ArticlePDF Available

Abstract

The quantity and chemical composition of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in surface waters influence ecosystem processes and anthropogenic use of freshwater. However, despite the importance of understanding spatial and temporal patterns in DOM, measures of DOM quality are not routinely included as part of large scale ecosystem monitoring programs and variations in analytical procedures can introduce artifacts. In this study, we used consistent sampling and analytical methods to meet the objective of defining variability in DOM quantity and quality and other measures of water quality in streamflow issuing from small forested watersheds located within five Critical Zone Observatory sites representing contrasting environmental conditions. Results show distinct separations among sites as a function of water quality constituents. Relationships among rates of atmospheric deposition, water quality conditions, and stream DOM quantity and quality are consistent with the notion that areas with relatively high rates of atmospheric nitrogen and sulfur deposition and high concentrations of divalent cations result in selective transport of DOM derived from microbial sources, including in-stream microbial phototrophs. We suggest that the critical zone as a whole strongly influences the origin, composition, and fate of DOM in streams. This study highlights the value of consistent DOM characterization methods included as part of long-term monitoring programs for improving our understanding of interactions among ecosystem processes as controls on DOM biogeochemistry. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Water Resources Research

Variation of organic matter quantity and quality in streams at
Critical Zone Observatory Watersheds
 !"#!$
%!$#&'()*+,-..)*
-/ 0)1,)2"3(,(
! 405-6
!))!!-').7.)
7.)*2148
7$!.7!!&,*&7'4+6
# &..-2!!7.)&-
-&948#86
+7 2!:).!!;!)%)!:)&2
6#38
/ -!!)7.) 5* 631
1 5%)!)-.!!7.)5.-%5<
46//3
3-%)!&2.-26#
4 5%)!)-.7.)5()
5(8#4+
6 $7.)<<'8/+8/
Contents of this le
'=
:
'
'
1
S1. Site Description
=.-)).-!)-));.
))-)-))-&!>9).
?&>9@)-)?:@!)-75
!!:-?ABB!!BB@
Figure S1.!!).)-)!--)
)-
'!))!;!)!)!&>9)
--'#8?&>9@)*;)C-
)-)5.-):).!D)
")%.=)-)$-$!?-&*&>9@)
4*;)-)-!--&*
)-&-:%())884*;)-
)-!---..!).':
()?&)%.&>9@)8*;)C-)-)-
!--&!&-'E-
-)?,F&>9@))1*-C-)-
!.),F))
%!
2
2)!-))!)-)-)-
).)))!-)!&>9
)))--')!-)-
-52)! )5'-)
5*?ABB-))!-B5'5B@ )!-)-
-.!2!D)&2)
-'-)5*?ABB.B!)@:-&*
-&)%.)))!-)-.-
))
Table S1.-!))-
)!-))!)
)-F!!)!))G))
;.)-)-)&>9))&))-))
-)))-))-)
-)--!)
3
4
Table S2. F-
CZO Date DOC TN Ca Mg S C:N SUVA FI aa-like qu-like
site mo/dy/yr mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L -- L/mg*m -- % %
SH 04/13/09 0.92 0.07 7.89 2.97 3.52 12.72 3.59 1.44 10.4% 67%
SH 04/27/09 1.04 0.06 7.75 3.05 3.52 18.25 4.12 1.42 7.0% 70%
SH 05/11/09 1.10 0.05 6.76 2.70 3.54 21.01 3.73 1.44 7.2% 69%
SH 05/25/09 1.27 0.09 12.47 3.82 3.49 14.07 4.88 1.42 7.6% 71%
SH 06/08/09 1.24 0.09 9.28 3.45 3.41 14.26 5.49 1.39 7.5% 70%
SH 06/22/09 1.74 0.08 5.27 2.49 3.33 23.11 3.67 1.39 5.3% 69%
SH 07/06/09 1.54 0.15 17.26 4.95 3.26 10.48 5.45 1.43 7.6% 71%
SH 07/21/09 2.94 0.18 17.70 5.48 2.99 16.30 5.20 1.42 6.7% 70%
SH 08/03/09 2.91 0.20 18.41 5.94 3.08 14.54 5.06 1.42 6.2% 71%
SH 08/17/09 4.31 0.32 22.84 6.54 2.56 13.29 4.82 1.41 6.5% 70%
SH 08/31/09 9.23 0.59 17.08 5.10 2.28 15.74 nd* nd* nd* nd*
SH 09/14/09 8.96 0.52 14.62 4.52 2.43 17.22 nd* nd* nd* nd*
SH 09/28/09 11.61 0.41 12.98 4.11 2.78 28.11 nd* nd* nd* nd*
SH 10/12/09 6.30 0.25 17.59 5.25 3.35 25.27 3.73 1.44 8.4% 66%
SH 10/26/09 2.35 0.13 3.52 1.87 3.24 18.59 2.98 1.42 8.2% 68%
SH 11/09/09 1.46 0.15 7.62 2.96 3.51 9.95 3.02 1.44 10.8% 68%
SH 11/20/09 2.63 0.10 10.04 3.90 3.61 25.92 4.61 1.42 7.7% 71%
SH 12/07/09 1.11 0.09 4.78 2.63 3.37 12.62 5.87 1.47 7.6% 70%
SH 12/21/09 1.06 0.07 6.19 2.73 3.51 14.59 3.86 1.46 6.6% 70%
SH 01/04/10 0.90 0.09 8.08 3.05 3.59 9.76 5.20 1.47 7.5% 70%
SH 01/18/10 1.81 0.21 3.58 2.12 3.32 8.53 4.41 1.40 7.8% 70%
SH 01/25/10 7.54 0.31 2.64 1.49 2.34 24.20 5.24 1.36 4.5% 71%
SH 02/01/10 0.98 0.11 8.04 2.83 3.64 8.95 3.15 1.41 10.4% 72%
SH 02/15/10 0.82 0.12 12.84 3.87 3.86 6.95 6.11 1.45 9.9% 71%
SH 03/01/10 1.02 0.18 8.17 3.28 3.59 5.56 3.15 1.47 11.2% 69%
SH 03/15/10 1.55 0.12 4.38 2.12 3.49 12.54 2.39 1.42 6.8% 69%
SH 03/29/10 1.94 0.14 3.24 1.95 3.20 13.83 3.20 1.39 nd** nd**
SH 04/12/10 0.98 0.11 12.48 3.58 3.61 9.26 5.83 1.48 10.5% 69%
SH 04/26/10 2.50 0.21 14.72 4.15 3.66 11.93 5.40 1.40 6.0% 72%
SH 05/09/10 1.40 0.12 9.92 3.34 3.25 11.37 3.57 1.44 9.9% 72%
SH 05/23/10 4.15 0.19 11.06 3.35 2.99 21.84 nd* nd* nd* nd*
SH 06/07/10 1.74 0.19 19.82 5.13 3.23 9.00 4.94 1.44 8.4% 71%
SH 06/21/10 1.85 0.27 22.11 5.57 2.84 6.84 4.16 1.54 7.1% 70%
SH 07/05/10 4.80 0.75 22.39 5.74 1.35 6.37 3.44 1.51 8.1% 66%
SH 11/19/10 2.39 0.09 3.91 2.05 3.23 26.12 3.39 1.41 7.1% 69%
SH 12/03/10 1.91 0.08 4.08 2.21 2.90 24.05 2.04 1.43 5.3% 69%
5
Table S2. Stream water quality data, continued. X
CZO Date DOC TN Ca Mg S C:N SUVA FI aa-like qu-like
site mo/dy/yr mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L -- L/mg*m -- % %
SS 04/28/09 2.49 0.08 2.27 0.36 0.08 33.25 4.53 1.29 3.9% 68%
SS 05/26/09 2.51 0.08 3.19 0.49 0.08 29.55 4.74 1.30 4.1% 70%
SS 06/29/09 1.72 0.06 3.76 0.56 0.06 29.93 4.55 1.31 7.2% 67%
SS 07/28/09 1.25 0.04 4.11 0.65 0.07 29.62 4.10 1.31 4.1% 69%
SS 08/25/09 1.11 0.04 4.46 0.68 0.06 27.60 4.16 1.36 6.2% 67%
SS 09/29/09 1.03 0.08 7.14 1.08 0.06 13.45 3.68 1.40 16.7% 62%
SS 10/27/09 1.63 0.12 3.58 0.56 0.09 13.12 4.23 1.36 9.2% 68%
SS 12/29/09 1.62 0.08 3.14 0.56 0.04 20.64 4.95 1.35 7.2% 67%
SS 02/02/10 1.55 0.07 3.47 0.60 0.03 21.50 3.10 1.36 4.9% 68%
SS 03/04/10 2.11 0.08 3.44 0.59 0.04 26.71 4.83 1.36 4.1% 68%
SS 04/01/10 2.26 0.12 3.28 0.57 0.05 18.53 5.09 1.35 4.3% 69%
SS 06/08/10 2.71 0.09 1.94 0.31 0.00 31.45 3.65 1.31 3.9% 69%
CZO Date DOC TN Ca Mg S C:N SUVA FI aa-like qu-like
site mo/dy/yr mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L -- L/mg*m -- % %
BC 05/15/09 6.82 0.26 4.15 2.33 1.45 26.26 5.66 1.30 5.3% 73%
BC 07/08/09 6.25 0.26 7.33 3.56 0.82 24.26 1.63 1.34 4.4% 71%
BC 07/14/09 6.01 0.23 8.10 3.92 0.77 26.40 4.74 1.36 4.1% 71%
BC 08/20/09 2.64 0.19 8.37 4.06 1.06 14.26 4.51 1.35 4.0% 72%
CZO Date DOC TN Ca Mg S C:N SUVA FI aa-like qu-like
site mo/dy/yr mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L -- L/mg*m -- % %
CR 07/31/09 1.83 0.35 6.15 2.69 4.34 5.16 3.45 1.43 4.2% 70%
CR 08/29/09 3.20 0.35 6.79 2.90 4.02 9.27 3.47 1.41 5.1% 70%
CR 10/02/09 1.33 0.40 6.46 2.92 4.77 3.36 3.16 1.46 7.8% 67%
CR 11/11/09 1.48 0.25 5.81 2.62 4.81 5.99 3.39 1.45 8.0% 67%
CR 12/11/09 1.34 0.48 5.48 2.76 5.37 2.77 2.17 1.47 6.5% 67%
CR 01/19/10 1.01 0.46 6.17 2.65 5.33 2.20 3.57 1.45 6.1% 68%
CR 02/21/10 0.93 0.45 5.40 2.61 5.24 2.09 5.04 1.43 nd** nd**
CR 03/28/10 0.96 0.39 5.30 2.61 5.20 2.47 5.11 1.47 4.6% 69%
CR 04/27/10 1.59 0.53 5.22 2.42 4.86 2.98 3.64 1.47 8.9% 67%
CR 05/27/10 1.22 0.45 5.36 2.45 4.63 2.74 3.19 1.45 6.0% 69%
CR 06/22/10 1.22 0.47 5.29 2.36 4.31 2.57 3.78 1.45 5.2% 70%
6
Table S2. Stream water quality data, continued. X
CZO Date DOC TN Ca Mg S C:N SUVA FI aa-like qu-like
site mo/dy/yr mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L -- L/mg*m -- % %
LQ 08/06/09 3.09 0.14 2.73 1.71 0.61 22.12 4.72 1.31 5.5% 72%
LQ 09/22/09 3.03 0.15 2.15 1.25 0.56 20.64 4.73 1.32 4.8% 72%
LQ 12/10/09 4.13 0.22 2.20 1.43 0.63 18.68 4.38 1.36 4.6% 71%
LQ 01/25/10 1.09 0.13 2.28 1.58 0.51 8.50 3.22 1.38 5.2% 72%
LQ 02/11/10 0.92 0.18 2.75 1.89 0.55 5.11 3.28 1.37 6.2% 71%
LQ 03/02/10 1.25 0.16 2.33 1.66 0.54 7.65 3.44 1.38 6.4% 71%
LQ 03/16/10 0.99 0.18 2.45 1.72 0.54 5.55 2.92 1.35 11.2% 68%
LQ 04/06/10 1.24 0.20 3.23 2.05 0.64 6.28 5.88 1.35 6.5% 70%
LQ 05/11/10 1.82 0.12 2.03 1.29 0.39 15.31 5.38 1.34 5.5% 72%
LQ 06/01/10 3.12 0.28 1.67 1.12 0.41 11.16 5.10 1.31 8.5% 70%
Sites: SS: Southern Sierra California; BC: Boulder Creek Colorado; SH: Shale Hills Pennsylvania; CR: Christina River
Maryland; LQ: Luquillo Puerto Rico.
DOC: dissolved organic carbon, mg C L-1.
TDN: total dissolved nitrogen, mg N L-1.
Ca: dissolved calcium, mg Ca L-1.
Mg: dissolved calcium, mg Mg L-1.
S: dissolved sulfur, mg S L-1.
C:N: ratio of DOC:TN,
dimensionless.
SUVA254, specific ultraviolet
absorbance: absorbance at 254 nm /
DOC concentration, L mg C-1 m-1 .
FI: fluorescence index: fluorescence intensity
ratio at an emission 470 nm / 520 nm, at
excitation 370 nm, dimensionless.
aa-like: amino-acid-like fluorophores. Sum of Fmax values of PARAFAC model components 8 and 13; %.
qu-like: quinone like fluorophores. Sum of Fmax values of PARAFAC model components 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 12, %.
nd*: no data because Fe concentrations were too high for analysis (>0.5 mg/L).
nd**: no data because fit of PARAFAC model fit was too poor.
7
8
... lected major dissolved ions such as Ca 2+ . This result supports the idea that these streams are recovering from acid deposition and as soil Ca 2+ recovers, DOM declines due to decreased DOM solubility(Miller et al., 2016). For both DOC and DON models, ambient mean DOC and DON concentrations, respectively, were selected suggesting that streams with greater DOC or DON concentrations will experience the greatest changes over time. ...
Article
Full-text available
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nitrogen (DON) are important energy and nutrient sources for aquatic ecosystems. In many northern temperate freshwater systems DOC has increased in the past 50 years. Less is known about how changes in DOC may vary across latitudes, and whether changes in DON track those of DOC. Here we present long‐term DOC and DON data from 74 streams distributed across seven sites in biomes ranging from the tropics to northern boreal forests with varying histories of atmospheric acid deposition. For each stream, we examined temporal trends of DOC and DON concentrations and DOC:DON molar ratios. While some sites displayed consistent positive or negative trends in stream DOC and DON concentrations, changes in direction or magnitude were inconsistent at regional or local scales. DON trends did not always track those of DOC, though DOC:DON ratios increased over time for ~30% of streams. Our results indicate that the dissolved organic matter (DOM) pool is experiencing fundamental changes due to recovery from atmospheric acid deposition. Changes in DOC:DON stoichiometry point to a shifting energy‐nutrient balance in many aquatic ecosystems. Sustained changes in the character of DOM can have major implications for stream metabolism, biogeochemical processes, food webs, and drinking water quality (including disinfection by‐products). Understanding regional and global variation in DOC and DON concentrations is important for developing realistic models and watershed management protocols to effectively target mitigation efforts aimed at bringing DOM flux and nutrient enrichment under control.
Article
Full-text available
Since aquatic microbial communities promptly respond to environmental changes, it is now evident that they can complement traditional taxa such as fish, macroinvertebrates and algae as bioindicators of water quality. The aim of this study was to correlate the physico-chemical parameters of water with the microbial community structure and the occurrence of putative bioindicator taxa. Thirty-five water samples were collected throughout Croatia and their physico-chemical parameters, including the concentration of trace elements using the high-resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HR-ICP-MS), and the composition of the microbial communities by high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA marker gene, were analysed in parallel. Partial least squares regression (PLS-R) modelling revealed that a number of microbial taxa were positively correlated with some of the water parameters. For example, some taxa from the phylum Proteobacteria were positively correlated with the ion content of the water (e.g. Erythrobacter, Rhodobacteraceae, Alteromonadaceae), while some Firmicutes taxa, such as the well-known faecal indicators Enterococcus and Clostridium, were correlated with nutrient content (ammonium and total phosphorus). Among the trace elements, uranium was positively correlated with a highest number of microbial taxa. The results obtained will aid in development of protocols for eDNA-based biological assessment of water quality.
Article
The original meaning of the Critical Zone (CZ) was spatial and pointed to one physical referent: the terrestrial surface of the entire Earth. As usage increased among researchers in the geosciences, social sciences, and humanities, new meanings led to the concept pointing to different places and ideas. Emerging trends have expanded the CZ further: CZs are mapped in computational spacetime and on distant planets and asteroids. The polysemous character of the CZ can be confounding for a field-based science, but Earth scientists and technologists have collaborated to collect and harmonize Big Data sets into a sizable library of CZ research in a short time (around 20 years). In this review, we map the semantic range of the CZ and explore how CZ science has remained coherent even as researchers diversified the concept by developing distinguishable but loosely overlapping meanings. We organize extant meanings into three tiers: (1) Earth’s spatial interface of the geochemical and biological; (2) scientific knowledge of geophysical functionality of the CZ, as represented in an ever-growing library of data or by a single feature as proxy (e.g. soil); (3) a planetary home vulnerable to human disruption. In a time of immense human influence on the CZ, we underscore the latent meaning of planetary home, which marshals motivations of care and protection. These three tiers—the ontological, epistemic, and anthropocenic—build on each other to make the CZ a uniquely valuable concept for navigating the socio-ecological challenges of the Anthropocene.
Article
This study contributes to our evolving understanding of how coupled biogeochemical dynamics of Fe and Mn along the redox gradients affect C cycling and sequestration at Critical Zones. A 12-month monitoring of the in-situ soil pore-water biogeochemistry and redox gradients across the floodplain at the White Clay Creek Watershed in the Christina River Basin - Critical Zone Observatory was investigated. Topographically, eastern floodplain was narrow with a steep hillslope connected to the agricultural field while western floodplain was flat and wide. Soil profile consisted of post-colonial oxic deposits, pre-colonial anoxic buried wetland soils underlain by suboxic valley-bottom gravel. Contrasting soil pore-water chemistry including DOM quality, DOC, Fe and Mn, δ¹⁸O and δD profiles, and redox potentials were observed between the eastern and western floodplains due to seasonal fluctuations, divergent topographic and hydrologic settings. We observed diverse types of C pools across the floodplain from short (labile) to long term (recalcitrant) C forms: microbial origin DOM at eastern versus terrestrial or plant-derived DOM at western buried wetland soil pore-waters. Gravel was linked to the soluble microbial byproduct-like fractions indicating bioavailable DOM and microbial activity. Gravel beds may act as a natural filter (or C sink) of terrestrial DOM via adsorption and precipitation with Mn- and Fe (hydr)oxides, stimulating the long-term sequestration of sedimentary OC while retaining the microbially-derived DOM in the pore-water. In contrast, reductive dissolution of Mn- and Fe (hydr)oxides may result in re-mobilization of aromatic DOM and increase of DOC flux (C source) to the stream. Future studies are needed to improve our understanding of how in-situ redox gradients and/or microbial activity transform OC-mineral complexes and the coupled C dynamics at Critical Zones.
Article
Climate warming is having profound effects on the hydrological cycle by increasing atmospheric demand, changing water availability, and snow seasonality. Europe suffered three distinct heat waves in 2019, and 11 of the 12 hottest years ever recorded took place in the past two decades, which will potentially change seasonal streamflow patterns and long-term trends. Central Europe exhibited six dry years in a row since 2014. This study uses data from a well-documented headwater catchment in Central Europe (Lysina) to explore hydrological responses to a warming climate. We applied a lumped parameter hydrologic model Brook90 and a distributed model Penn State Integrated Hydrologic Model (PIHM) to simulate long-term hydrological change under future climate scenarios. Both models performed well on historic streamflow and in agreement with each other according to the catchment water budget. In addition, PIHM was able to simulate lateral groundwater redistribution within the catchment validated by the groundwater table dynamics. The long-term trends in runoff and low flow were captured by PIHM only. We applied different EURO-CORDEX models with 2 emission scenarios (Representative Concentration Pathways RCP 4.5, 8.5) and found significant impacts on runoff and evapotranspiration (ET) for the period of 2071–2100. Results from both models suggested reduced runoff and increased ET, while the monthly distribution of runoff was different. We used this catchment study to understand the importance of subsurface processes in projection of hydrologic response to a warming climate. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Chapter
Full-text available
Watershed morphology influences the spatial distribution of water across the landscape. Topographically driven patterns in wetness and hydrologic dynamics lead to relatively organized and predictable patterns of watershed biogeochemistry. In this way, watershed morphology creates organized heterogeneity in hydrologic and biogeochemical process, patterns, and response. We argue that the concept of organized heterogeneity can be harnessed to better understand and predict hydrologic and biogeochemical process and patterns across both space and time. More importantly, this morphological framework offers a path toward greater integration of knowledge gained through geomorphic, hydrologic, and biogeochemical disciplines.
Article
Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in headwater streams significantly contributes to the riverine CO2 emission to the atmosphere and oceans. However, understanding of the sources and mechanisms of DIC generation and mass balances of DIC flux in headwater streams at the scale of catchments remain poor and add to uncertainty in regional carbon estimates. In this study, the input and output of water fluxes and their chemical and isotopic compositions in a headwater stream were investigated from 2016 to 2019 in a subtropical plantation catchment. Our results showed that the headwater stream catchment experienced a net carbon loss of 262-4352 kg C km² yr⁻¹ based on the water balance of annual precipitation, evapotranspiration, headwater stream and groundwater discharge, and change in soil water storage. The headwater stream exhibited comparable DIC flux (3561 ± 933 kg C km⁻² yr⁻¹) and higher DIC concentration (7.91 ± 3.13 mg L⁻¹) than precipitation (3662 ± 682 kg C km⁻² yr⁻¹ and 2.63±1.22 mg L⁻¹, respectively). Differences in DIC concentration between precipitation and headwater stream were mainly controlled by soil CO2 dissolution, carbonate weathering, and their synergistic effects. Relative contributions to DIC fluxes in this headwater stream were 25.3 ± 5.2% by precipitation, 47.3 ± 6.2% by soil biological CO2, and 27.4 ± 7.3% by carbonate weathering. Our results indicated that the DIC-generating processes may result in an underestimation of soil biological CO2 efflux to the atmosphere. Further, soil carbonate weathering, and a net carbon loss at the scale of catchments may be overlooked in acid soils.
Article
Full-text available
Understanding the transport of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nitrogen (N) as water flows through headwater basins is important for predicting downstream water quality. With increased recognition of climatic impact on nutrient transport, more studies are needed in headwater basins experiencing a Mediterranean-type climate, such as those of the Sierra Nevada, California. We analyzed water samples collected over 5 years from eight low-order and mixed-conifer watersheds to elucidate the temporal variation of water chemistry and evaluate their responses to prolonged drought and low-intensity forest thinning. We observed higher stream DOC concentrations in October compared to other months within water years prior to drought and thinning, suggesting the importance of antecedent moisture conditions on seasonal C export. In unthinned watersheds, stream DOC concentrations were lower (62%) and DOC aromaticity was higher (68 and 92%, depending on the index used) during drought compared to non-drought years. In thinned watersheds during drought years, stream water had higher DOC concentrations (66–94% in three consecutive years following thinning) and dissolved inorganic N (24%, in the third year following thinning) compared to unthinned watersheds during drought. Additionally, lower stream DOC concentrations were found in watersheds with higher elevations and lower drainage densities in the year with near-average precipitation; however, these correlations were not significant in years with greater or extremely low precipitation. Taken together, our results suggest that stream concentrations of DOC and dissolved N in Mediterranean headwater basins are extremely variable over time due to the high temporal climatic variabilities and periodic management practices.
Article
Full-text available
Most terrestrial allochthonous organic matter enters river networks through headwater streams during high flow events. In headwaters, allochthonous inputs are substantial and variable, but become less important in streams and rivers with larger watersheds. As allochthonous dissolved organic matter (DOM) moves downstream, the proportion of less aromatic organic matter with autochthonous characteristics increases. How environmental factors converge to control this transformation of DOM at a continental scale is less certain. We hypothesized that the amount of time water has spent traveling through surface waters of inland systems (streams, rivers, lakes, and reservoirs) is correlated to DOM composition. To test this hypothesis, we used established river network scaling relationships to predict relative river network flow‐weighted travel time (FWTT) of water for 60 stream and river sites across the contiguous United States (3,090 discrete samples over 10 water years). We estimated lentic contribution to travel times with upstream in‐network lake and reservoir volume. DOM composition was quantified using ultraviolet and visible absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy. A combination of FWTT and lake and reservoir volume was the best overall predictor of DOM composition among models that also incorporated discharge, specific discharge, watershed area, and upstream channel length. DOM spectral slope ratio (R²=0.77) and Freshness Index (R²=0.78) increased and specific ultraviolet absorbance at 254 nm (R²=0.68) and Humification Index (R²=0.44) decreased across sites as a function of FWTT and upstream lake volume. This indicates autochthonous‐like DOM becomes continually more dominant in waters with greater FWTT. We assert that river FWTT can be used as a metric of the continuum of DOM composition from headwaters to rivers. The nature of the changes to DOM composition detected suggest this continuum is driven by a combination of photo‐oxidation, biological processes, hydrologically varying terrestrial subsidies, and aged groundwater inputs. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Article
Dissolved organic matter (DOM) transport is a key biogeochemical linkage across the terrestrial-aquatic interface in headwater catchments, and quantifying the biological and hydrological controls on DOM composition provides insight into DOM cycling at the catchment scale. We evaluated the mobility of DOM components during snowmelt in a montane, semiarid catchment. DOM composition was evaluated on a near-daily basis within the soil and the stream during snowmelt, and was compared to groundwater samples using a site-specific parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) model derived from soil extracts. The fluorescent component loadings in the interstitial soil water and in the groundwater were significantly different and did not temporally change during snowmelt. In the stream, a transition occurred during snowmelt from fluorescent DOM with higher contributions of amino acid-like components indicative of groundwater to higher humic-like contributions indicative of soil water. Furthermore, we identified a humic-like fluorescent component in the soil water and the stream that is typically only observed in extracted water soluble organic matter from soil which may suggest hillslope to stream connectivity over very short time scales. Qualitative interpretations of changes in stream fluorescent DOM were supported by two end-member mixing analyses of conservative tracers. After normalizing fluorescent DOM loadings for dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration, we found that the peak in DOC concentration in the stream was driven by the nonfluorescent fraction of DOM. This study demonstrated how PARAFAC analysis can be used to refine our conceptual models of runoff generation sources, as well as provide a more detailed understanding of stream chemistry dynamics.
Chapter
The US National Science Foundation (NSF) has pioneered an integrated approach to the study of Earth's Critical Zone by supporting a network of Critical Zone Observatories (CZOs). The CZOs are intensively studied and monitored sites with a focus on a range of Critical Zone processes that are well represented at the various sites. The initial network (beginning in 2007) consisted of 3 CZOs, expanded to 6 in 2009, and is currently expanding to a total of 10 in 2014. The investment in financial and human resources into the CZOs has enabled a range of new scientific investigations that were not accessible under traditional funding mechanisms, and this is leading to novel and exciting advances in scientific understanding of a fundamentally important part of the Earth system.
Article
Agricultural practices have altered watershed-scale dissolved organic matter (DOM) dynamics, including in-stream concentration, biodegradability, and total catchment export. However, mechanisms responsible for these changes are not clear, and field-scale processes are rarely directly linked to the magnitude and quality of DOM that is transported to surface water. In a small (12 ha) agricultural catchment in eastern Washington State, we tested the hypothesis that hydrologic connectivity in a catchment is the dominant control over the concentration and quality of DOM exported to surface water via artificial subsurface drainage. Concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and humic-like components of DOM decreased while the Fluorescence Index and Freshness Index increased with depth through the soil profile. In drain discharge, these characteristics were significantly correlated with drain flow across seasons and years, with drain DOM resembling deep sources during low-flow and shallow sources during high flow, suggesting that DOM from shallow sources bypasses removal processes when hydrologic connectivity in the catchment is greatest. Assuming changes in streamflow projected for the Palouse River (which contains the study catchment) under the A1B climate scenario (rapid growth, dependence on fossil fuel, and renewable energy sources) apply to the study catchment, we project greater interannual variability in annual DOC export in the future, with significant increases in the driest years. This study highlights the variability in DOM inputs from agricultural soil to surface water on daily to interannual time scales, pointing to the need for a more nuanced understanding of agricultural impacts on DOM dynamics in surface water.
Article
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) export from watersheds and soil organic carbon (SOC) storage are intimately linked in the terrestrial carbon cycle. However, predictions of hot spots and hot moments of DOC and SOC in watersheds remain uncertain because of high spatiotemporal variability and changing controls. In this study, we investigated the linkage between SOC storage and landform units across the 7.9-ha Shale Hills Critical Zone Observatory (CZO) and its implications for potential hot spots of DOC. We also examined the trends of DOC in soil pore water along two hillslopes of contrasting soils and topography and the impacts of rainfall, stream discharge, and stream temperature on DOC export to identify possible hot moments. Based on the SOC distribution throughout the entire catchment, swales (particularly south-facing swales) were identified as hot spots because they exhibited significantly higher SOC storage and more active hydrology as compared to the rest of the catchment. Along the two hillslopes reported here, average soil pore water DOC concentrations were noticeably higher (35 +/- 12%) along the swale as compared to the planar hillslope. Soil pore water DOC concentrations were elevated at the soil-bedrock interface at the ridgetop and at the Bw-Bt horizon interface in the valley floor, suggesting transport-driven hot spots along restrictive layer interfaces. Stream water DOC concentration at the catchment outlet averaged 6.2 +/- 5.3 mg L(-1) from May 2008 to October 2010, which was significantly correlated with stream discharge and stream water temperature. Transport-driven hot moments of stream water DOC were observed during the periods of snowmelt and late summer to early fall wet-up, which together contributed similar to 55% of total stream water DOC exported in 2009. This reflected the control of DOC export by flushing (linked to discharge) and biological activity (related to temperature) and its variation during different seasons of a year. This study showcased the impacts of complex soil and topography interactions-coupled with changing weather and seasonal biological activity-on the spatiotemporal dynamics of DOC export in a temperate forested catchment and its link to SOC distribution.
Article
The biochemical composition of dissolved organic matter (DOM) strongly influences its biogeochemical role in freshwater ecosystems, yet DOM composition measurements are not routinely incorporated into ecological studies. To date, the majority of studies of freshwater ecosystems have relied on bulk analyses of dissolved organic carbon and nitrogen to obtain information about DOM cycling. The problem with this approach is that the biogeochemical significance of DOM can only partially be elucidated using bulk analyses alone because bulk measures cannot detect most carbon and nitrogen transformations. Advances in fluorescence spectroscopy provide an alternative to traditional approaches for characterizing aquatic DOM, and allow for the rapid and precise characterization of DOM necessary to more comprehensively trace DOM dynamics. It is within this context that we discuss the use of fluorescence spectroscopy to provide a novel approach to tackling a long-standing problem: understanding the dynamics and biogeochemical role of DOM. We highlight the utility of fluorescence characterization of DOM and provide examples of the potential range of applications for incorporating DOM fluorescence into ecological studies in the hope that this rapidly evolving technique will further our understanding of the biogeochemical role of DOM in freshwater ecosystems.
Article
Stream water carbon (C) export is one important pathway for C loss from seasonally snow-covered mountain ecosystems and an assessment of overarching controls is necessary. However, such assessment is challenging because changes in water fluxes or flow paths, seasonal processes, as well as catchment specific characteristics play a role. For this study we elucidate the impact of: (i) changes in water flux (by comparing years of variable wetness), (ii) catchment aspect [north-facing (NF) vs. south-facing (SF)] and (iii) season (snowmelt vs. summer) on all forms of dissolved stream water C [dissolved organic C (DOC), chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) and dissolved inorganic C (DIC)] in forested catchments within the Valles Caldera National Preserve, New Mexico. The significant correlation between annual water and C fluxes (e.g. DOC r(2) = 0.83, p < 0.02) confirms annual stream water discharge as the overarching control on C efflux, likely from a well-mixed ground water reservoir as indicated by previous research. However, CDOM exhibited a dominantly terrestrial fluorescence signature (59-71 %) year round, signaling a strong riparian and near stream soil control on CDOM composition. During snowmelt, the role of water as C transporter was superimposed on its control as C reservoir, when the NF stream transported significantly more soil C (40 % DOC, 56 % DIC) than the SF stream as a result of hillslope flushing. Inter-annual variations in winter precipitation were paramount in regulating annual stream C effluxes, e.g., reducing C effluxes three-fold after a dry (relative to wet) winter season. During the warmer summer months % dissolved oxygen saturation decreased, delta C-13(DIC) increased and CDOM assumed a more microbial signature, consistent with heterotrophic respiration in the stream and riparian soils. As a result of stream C incubation and soil respiration, increased up to 12 times atmospheric values leading to substantial degassing.
Article
We assessed spatial and temporal patterns of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) lability and composition throughout the alluvial aquifer of the 16 km2 Nyack Floodplain in northwest Montana, USA. Water influx to the aquifer derives almost exclusively from the Middle Fork of the Flathead River, and water residence times within the aquifer range from days to months. Across seasons and channel discharge conditions, we measured DOC concentration, lability, and optical properties of aquifer water sampled from 12 wells, both near and ~3 m below the water table. Concentrations of DOC were typically low (542 ± 22.7 µg L-1; mean ± se) and the percentage of labile DOC averaged 18 ± 12% during 3-day laboratory assays. Parallel factor analysis of fluorescence excitation-emission matrices revealed two humic-like and two amino acid-like fluorescence groups. Total DOC, humic-like components, and specific UV absorbance decreased with water residence time, consistent with sorption to aquifer sediments. However, labile DOC (both concentration and fraction) increased with water residence time, suggesting a concurrent influx or production of labile DOC. Thus, although the carbon-poor, oxygen-rich aquifer is a net sink for DOC, recalcitrant DOC appears to be replaced with more labile DOC along aquifer flow paths. Our observation of DOC production in long flow paths contrasts with studies of hyporheic DOC consumption along short (cm to m) flow paths, and highlights the importance of understanding the role of labile organic matter production and/or influx in alluvial aquifer carbon cycling.
Article
An annual energy budget is presented for Bear Brook, a small undisturbed second-order stream in northeastern United States. The ecosystem approach, in which all input and output fluxes of potential energy as organic matter are considered, is used to describe the dynamics of energy flow in a 1,700-m segment of the stream. The annual input of energy to the system is 6,039 Kcal/m2. Over 99% of this is allochthonous, from the surrounding forested watershed or from upstream areas. Autochthonous primary production by mosses accounts for less than 1% of the total energy available to the ecosystem. Algae and vascular hydrophytes are absent from the stream. Meteorologic inputs (litter and throughfall) from the adjacent forest account for 44% of annual energy input. Most of this is in particulate form. The remaining 56% of input enters by geologic vectors (inflowing surface and subsurface waters). Eighty-three per cent of the geologic input and 47% of the total input of energy occur as dissolved organic matter. Approximately 4,730 Kcal/m2 of organic detritus, nearly equally divided between leaves and branches, is stored within the system. The size of this detritus reservoir is stable from year to year. The turnover time of the branch compartment is about 4.2 years; of the leaf compartment, about 1 year. Although much of the annual input of energy is in a dissolved state, dissolved organic matter does not tend to accumulate in the system and displays a very rapid rate of turnover. Sixty-six per cent of annual energy input is exported to downstream areas in stream water. The remaining 34% is lost as heat through consumer activity. Bear Brook is a strongly heterotrophic steady-state system in which import and export of organic matter play a significant role. A conceptual scheme is presented by which import, export, photosynthesis, and respiration may be used to describe the functional dynamics and developmental processes of ecosystems.
Article
Population growth in cities has resulted in the rapid expansion of urbanized land. Most research and management of stream ecosystems affected by urban expansion has focused on the maintenance and restoration of biotic communities rather than their basal resources. We examined the potential for urbanization to induce bottom-up ecosystem effects by looking at its influence on dissolved organic matter (DOM) composition and bioavailability and microbial enzyme activity. We selected 113 headwater streams across a gradient of urbanization in central and southern Maine and used elemental and optical analyses, including parallel factor analysis of excitation-emission matrices, to characterize DOM composition. Results show that fluorescent and stoichiometric DOM composition changed significantly across the rural to urban gradient. Specifically, the proportion of humic-like allochthonous DOM decreased while that of more bioavailable autochthonous DOM increased in the more urbanized streams. In laboratory incubations, increased autochthonous DOM was associated with a doubling in the decay rate of dissolved organic carbon as well as increased activity of C-acquiring enzymes. These results suggest that urbanization replaces upstream humic material with more local sources of DOM that turnover more rapidly and may drive bottom-up changes in microbial communities and affect the quality and quantity of downstream DOM delivery.