70 five-year-old preschool children and their four teachers were divided into an experimental group (EG) and a control group (CG). EG teachers were trained to administer the Intervention Program for Self-regulation and Executive Functions in a classroom context over four and a half months. All children were assessed with tests to measure EF at two time points: before and after the intervention period. EG children exhibited significant gains in attention and inhibition post-intervention. The results suggest that the intervention program is more effective at promoting EF development than the regular curriculum. This finding may have practical relevance to public politics in education, primarily in disadvantaged contexts, as in certain developing countries.
Over the last decade, the prospect of improving or maintaining cognitive functioning has provoked a steadily increasing number of cognitive training studies. Central target populations are individuals at risk for a disadvantageous development, such as older adults exhibiting cognitive decline or children with learning impairments. They rely on cognitive resources to meet the challenges of an independent life in old age or requirements at school. To support daily cognitive functioning, training outcomes need to generalize to other cognitive abilities. Such transfer effects are, however, highly discussed. For example, recent meta-analyses on working memory training differed in the conclusion on the presence (Au et al., 2015; Karbach and Verhaeghen, 2014) or absence of transfer effects (Melby-Lervag and Hulme, 2013). Usually training-specific design factors such as type, intensity, duration, and feedback routines are discussed as reasons for such inconsistent findings. However, even individuals participating in exactly the same training regime highly differ in their training outcomes. We argue that it is time to study the individual development during trainings to understand these differential outcomes. It is time to have a closer look at the intraindividual training data.
This meta-analysis examined the effects of process-based executive-function and working memory training (49 articles, 61 independent samples) in older adults (> 60 years). The interventions resulted in significant effects on performance on the trained task and near-transfer tasks; significant results were obtained for the net pretest-to-posttest gain relative to active and passive control groups and for the net effect at posttest relative to active and passive control groups. Far-transfer effects were smaller than near-transfer effects but were significant for the net pretest-to-posttest gain relative to passive control groups and for the net gain at posttest relative to both active and passive control groups. We detected marginally significant differences in training-induced improvements between working memory and executive-function training, but no differences between the training-induced improvements observed in older adults and younger adults, between the benefits associated with adaptive and nonadaptive training, or between the effects in active and passive control conditions. Gains did not vary with total training time.
Working memory (WM), the ability to store and manipulate information for short periods of time, is an important predictor of scholastic aptitude and a critical bottleneck underlying higher-order cognitive processes, including controlled attention and reasoning. Recent interventions targeting WM have suggested plasticity of the WM system by demonstrating improvements in both trained and untrained WM tasks. However, evidence on transfer of improved WM into more general cognitive domains such as fluid intelligence (Gf) has been more equivocal. Therefore, we conducted a meta-analysis focusing on one specific training program, n-back. We searched PubMed and Google Scholar for all n-back training studies with Gf outcome measures, a control group, and healthy participants between 18 and 50 years of age. In total, we included 20 studies in our analyses that met our criteria and found a small but significant positive effect of n-back training on improving Gf. Several factors that moderate this transfer are identified and discussed. We conclude that short-term cognitive training on the order of weeks can result in beneficial effects in important cognitive functions as measured by laboratory tests.
Inductive reasoning is a core cognitive process of fluid intelligence, predicting a variety of educational outcomes. The Cognitive Training for Children (CTC) program is an educational intervention designed to develop children's inductive reasoning skills, with previous investigations finding substantial effects of the program on both inductive reasoning ability and classroom learning. The present study assessed both individual and small-group CTC training against a no-treatment control condition to investigate the effects on inductive and deductive reasoning and mathematics achievement in a primary school-aged Australian cohort. Students who received individual training outperformed those in the control condition on measures of inductive and deductive reasoning, and those in the small-group condition also outperformed the control condition on a measure of inductive reasoning 3 months following training. However, hypotheses regarding transfer effects to mathematics achievement were not supported. Directions for future research, focusing on extended longitudinal studies and motivational variables, are discussed.
The present research intends to verify the effectiveness of a cognitive training (CT) to foster intelligence of school Brazilian children from different intellectual levels. Sixteen fourth-grade boys (M = 8.75 years; SD = .44) took part in this study and were randomly selected to the training group (TG) or control group (CG). In the pre and posttest, all children were assessed using measures with measures of fluid, crystallized intelligence, and school achievement. For the training program we used working memory task for a period of two months. Results: no statically significant difference was found between both groups at posttest in none of the measures used. However, after training, there was a reduction of the differences between GC and GF on measures of fluid intelligence. In the case of Raven, the difference between CG and GE (favorable to GC) dropped from d = .126 to .058. In the TNVRI test, the initial difference in favor of CG (d = .177) became negative (d = -.384), therefore in favor of GE. This small benefit was not observed in tests of school knowledge, where GC had the biggest gains in the post-test assessment. The results are partially supported in the literature. However, studies with a larger sample, more training sessions and longer interval between post-tests to verify the generality of these findings.
Cognitive deficits are among the most disabling of neurological diseases and have a serious impact on the quality of life of patients and families. Cognitive training has been proven successful in improving or compensating for neuropsychological deficits after acute brain injury, but its efficacy highly depends on the intensity of treatment over an extended period of time. Therefore, cognitive training indicates expensive human resources and renders the rehabilitation process vulnerable to physical and economic barriers for the majority of patients.
The aim of this study was to develop and test a new Web-based rehabilitation tool that provides intensive cognitive training at home under clinical prescription and monitoring, at affordable costs.
From a pool of 60 original exercises, designed and used over the past 10 years for cognitive training at our center, we developed 27 exercises on a computer game format, with automatic increase or decrease of difficulty levels. These exercises were assembled in a clean, user-friendly design and covered various cognitive domains such as attention (n=4), memory (n=11), language (n=3), calculus (n=3), praxis (n=2), and executive functions (n=3). A Web 2.0 platform was also designed to provide medical prescription of cognitive training sessions, performed at the patient's home. These sessions included continuous monitoring of compliance, performance, and evolution; algorithms for automatic adjustment and long-term learning through use, and database recording of all activities. The end-user interaction test included 80 patients from our memory clinic from several groups including subjective memory complaints (n=20), traumatic brain injury (n=20), stroke and other static brain lesions (n=20), and mild Alzheimer's disease (n=20). During a 1-hour session, patients and their relatives were taught to use the system and allowed to practice using it. At the end of the session, they were asked to complete a questionnaire.
A total of 48/80 patients (60%) attended the training session. The mean age of the patients was 60 years (SD 13.3, range 41-78), and the mean level of formal education was 6 years (range 4-16). Of all the participants, 32/48 patients (66%) have previously used a computer. All patients and their relatives made a positive evaluation of the cognitive training tool. Only 2/48 patients (4%) were not interested in performing the exercises at home; 19/48 patients (39%) mentioned the need for further coaching from a relative or health care professional. The patients who mentioned difficulties in performing the exercises have not used the computer earlier.
This new Web-based system was very well accepted by patients and their relatives, who showed high levels of motivation to use it on a daily basis at home. The simplicity of its use and comfort were especially outlined. This tool will have an important effect on human resource management, in increasing the patient access to specialized health care and improving the quality and national health system costs of rehabilitation programs.
Executive functions (EFs; e.g., reasoning, working memory, and self-control) can be improved. Good news indeed, since EFs are critical for school and job success and for mental and physical health. Various activities appear to improve children’s EFs. The best evidence exists for computer-based training, traditional martial arts, and two school curricula. Weaker evidence, though strong enough to pass peer review, exists for aerobics, yoga, mindfulness, and other school curricula. Here I address what can be learned from the research thus far, including that EFs need to be progressively challenged as children improve and that repeated practice is key. Children devote time and effort to activities they love; therefore, EF interventions might use children’s motivation to advantage. Focusing narrowly on EFs or aerobic activity alone appears not to be as efficacious in improving EFs as also addressing children’s emotional, social, and character development (as do martial arts, yoga, and curricula shown to improve EFs). Children with poorer EFs benefit more from training; hence, training might provide them an opportunity to “catch up” with their peers and not be left behind. Remaining questions include how long benefits of EF training last and who benefits most from which activities.
Cogmed working memory training is sold as a tool for improving cognitive abilities, such as attention and reasoning. At present, this program is marketed to schools as a means of improving underperforming students’ scholastic performance, and is also available at clinical practices as a treatment for ADHD. We review research conducted with Cogmed software and highlight several concerns regarding methodology and replicability of findings. We conclude that the claims made by Cogmed are largely unsubstantiated, and recommend that future research place greater emphasis on developing theoretically motivated accounts of working memory training.
A series of studies with children in Grades 1-4 inquired into the immediate and historical determinants of a preference for analytic conceptual groupings. An analytic concept is based upon shared similarity in a particular objective component among a set of stimuli (e.g., animals with 1 car, people with hats on). Results revealed that 2 more fundamental cognitive dispositions each contributed variance to the production of analytic concepts: the tendency to reflect over alternative solutions or classifications in situations in which several response alternatives arc available simultaneously, and the tendency to analyze visual arrays into their component parts. These 2 dispositions are relatively independent of each other, orthogonal to verbal skills; and each influences the frequency of errors in perceptual recognition tasks. Degree of reflection over alternative solution hypotheses (as measured by response time) displayed remarkable generality across a variety of tasks and marked intraindividual stability over a 1-yr. period. There was an inverse relation between the production of analytic concepts and extreme degrees of hyperactivity and distractibility contemporaneously as well as during the 1st 8 yr. of life.
The primary purpose of the current study was to examine the relationship between performance on executive tasks and white matter integrity, assessed by diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in multiple sclerosis (MS). A second aim was to examine how processing speed affects the relationship between executive functioning and fractional anisotropy (FA). This relationship was examined in two executive tasks that rely heavily on processing speed: the Color-Word Interference Test and the Trail Making Test (Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System). It was hypothesized that reduced FA is related to poor performance on executive tasks in MS, but that this relationship would be affected by the statistical correction of processing speed from the executive tasks. A total of 15 healthy controls and 25 persons with MS participated. Regression analyses were used to examine the relationship between executive functioning and FA, both before and after processing speed was removed from the executive scores. Before processing speed was removed from the executive scores, reduced FA was associated with poor performance on the Color-Word Interference Test and Trail Making Test in a diffuse network including corpus callosum and superior longitudinal fasciculus. However, once processing speed was removed, the relationship between executive functions and FA was no longer significant on the Trail Making Test, and significantly reduced and more localized on the Color-Word Interference Test.
Background
Deficits in executive functioning are of great significance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). One of these executive functions, working memory, plays an important role in academic performance and is often seen as the core deficit of this disorder. There are indications that working memory problems and academic performance can be improved by school-oriented interventions but this has not yet been studied systematically. In this study we will determine the short- and long-term effects of a working memory - and an executive function training applied in a school situation for children with AD(H)D, taking individual characteristics, the level of impairment and costs (stepped-care approach) into account.
Methods/design
The study consists of two parts: the first part is a randomised controlled trial with school-aged children (8–12 yrs) with AD(H)D. Two groups (each n = 50) will be randomly assigned to a well studied computerized working memory training ‘Cogmed’, or to the ‘Paying attention in class’ intervention which is an experimental school-based executive function training. Children will be selected from regular -and special education primary schools in the region of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The second part of the study will determine which specific characteristics are related to non-response of the ‘Paying attention in class’ intervention. School-aged children (8–12 yrs) with AD(H)D will follow the experimental school-based executive function training ‘Paying attention in class’ (n = 175). Academic performance and neurocognitive functioning (primary outcomes) are assessed before, directly after and 6 months after training. Secondary outcome measures are: behaviour in class, behaviour problems and quality of life.
Discussion
So far, there is limited but promising evidence that working memory – and other executive function interventions can improve academic performance. Little is know about the applicability and generalization effects of these interventions in a classroom situation. This study will contribute to this lack of information, especially information related to real classroom and academic situations. By taking into account the costs of both interventions, level of impairment and individual characteristics of the child (stepped-care approach) we will be able to address treatment more adequately for each individual in the future. Trial registration: Nederlands Trial Register NTR3415.
Executive function (EF) accounts have now been offered for several disorders with childhood onset (e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism, early-treated phenylketonuria), and EF has been linked to the development of numerous abilities (e.g., attention, rule use, theory of mind). However, efforts to explain behavior in terms of EF have been hampered by an inadequate characterization of EF itself. What is the function that is accomplished by EF? The present analysis attempts to ground the construct of EF in an account of problem solving and thereby to integrate temporally and functionally distinct aspects of EF within a coherent framework. According to this problem-solving framework, EF is a macroconstruct that spans 4 phases of problem solving (representation, planning, execution, and evaluation). When analyzed into subfunctions, macroconstructs such as EF permit the integration of findings from disparate content domains, which are often studied in isolation from the broader context of reasoning and action. A review of the literature on the early development of EF reveals converging evidence for domain-general changes in all aspects of EF. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Developed a course to teach cognitive skills that apply to learning and intellectual performance independently of subject matter, stressing observation and classification, reasoning, critical use of language, problem solving, inventiveness, and decision making. With pretests and posttests, it was taught experimentally to 463 Venezuelan 7th graders, whose classes were matched to those of 432 control students. Although evaluation of such a course is conceptually difficult and long-term effects have not been assessed, a test battery that included the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test, the Culture-Fair Intelligence Test, and the Tests of General Ability—Inter-American Series showed that the course had sizable, beneficial effects on students. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Executive functions (EFs) make possible mentally playing with ideas; taking the time to think before acting; meeting novel, unanticipated challenges; resisting temptations; and staying focused. Core EFs are inhibition [response inhibition (self-control-resisting temptations and resisting acting impulsively) and interference control (selective attention and cognitive inhibition)], working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking "outside the box," seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). The developmental progression and representative measures of each are discussed. Controversies are addressed (e.g., the relation between EFs and fluid intelligence, self-regulation, executive attention, and effortful control, and the relation between working memory and inhibition and attention). The importance of social, emotional, and physical health for cognitive health is discussed because stress, lack of sleep, loneliness, or lack of exercise impairs EFs. That EFs are trainable and can be improved with practice is addressed, including diverse methods tried thus far. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Psychology Volume 64 is November 30, 2012. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
Research suggests a central role of executive functions for children's cognitive and social development during preschool years, especially in promoting school readiness. Interventions aiming to improve executive functions are therefore being called for. The present study examined the effect of a small group intervention implemented in kindergarten settings focusing on basic components of executive functions, i.e., working memory, interference control and cognitive flexibility. A total of 135 children enrolled in Swiss prekindergarten (5-year-olds) and kindergarten (6-year-olds) were involved. Results revealed that the small group intervention promoted gains in all three included components of executive functions: prekindergarten children substantially improved their working memory and cognitive flexibility processes, whereas significant training effects were found for the kindergarten children in interference control. Implications of these findings for early intervention programs and for tailoring preschool curricula are discussed, particularly with respect to children's school readiness. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Expulsion is the most severe disciplinary sanction that an educational program can impose. Results are reported from a national study of 3,898 prekindergarten classrooms (81.0% response rate), representing all of the nation's 52 state-funded prekindergarten systems currently operating across 40 states. Weighted results indicated that 10.4% of prekindergarten teachers reported expelling at least one preschooler in the past 12 months, of which 19.9% expelled more than one. Nationally, 6.67 preschoolers were expelled per 1,000 enrolled. Although this rate for state-subsidized prekindergarten is lower than what has been previously reported for child care programs, the prekindergarten expulsion rate is 3.2 times the rate for K-12 students. Rates are reported for each of the states and state prekindergarten systems represented. Significant cross state variability in expulsion rates was found, possibly due in part to differences in how state prekindergarten systems are structured. Rates were highest for older preschoolers and African-Americans, and boys were over 4½ times more likely to be expelled than were girls. Expulsion rates were lowest in classrooms in public schools and Head Start and highest in faith-affiliated centers and for-profit child care. The likelihood of expulsion decreases significantly with access to classroom-based mental health consultation. Although there has been considerable media attention to the issue of young students – kindergarteners and preschoolers – being suspended or expelled from their educational programs, almost no research exists on the topic. As a result, it has been impossible to estimate the number of preschoolers (children ages 3-years to 4-years old) expelled from school or to determine which preschoolers are most at risk for this disciplinary action. As the complete and permanent removal of a student from an entire educational system, expulsion is the most severe disciplinary response that any educational system can impose on a student. Transferring students with behavior problems to other educational settings (e.g., self-contained special education programs, alternative schools, etc.) is not considered expulsion. Rather, expulsion represents a complete cessation of educational services without the benefit of alternative services provided by or through the educational program that has expelled the child. In the case of kindergarten through 12 th grade students in public schools, expulsion is typically the last of a series of disciplinary actions that ultimately culminates in the student being barred from attending any educational programming in that school system. Very little research exis ts on expulsion at any grade level, but the dearth is even more pronounced for children younger than kindergarten. One of the first efforts to collect data on expulsion prior to kindergarten (Grannan, Carlier, & Cole, 1999) was conducted as part of Michigan's Child Care Expulsion Prevention Program, which dispatches mental health consultants to classrooms where children are at immediate risk of expulsion. Surveys were mailed to 127 directors of "preschools and daycare facilities" in the Detroit area. A rate of 27.5 expulsions per 1,000 children enrolled in child care centers was obtained, but the survey suffered from a low response rate of 28%. The first statewide study of expulsion in child care and early education sites was conducted in Massachusetts during the 2001 school year (Gilliam & Shahar, in press). Paper surveys were mailed to a geographically stratified random sample of 185 preschool teachers, of which 64% responded (n = 119). Results indicated that 39% of teachers reported expelling at least one child from her or his class over the previous 12 months. Most of the teachers who reported expelling a child expelled only one child during that time, whereas 25% expelled two or more. When the number of preschoolers expelled was compared to the number of preschoolers enrolled in those classes, an expulsion rate of 27.4 per 1,000 children enrolled was found – a rate nearly identical to that which was previously reported for child care programs in the Detroit, Michigan area. In order to provide a context for this rate, the rate of preschool expulsion was compared to the rate of expulsion in public schools in Massachusetts and across the nation. The rate of expulsion for Massachusetts preschoolers was more than 34 times the rate of expulsions for children K-12 in Massachusetts (0.80 expulsions per 1,000 students) and more than 13 times the national K-12 rate (2.09 expulsions per 1,000 students).
The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of a package of activities, known as "Portfolio", on cognitive functioning, self-regulation, and academic achievement. The study was carried out with a group of 40 students from Compulsory Secondary Education (mean age 13 years old) during 120 hours distributed over two school years. A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest-1 and posttest-2 design was employed. Treatment consisted of the administration of specifically selected tasks, assessed in previous studies, from the psycho-pedagogical Instrumental Enrichment Program, the Philosophy for Children Program, and Project Intelligence. The students were evaluated in the criteria variables at the beginning and at the end of treatment, and once again two years later. The results indicate that the procedure was effective in all the variables studied and that the gains observed at posttest-1 were maintained for at least two years after the intervention. Some relevant conclusions and suggestions at the educational and scientific level are commented upon.
It has been suggested that working memory training programs are effective both as treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and other cognitive disorders in children and as a tool to improve cognitive ability and scholastic attainment in typically developing children and adults. However, effects across studies appear to be variable, and a systematic meta-analytic review was undertaken. To be included in the review, studies had to be randomized controlled trials or quasi-experiments without randomization, have a treatment, and have either a treated group or an untreated control group. Twenty-three studies with 30 group comparisons met the criteria for inclusion. The studies included involved clinical samples and samples of typically developing children and adults. Meta-analyses indicated that the programs produced reliable short-term improvements in working memory skills. For verbal working memory, these near-transfer effects were not sustained at follow-up, whereas for visuospatial working memory, limited evidence suggested that such effects might be maintained. More importantly, there was no convincing evidence of the generalization of working memory training to other skills (nonverbal and verbal ability, inhibitory processes in attention, word decoding, and arithmetic). The authors conclude that memory training programs appear to produce short-term, specific training effects that do not generalize. Possible limitations of the review (including age differences in the samples and the variety of different clinical conditions included) are noted. However, current findings cast doubt on both the clinical relevance of working memory training programs and their utility as methods of enhancing cognitive functioning in typically developing children and healthy adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Researchers have demonstrated that cognitive-behavioral intervention strategies - such as social problem solving - provided in school settings can help ameliorate the developmental risk for emotional and behavioral difficulties. In this study, we report the results of a randomized controlled trial of Tools for Getting Along (TFGA), a social problem-solving universally delivered curriculum designed to reduce the developmental risk for serious emotional or behavioral problems among upper elementary grade students. We analyzed pre-intervention and post-intervention teacher-report and student self-report data from 14 schools, 87 classrooms, and a total of 1296 students using multilevel modeling. Results (effect sizes calculated using Hedges' g) indicated that students who were taught TFGA had a more positive approach to problem solving (g=.11) and a more rational problem-solving style (g=.16). Treated students with relatively poor baseline scores benefited from TFGA on (a) problem-solving knowledge (g=1.54); (b) teacher-rated executive functioning (g=.35 for Behavior Regulation and .32 for Metacognition), and proactive aggression (g=.20); and (c) self-reported trait anger (g=.17) and anger expression (g=.21). Thus, TFGA may reduce risk for emotional and behavioral difficulties by improving students' cognitive and emotional self-regulation and increasing their pro-social choices.
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) undergoes one of the longest periods of development of any brain region, taking over two decades to reach full maturity in humans. This chapter focuses on normal development, dividing it into the following epochs: 0-1 years, 1-3 years, 3-7 years, and 7 years through early adulthood. For each epoch, it summarizes some of what is known about (a) the development of the working memory and inhibitory control functions that depend on PFC and (b) the anatomical and biochemical developmental changes in PFC during that period.
The prefrontal cortex plays an essential role in various cognitive functions, such as planning and reasoning, yet little is known about how such neural mechanisms develop during childhood, particularly in young children. To better understand this issue, the present article reviews the literature on the development of the prefrontal cortex during early childhood, focusing mainly on the changes in structural architecture, neural activity, and cognitive abilities. Neuroanatomically, the prefrontal cortex undergoes considerable maturation during childhood, including a reduction of synaptic and neuronal density, a growth of dendrites, and an increase in white matter volume, thereby forming distributed neural networks appropriate for complex cognitive processing. Concurrently, behavioral performance of various cognitive tasks improves with age, and intercorrelations among performance on each task become weak through development. Furthermore, the correlation between subcategories of intelligence test decreases as general intellectual efficiency increases. In addition, recent neuroimaging findings suggest that the prefrontal cortex is already functional in 4-year olds and becomes organized into focal, fine-tuned systems through later development. The literature reviewed suggests that fractionation of the functional neural systems plays a key role in the development of prefrontal cortex and such fractionating process has already commenced in preschool children.
To be successful takes creativity, flexibility, self-control, and discipline. Central to all those are executive functions,
including mentally playing with ideas, giving a considered rather than an impulsive response, and staying focused. Diverse
activities have been shown to improve children’s executive functions: computerized training, noncomputerized games, aerobics,
martial arts, yoga, mindfulness, and school curricula. All successful programs involve repeated practice and progressively
increase the challenge to executive functions. Children with worse executive functions benefit most from these activities;
thus, early executive-function training may avert widening achievement gaps later. To improve executive functions, focusing
narrowly on them may not be as effective as also addressing emotional and social development (as do curricula that improve
executive functions) and physical development (shown by positive effects of aerobics, martial arts, and yoga).
The executive functions (EF) are complex mental functions, responsible for autoregulation. Despite growing scientific interest in the study of these functions, there are still uncertainties about the construct. This article aims to add evidence of research in the field of neuropsychological assessment of children. This is a systematic review of publications indexed in the databases PsycINFO and PubMed in the last five years (2008-2013). Twenty-five articles were identified. The results indicate an increase of scientific literature on the topic in the last three years. The main identified tools for evaluating EF were BRIEF, Wechsler scales and tasks based on Go/No-Go and Stroop paradigms. A relative consensus about the multidimensional nature of the EF was observed. However, theoretical and methodological differences remain as to the nature and amount of these components.
This article endeavors to provide a comprehensive developmental perspective of Working Memory in the classroom. Instructional implications will be discussed as they apply to preschool, elementary and secondary education. It is the intent of this paper to also provide food for thought about working memory as it applies to other aspects of the school day, such as physical education and social, emotional, and behavioral functioning.
Context Recent reports on the use of psychotropic medications for preschool-aged
children with behavioral and emotional disorders warrant further examination
of trends in the type and extent of drug therapy and sociodemographic correlates.
Objectives To determine the prevalence of psychotropic medication use in preschool-aged
youths and to show utilization trends across a 5-year span.
Design Ambulatory care prescription records from 2 state Medicaid programs
and a salaried group-model health maintenance organization (HMO) were used
to perform a population-based analysis of three 1-year cross-sectional data
sets (for the years 1991, 1993, and 1995).
Setting and Participants From 1991 to 1995, the number of enrollees aged 2 through 4 years in
a Midwestern state Medicaid (MWM) program ranged from 146,369 to 158,060;
in a mid-Atlantic state Medicaid (MAM) program, from 34,842 to 54,237; and
in an HMO setting in the Northwest, from 19,107 to 19,322.
Main Outcome Measures Total, age-specific, and gender-specific utilization prevalences per
1000 enrollees for 3 major psychotropic drug classes (stimulants, antidepressants,
and neuroleptics) and 2 leading psychotherapeutic medications (methylphenidate
and clonidine); rates of increased use of these drugs from 1991 to 1995, compared
across the 3 sites.
Results The 1995 rank order of total prevalence in preschoolers (per 1000) in
the MWM program was: stimulants (12.3), 90% of which represents methylphenidate
(11.1); antidepressants (3.2); clonidine (2.3); and neuroleptics (0.9). A
similar rank order was observed for the MAM program, while the HMO had nearly
3 times more clonidine than antidepressant use (1.9 vs 0.7). Sizable increases
in prevalence were noted between 1991 and 1995 across the 3 sites for clonidine,
stimulants, and antidepressants, while neuroleptic use increased only slightly.
Methylphenidate prevalence in 2 through 4-year-olds increased at each site:
MWM, 3-fold; MAM, 1.7-fold; and HMO, 3.1-fold. Decreases occurred in the relative
proportions of previously dominant psychotherapeutic agents in the stimulant
and antidepressant classes, while increases occurred for newer, less established
agents.
Conclusions In all 3 data sources, psychotropic medications prescribed for preschoolers
increased dramatically between 1991 and 1995. The predominance of medications
with off-label (unlabeled) indications calls for prospective community-based,
multidimensional outcome studies.
Now in its third edition, this classic text remains the seminal resource for in-depth information about major concepts and principles of the cultural-historical theory developed by Lev Vygotsky, his students, and colleagues, as well as three generations of neo-Vygotskian scholars in Russia and the West. Featuring two new chapters on brain development and scaffolding in the zone of proximal development, as well as additional content on technology, dual language learners, and students with disabilities, this new edition provides the latest research evidence supporting the basics of the cultural-historical approach alongside Vygotskian-based practical implications. With concrete explanations and strategies on how to scaffold young children’s learning and development, this book is essential reading for students of early childhood theory and development.
The United States faces a rapidly changing demographic and cultural landscape, with its population becoming increasingly multiracial and multicultural. In consequence, cultural and racial factors relating to mental illness and emotional disturbances deserve closer attention and consideration. This Practice Parameter outlines clinical applications of the principle of cultural competence that will enable child and adolescent mental health clinicians to better serve diverse children, adolescents, and their families.
Although students with emotional or behavioral disorders have historically experienced poor school outcomes compared to other students with and without disabilities, a number of effective practices are available that can make special education for students with emotional or behavioral disorders special. Within the three broad intervention areas of inappropriate behavior, academic learning problems, and interpersonal relationships, we provide a brief overview of a number of empirically validated practices. We argue that teaching students with emotional or behavioral disorders demands unique interventions that are beyond that typically available or necessary in general education. We conclude that special education is special for students with emotional or behavioral disorders and that it can be even more special with greater efforts at implementing research-based practices early, with integrity, and sustaining these interventions over the course of students' school careers.
The acknowledged high relationship between working memory and intelligence suggests common underlying cognitive mechanisms and, perhaps, shared biological substrates. If this is the case, improvement in working memory by repeated exposure to challenging span tasks might be reflected in increased intelligence scores. Here we report a study in which 288 university undergraduates completed the odd numbered items of four intelligence tests on time 1 and the even numbered items of the same tests one month later (time 2). In between, 173 participants completed three sessions, separated by exactly one week, comprising verbal, numerical, and spatial short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WMC) tasks imposing high processing demands (STM–WMC group). 115 participants also completed three sessions, separated by exactly one week, but comprising verbal, numerical, and spatial simple speed tasks (processing speed, PS, and attention, ATT) with very low processing demands (PS-ATT group). The main finding reveals increased scores from the pre-test to the post-test intelligence session (more than half a standard deviation on average). However, there was no differential improvement on intelligence between the STM-WMC and PS-ATT groups
The present study investigates how working memory and fluid intelligence are related in young children and how these links develop over time. The major aim is to determine which aspect of the working memory system—short-term storage or cognitive control—drives the relationship with fluid intelligence. A sample of 119 children was followed from kindergarten to second grade and completed multiple assessments of working memory, short-term memory, and fluid intelligence. The data showed that working memory, short-term memory, and fluid intelligence were highly related but separate constructs in young children. The results further showed that when the common variance between working memory and short-term memory was controlled, the residual working memory factor manifested significant links with fluid intelligence whereas the residual short-term memory factor did not. These findings suggest that in young children cognitive control mechanisms rather than the storage component of working memory span tasks are the source of their link with fluid intelligence.
The effectiveness of the Tools of the Mind (Tools) curriculum in improving the education of 3- and 4-year-old children was evaluated by means of a randomized trial. The Tools curriculum, based on the work of Vygotsky, focuses on the development of self-regulation at the same time as teaching literacy and mathematics skills in a way that is socially mediated by peers and teachers and with a focus on play. The control group experienced an established district-created model described as a “balanced literacy curriculum with themes.” Teachers and students were randomly assigned to either treatment or control classrooms. Children (88 Tools and 122 control) were compared on social behavior, language, and literacy growth. The Tools curriculum was found to improve classroom quality and children's executive function as indicated by lower scores on a problem behavior scale. There were indications that Tools also improved children's language development, but these effects were smaller and did not reach conventional levels of statistical significance in multi-level models or after adjustments for multiple comparisons. Our findings indicate that a developmentally appropriate curriculum with a strong emphasis on play can enhance learning and development so as to improve both the social and academic success of young children. Moreover, it is suggested that to the extent child care commonly increases behavior problems this outcome may be reversed through the use of more appropriate curricula that actually enhance self-regulation.
This article examined teachers’ judgments of the prevalence and types of problems children present upon entering kindergarten. A large, national sample of teachers (N = 3,595) was surveyed by using the National Center for Early Development and Learning’s Transition Practices Survey (1996). Teachers reported they perceived that 16% of children had difficult entries into kindergarten. Up to 46% of teachers reported that half their class or more had specific problems in any of a number of areas in kindergarten transition. Rates of perceived problems were related to school minority composition; district poverty level; and, for certain behaviors, school metropolitan status. The effects of these demographic characteristics were independent and additive. Teachers’ ethnicity showed a significant relation to their rates of reported problems. Results are discussed in terms of risk factors that predict transition problems and the match between children’s competencies and teacher’s expectations. These findings confirm the view that entering kindergarten is indeed a period of transition for children.
This paper discusses the nature of neuropsychological assessment within the context of ecological validity. It considers the extent to which traditional neuropychological tests can predict performance in everyday life before going on to describe several new procedures designed to map directly on to real life functioning.