Guide to Surveying Fungi in Australia

Abstract

This Guide has been written to provide field naturalists and other citizen-scientists with a basic understanding of fungal survey techniques, outlining the basic steps to conducting a fungal survey under Australian conditions. The protocols were developed in consultation with mycologists and environmental managers, and field naturalist groups throughout Australia also provided input and suggestions. Other survey methods do exist, and the protocols listed here will not suit every project. This Guide aims to provide the minimum requirements for conducting a safe, enjoyable, and scientifically valid fungal survey. The intention is to provide an easy-to-follow step-by-step guide for non-specialists who, through volunteering their own time to investigate their local areas, can provide data that is incredibly valuable for this under-studied Kingdom. With support and encouragement to build slowly on their skills, high-quality data can be generated by non-specialists with nothing more than time, methodical discipline, and an eye for the detail and beauty of nature.

Full text

fungimap
CITIZEN SCIENCE GUIDES
Guide to Surveying
Fungi in Australia
Alena Lindsay, Richard Robinson, Tom May, and Sapphire JM McMullan-Fisher

F U N G I M A P C I T I Z E N - S C I E N C E G UI DE S
Guide to Surveying Fungi
in Australia
Alena Lindsay
Fungimap Inc
Richard Robinson
Department of Environment and
Conservation,
Western Australia
Tom May
Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne
Sapphire JM McMullan-Fisher
University of Tasmania
Edition: 1.1 Published May 21, 2013
Cover illustration: SJM McMullan-Fisher
All photographs used in this book have been provided to Fungimap’s photographic collection
on the basis of Creative Commons Copyright, Attribution - Share Alike 3.0 Australia.
Fungimap Inc.
Private Bag 2000 South Yarra, Victoria 3141
Phone 03.9252.2374 • Email info@fungimap.org.au
www.fungimap.org.au
Published by Fungimap Inc with funding from Cradle Coast Authority
Copyright 2013 © Cradle Coast Authority

Table of Contents
About This Guide 1
Incredible Fungi 2
Major Groups of Fungi 4
Fungal Biology and Ecology 6
The Role of Fungi in Ecosystems 9
Conservation of Macrofungi 10
Types of Surveys 12
Species-specific Surveys: Biology, Ecology, and Distribution 13
Site-specific Surveys: Fungal Communities and Hot Spots 15
The Survey Site 17
Timing of Surveys 18
Survey Methods 18
Preparing to go into the Field 21
Permits and Permissions 21
Insurance 22
Prepare for Your Safety: Assessing Risks 22
Supplies 27
Final Considerations 28
Survey Protocols 29
Organisation of Survey Teams 29
Finding the Fungi 31
Photographing in the Field 32
Making Collections 33
Back at Base 35
Dry and Prepare Collections 35
Identify Photographs and Collections 39
Lodge Specimens with Herbaria 40
Submit the Data 42
Glossary 43
Further References 49
Appendices 56
Describing a Fungus 56
Morphogroups 57
Fungal Survey Record Sheet 59
Fungal Survey Site Description 61
Risk Assessment 63

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
1
About This Guide
This Guide has been written to provide field naturalists and other citizen-scientists with
a basic understanding of fungal survey techniques, outlining the basic steps to
conducting a fungal survey under Australian conditions. The protocols were developed
in consultation with mycologists and environmental managers, and field naturalist
groups throughout Australia also provided input and suggestions. Other survey
methods do exist, and the protocols listed here will not suit every project. This Guide
aims to provide the minimum requirements for conducting a safe, enjoyable, and
scientifically valid fungal survey. The intention is to provide an easy-to-follow step-by-
step guide for non-specialists who, through volunteering their own time to investigate
their local areas, can provide data that is incredibly valuable for this under-studied
Kingdom. With support and encouragement to build slowly on their skills, high-quality
data can be generated by non-specialists with nothing more than time, methodical
discipline, and an eye for the detail and beauty of nature.
Icons Used in the Guide
The “picture” icons used in this Guide point the reader to
references that they may find useful.
Updates to the Guide
Fungimap considers this Guide to be a work that will continually be updated, building
on the surveying experiences of citizen-scientists and in line with current best practice.
For that reason the Guide has been published in a format that will enable easy
revision and expansion. See the Edition details on Page 2 and check for new and
updated sections online at: www.fungimap.org.au/index.php/surveying-fungi
Please get in touch with Fungimap if you need an update posted to you. As you use
the Guide, we welcome you to think about what improvements you would like to see
and share your ideas and comments with us.
I C O N K E Y
 Valuable information
 Website
 Useful Reference Book

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
2
Incredible Fungi
Often lacking the recognition of “flora and fauna,” fungi are nonetheless champions
in Australian ecosystems, indispensable to their health, resilience, and diversity.
ungi are estimated to constitute 25% of the total biomass on Earth,
with Australasian macrofungi alone estimated at 9,000 species. They
perform vital ecological roles in decomposing wood, cycling nutrients,
providing shelter and sustenance to animals, invertebrates, and
microbes, in promoting disease resilience, and in symbiotic
relationships with plants and algae. Despite their importance, little is known
about what Australian fungi exist or about their distribution, conservation
status, or the complex interactions they may have with the flora and fauna on
this continent.
Figure 1. Paul George, Cyptotrama aspratum
Citizen-scientists can make a huge impact on our knowledge of this
kingdom.
Chapter
1
F

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
3
Fungimap is a national, non-profit citizen-science group that was formed in the
mid-1990’s to enable individuals with knowledge of their local fungi to feed that
knowledge into the scientific community to help fill the gap in our
understanding. Since then, Fungimap has received nearly 100,000
observational records of fungi, which is equivalent to one-quarter of all of the
records and collections of fungi made since the beginning of European
exploration in Australia. While this is still a far cry from our knowledge of
Australia’s birds (a healthy 21.5 million observations!) it has resulted in fungi
slowly being recognized as an important aspect of conservation and
management practices, and it is allowing us to establish a baseline for species
distributions against which to detect rare species in need of conservation, and
to identify and respond to threats to this kingdom from climate change,
pollution, and habitat loss.
Further fungal surveys will help to confirm the distributions and habits of
species already well-recorded, locate and document species which are new to
science, and contribute to our understanding of how fungi are likely to respond
under threat. There is still a lot left to discover about fungi! It is estimated
that only 15-30% of Australian fungi have been named and described and this
may partially explain our lack of comprehensive fungi checklists and the
omission of fungi from current ecological monitoring in most Australian states.
During the past 20-30 years, significant changes have been observed with
fungi monitored at sites in Europe, showing changes in both the numbers and
variety recorded. In that time, some previously common species have become
rare or endangered. It is quite possible that in future we may only know which
species made up relatively-undamaged ecological communities because of
surveys that that we undertake now – data which will be necessary to recreate
habitats and reintroduce species, including dependent birds and small
mammals, across their natural ranges.
In addition to being key indicators of general ecosystem health, the field of
pharmacology has seen exciting medicinal discoveries and innovations
emerging from the study of fungal compounds over the past several decades,
as antibiotics, immunosuppressants, and anti-cancer derivatives. The
potential biologic and economic wealth present within the fungi kingdom is
considerable, as is the potential loss from insufficient conservation.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
4
Major Groups of Fungi
Fungi are a very diverse group of organisms spread across several Kingdoms
including not only Fungi, but also Stramenopila (formerly Chromista), and
Protoctista. However, they all share similar
characteristics such as reproduction by spores, lack of
photosynthesis, and biochemical/subcellular characters.
For convenience, fungi are often grouped according to
their macroscopic characteristics (traits that are visible to
the naked eye) into the following groupings:
Macrofungi
Macrofungi are the easiest for non-specialists to survey, identify
and collect because they have a visible spore-producing structure,
known as the ‘fruit body’. Macrofungi are further subdivided for
convenience into morphogroups according to their visible similarity
to each other. Morphogroups include agarics (known commonly as
mushrooms and toadstools), boletes, chanterelles, coral fungi,
spine fungi, bracket fungi, puffballs, earthballs, earthstars,
stinkhorns, truffles, morels, and disc- and cup-fungi. Macrofungi are
easily observable on a walk through a forest or a park.
(See Appendices for more details on morphogroups.)
Figure 2. Kevin Thiele. The main parts of an Agaric include the Pileus (or Cap),
the Lamellae (or Gills), and the Stipe (or Stem).
 The book Fungi Down Under by Pat Grey and Ed Grey describes 100
Australian macrofungi that are easy to identify in the field, along with
photographs and distributions.
All Fungi reproduce
by spores, lack
photosynthesis (except
lichens), and have
similar biochemical
characters.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
5
Microfungi
The vast majority of fungal species are in fact
microfungi such as moulds, mildews, rusts, smuts
and yeasts used for making beer and bread.
Because these generally do not have fruit bodies,
they only become obvious when their spores are produced en
masse (such as the green mould on an orange), or by noticing the
symptoms they cause on their hosts (such as root rot caused by the
invasive Phytophthora cinnamomi). They are not usually suitable for
non-specialists to survey.
Slime Moulds
Slime moulds, in the Kingdom Protoctista, can be found on moist
woods, such as on the inside of rotting logs. Slime moulds start
their life-cycle as amoeba-like cells (the plasmodium) which feed by
engulfing bacteria and minute organic matter. When they are
mature, slime moulds produce masses of powdery spores. Most
slime moulds produce small fruit bodies, resembling bunches of
grapes or tiny clubs (see Figure 3). A few species, such as Fuligo
septica, or Flower of Tan, form large cushion-shaped fruit bodies.
There are about 170 known species of Australian slime moulds, of
which very few are restricted to Australia (May et al. 2003).
Figure 3 Sarah Lloyd. An iridescent Lamproderma sp., a Slime Mould,
has tiny stalked fruit bodies.
 Sarah Lloyd has been documenting slime moulds at Black Sugarloaf in
Northern Tasmania. Her Slime Mould log has excellent general
information, including time-lapse images showing the development from
plasmodium to fruit-body. Website: www.disjunctnaturalists.com/slime-
mould-log/
Lichens
Lichens are fantastic examples of Nature’s ability to combine in
novel ways to exploit environmental conditions. Unlike the other
groups mentioned, lichens are unusual in that they describe a
Yeasts and
moulds are
microfungi.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
6
symbiotic relationship between a fungus and an alga or
cyanobacterium, rather than a set of species. They are classified by
the fungal partner in this relationship. There are 3,500 known
species of lichenized fungi in Australia spanning all habitats,
including the arid interior. Unlike other fungi, lichens are
photosynthetic but only thanks to the photosynthetic properties of
the algae or cyanobacteria, and they consequently have a rather
different biology and ecology to other larger fungi. Some lichenized
fungi, such as Xanthoparmelia semiviridis, Badimiella pteridophila,
Heterodea muelleri, Nephroma australe, and Psora decipiens are
easy to identify in the field, but the correct identification of most
lichens requires laboratory-based methods that may be beyond the
resources of some citizen-scientists.
 For more on lichens, see www.anbg.gov.au/lichen/what-is-lichen.html,
and Fungimap newsletter number 39 at www.fungimap.org.au.
Fungal Biology and Ecology
Most of the biomass of a fungus grows and spreads throughout the substrate
or host (such as within wood or in soil) as microscopic filaments - called
“hypha” individually and “mycelium” collectively. The size of individual mycelia
can vary considerably, from microscopic to those that extend over several
hectares. The mycelium of some Armillaria species may be the largest, oldest
and heaviest single organisms on the planet. (An Armillaria solidipes in the
Malheur National Forest in Oregon (USA) is the current record-holder at 2,400
years old and 5.6 kilometres across!)
Figure 4, Rosalind Smallwood. Like all mushrooms, the Bolbitius vitellinus that you see above ground
is only the fruit of the fungus, not the organism itself. The fungus is present as mycelium that spread
through the soil, remaining there even when no fruit bodies are visible.
While mycelia are usually present in the substrate where a fungus exists, they
are fragile and impossible to study directly and identify to species level without
very specialized equipment. Spores, through which the fungus reproduces, are
either produced directly by the mycelium, or by specialised structures (the fruit
bodies) that are periodically produced by the mycelium. Spores are always

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
7
microscopic but can be seen en masse in the interior of puffballs, or by taking
the spore print of an agaric (see Figure 5).
Figure 5. Kevin Thiele. A spore print is found by placing the cap of an Agaric gills (or lamellae) down
on a sheet of black and/or white paper. The colour of the spore print can help identify a fungus. Use
both black and white paper as white spore prints will not show clearly against a white background.
Figure 6. Geoff Lay. Top: Cutting open the gelatinous egg of an Aseroe rubra (left) reveals the
immature fruit bodies within it (right). Bottom: A mature Aseroe rubra, also known as a Seastar
Stinkhorn, has red arms coated in a slimy spore mass that smells like rotting meat and attracts flies
who then distribute its spores; if you touch this spore mass the smell can linger on your hands for
hours!

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
8
 The Kingdom Fungi: The Biology of Mushrooms, Molds, and Lichens by Steven L
Stephenson is an accessible handbook that covers the myriad forms and functions of
fungal biology.
The most practical way to survey for macrofungi is by
observation of the fruit bodies. Some fungi do produce
tough, perennial or persistent fruiting bodies, such as
many puffballs and bracket fungi, however for other
species the production of fruit bodies can be ephemeral
and sporadic – sometimes occurring only every few
years and lasting but a few hours. For this reason it is impossible for every
fungus present in an area to be identified during a single survey. Fruit bodies
may be produced throughout the extent of the mycelium, or in only some
portions, and these portions may vary from one fruiting period to the next.
Production of fleshy fruit bodies is very dependent on suitable rainfall, usually
during the wet seasons, and the time and extent of fruiting varies considerably
from one year to the next. On the plus side, this makes every foray into an
area during fungi season new and exciting!
Fungi flourish particularly well within moist forest areas, but they are found across
all Australian bioregions, including the arid interior. Current data support a view that
many Australian fungi are very widespread.
Figure 7. Atlas of Living Australia. Clockwise from top left: Distribution of Podaxis pistillaris, Amanita
xanthocephala, Claustula fischeri, and Microporus xanthopus,
Some fruit bodies
appear only
sporadically and last
but a few hours.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
9
One common pattern, exemplified by Amanita xanthocephala (see Figure 7,
top-right) and Dermocybe austroveneta, is occurrence in south-west Western
Australia, Tasmania, and in higher rainfall areas from mid-southern South
Australia to New South Wales, and sometimes southern Queensland.
Complementing this is an arid/semi-arid distribution, as for Podaxis pistillaris
(Figure 7, top left) and Battarrea stevenii, found throughout the arid interior. A
third pattern spans near-coastal areas in tropical Australia, such as for
Microporus xanthopus (Figure 7, bottom left). The lack of evidence for species
of restricted range is good news for fungal conservation, since a wide
distribution on the whole appears to offer some protection against loss of
species, although extinction of local populations may still occur. However,
fungi often favour particular habitats within a broad distribution and there is
much to learn about the precise habitat requirements of each species. It also
remains a possibility that many restricted species have not yet been collected
and named.
Further survey data can be helpful in confirming the rarity and narrow range of
a few species such as Hypocreopsis amplectens and Claustula fischeri (Figure
7, bottom right). However, very few Australian fungi seem to have small
ranges, which contrast with the many rare or threatened Australian plants with
narrow distribution ranges. The wide distribution of fungi means that at any
one site there may be hundreds of species of macrofungi. It is intriguing
how they manage to co-exist; the make-up and balance of the fungal
community is an area where much remains to be learned.
The Role of Fungi in Ecosystems
Because fungi do not photosynthesise, they must gain their nutrition from
exterior sources, mostly by absorption. There are three main nutritional
methods employed by fungi: saprotrophic, parasitic, and mutualistic (see Box
1, below). Fungi play important roles in natural ecosystems through
decomposition and nutrient recycling, and as mycorrhizal partners of most
green plants.
Mycorrhizal fungi are of particular interest because of their partnerships with
plants. The formation of mycorrhizae is very widespread amongst green
plants, and studies in different Australian habitats have found at least two
thirds of plant species form mycorrhizae. A mycorrhiza (literally 'fungus-
root') is a mutualistic relationship between a fungus and a green plant in
which there is exchange of nutrients between them via a sheath of hyphae
or other specialised fungal structures external or internal to plant roots. Plants
depend upon mycorrhizae for normal healthy growth. Mycorrhizae are involved
in nutrient and water uptake, can produce plant hormones, and may confer
resistance to water stress, tolerance to heavy metals and salt, and give
protection against plant pathogens. Mycorrhizal fungi appear less diverse in
disturbed sites and plantations. There is great scope for investigating the
importance of mycorrhizal fungi for re-vegetation and environmental
remediation.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
10
 Mycelium Running: How fungi can save the world by Paul Stamets explains some
of the science behind Stamets’ philosophy of “mycorestoration” for remediating sites and
increasing their biologic potential using mycorrhizal fungi.
Conservation of Macrofungi
In total, eight fungal taxa and one fungal community are formally listed on
conservation schedules, all at state level. There is no national listing of rare
and threatened fungi for Australia, and the threat status of most species is yet
to be established. If all documented species were to be assigned to threat
categories, most fungi would currently be regarded as Poorly Known.
In Western Australia there are two species of Amanita (A. carneiphylla and A.
griseibrunnea) listed as Poorly Known Taxa, Priority Two in the Priority Flora
List of the Department of Conservation and Land Management, Western
Australia.
In Victoria, there are two species where specific threats are known
(Hypocreopsis amplectens and Morchella esculenta). The Hypocreopsis has
been classified as “vulnerable” under the Victorian Flora and Fauna
Guarantee Act 1988, and the Nyora Flora and Fauna Reserve has been
established on account of its occurrence there. Hypocreopsis amplectens is
known from only three sites in Australia.
In New South Wales, the only protected endangered ecological fungal
community in Australia exists at Lane Cove Bushland Park, Sydney to
conserve the Hygrocybeae (waxcap) community, listed under the NSW
Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995. Lane Cove Bushland Park is
itself on the register of the National Estate primarily on the basis of the
Hygrocybeae community. In addition, six Hygrocybe taxa first described from
Box 1: Three Ways that Fungi Feed
1. They absorb nutrients from breaking down dead organic substances
such as wood, leaf litter, and dung. Fungi that feed in this way are called
saprotrophic.
2. They obtain nutrients directly from living hosts (parasitic). Most of these
are microfungi.
3. They partner with other organisms (mutualism/symbiosis), such as
through mycorrhizae, which carry nutrients and water to the plant partner
that it can’t access on its own in exchange for the nutrients that the fungus
requires. Fungi that feed in this way are called mycorrhizal. Lichens are
also a form of mutualism.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
11
Lane Cove Bushland Park are listed on the NSW Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1995. Camarophyllopsis kearneyi, Hygrocybe
austropratensis and H. lanecovensis (all known only from Lane Cove) are
listed as Endangered, and Hygrocybe anomala var. ianthinomarginata, H.
aurantipes and H. reesiae (all known within NSW. from three or less localities
in the Sydney area) are listed as Vulnerable.
 Find out more about Lane Cove Bushland Park, the first Australian Fungal
Heritage Site, online at: http://www.sydneyfungalstudies.org.au/lanecove.htm
More knowledge is needed in order for fungi to be included on state and
national threatened species lists. Once a species is listed, then all the tools
available to conservation such as action plans, recovery plans, monitoring
plots, and research into threat abatement, can be deployed.
Further surveys of Australian fungi can help to reduce the large number of
species that now sit in the “Poorly Known” category by removing species that
are found to be common and widespread and by identifying rare and
threatened species, ensuring that limited resources for conservation are used
efficiently and effectively.
Figure 8. Left: David Catcheside, Hygrocybe graminocolour, and Right: Geoff Lay, Hypocreopsis
amplectens, a “Vulnerable” fungus known from only three sites in Australia.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
12
Types of Surveys
There are two main types of fungal surveys. The most appropriate survey type
depends on the size of the survey area and the time and resources that you have to
conduct the survey.
itizen-scientists make a huge contribution to the understanding and
conservation of fungi by recording and sharing first-hand observations
made in the field. Surveying fungi is not difficult! Even if you have
never conducted a biodiversity survey before, by using this Guide and
starting at whatever level you’re at, you can make a significant contribution to the
study of Australian fungi, and - by extension - help
to understand and protect the whole ecosystem,
within which fungi are a vital part.
There are essentially two main types of fungal
surveys; species-specific surveys and site-specific
surveys.
Species-specific surveys involve looking through an area for anywhere from a
single species or genus that you can confidently identify, to looking for the
presence of several dozen. Deciding which species to look for and how many to
include on your list is a matter of having the skills and resources to accurately
recognize your surveyed species when they are encountered. In this type of survey
you get to know the biology and ecology of particular species; for many Australian
fungi it is still not known what range of habitats or bioclimatic zones they can
occupy, and these are key indicators of how vulnerable the species may be to
environmental changes.
With site-specific surveys, the aim is to try to obtain a complete list of every
fungal species that occurs within a well-defined area, whether or not you can
identify them. Many species found in site-specific surveys will not have been
collected or described before, i.e. they will be “new to science.” Because there will
not be names or identification materials which you can refer to, the descriptions,
collections, and photographs that you take of the species will be incredibly
important. Because macrofungal fruit bodies can appear so irregularly and last only
a short time before deteriorating, it is believed that it could take up to ten years
of regular surveys at a site to obtain the full list of fungi present. Don’t be
Chapter
2
C
Surveys can be designed
to cover a list of species
(species-specific), or aim
to find all the species at a
given site (site-specific).

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
13
discouraged by this though; citizen-scientists working together and each
contributing to a part of the puzzle are the best candidates for completing such a
challenge. Even without being able to identify all of the species, site-specific
surveys can help pinpoint hot spots and are useful for investigating the fungal
community.
Species-specific Surveys:
Biology, Ecology, and Distribution
There are several factors that may affect the likelihood of finding and/or identifying
the species which you are surveying. For macrofungi, these factors include:
1. Taxa (species) that do not appear seasonally or predictably, or which do
not produce obvious fruit-bodies that persist in a good enough state for a
long-enough period of time that the surveyor has a chance of spotting
them;
2. The climatic conditions (e.g. temperature, rainfall) are not be suitable for
that species;
3. The fungus can only be confidently identified by a few experts or with the
use of sophisticated equipment;
4. The surveyor does not have sufficient experience to distinguish the species
from other taxa with a similar appearance (often called “look-alikes”) or to
know where to find the species in the field.
Minimizing the probability of false absences relies on
considering ways to reduce the impact of these factors,
including carefully selecting the survey species,
researching the species including when and where it has
been recorded before, and understanding its relationship
 Biodiversity of Fungi: Inventory and Monitoring
Methods by G.M Mueller et al. is a comprehensive
textbook that details a range of more advanced
surveying methods.
Figure 9. SJM McMullan-Fisher. The greater the
number of surveyors, the less time in total the survey will
take.
False absences are
when a surveyor
does not or cannot
spot a species
present at the site.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
14
with other flora and fauna.
However, true absences are also important data to collect about a fungus. In
general, unlike many plant species, a fungus will grow in any location that suits
its requirements. If a fungus is absent and yet all of the existing knowledge about
it indicates that it should be present, this could reveal that our understanding of the
fungus needs to be reassessed, or that something else in the habitat (such as a
treatment or contaminant) has arrested its growth.
Box 2: Banksiamyces: What a Species-specific Survey Could Reveal
Figure 10. Geoff Lay. Banksiamyces macrocarpa.
Banksiamyces is a genus of disc-fungi endemic to Australia, which only occurs on
Banksia cones. It has been observed from herbarium material that there can be two
sorts of apothecia (the disc-shaped fruit bodies) on a particular Banksia cone. At
first this was thought to represent two different species of Banksiamyces, but it has
been suggested (Sommerville & May, 2003) that these are successive crops of fruit
bodies from different seasons. This needs to be confirmed from observations of the
same cone over several years, marking any crops of Banksiamyces fruit bodies as
they appear.
Other questions relating to Banksiamyces biology that can be answered with regular
species-specific surveys include:
How old are the Banksia plants when Banksiamyces first appear?
What happens to the Banksiamyces after fire – do they fruit again in the next
season, or after several seasons? Do they fruit again in higher or lower numbers?
What is the distribution of Banksiamyces across cones on one plant, and across
plants in a stand of Banksia?

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
15
Figure 11. Ray Palmer. An extremely rare white Aseroe arachnoidea found in northern Queensland.
Site-specific Surveys:
Fungal Communities and Hot Spots
Site-specific surveys of fungal communities have rarely been carried out in
Australia, especially in comparison to the numerous surveys of plant communities,
with data on many thousands of sites.
Conservation of undescribed and poorly known fungi rests on the hope that the
existing reserve structure and management practices are looking after these fungi.
There is very little evidence either way on this. Apart from reserves chosen to
protect specific animals, many of the decisions about which areas to preserve are
based on the plant community. If all the examples of each plant community
have a similar fungal community, then conserving a proportion of each plant
community will carry along all the different fungal communities. In other
words, the greater the congruence between the plant and fungal communities, the
better will be the conservation outcomes for fungi when plant communities are
protected. However, if similar vegetation in different localities has different sets of
fungi at each site, then there is a danger that some fungi could be lost by only
conserving a proportion of the particular plant community.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
16
Another approach to conservation is to identify habitats or specific sites where
there is a high diversity, so-called “hot spots” of macrofungi or of particular groups,
such as the Hygrocybeae community at Lane Cove Bushland Park.
To answer questions on congruence and to identify hotspots, a network of sites is
needed across a range of habitats. Citizen-scientists located around Australia
contributing data on a single site or set of sites near them can create just such a
network.
For each site, a complete list of macrofungi must be compiled. To begin a site-
specific survey, start by obtaining any lists of species that have already been
recorded in the area, or in a similar habitat and bioclimatic zone. These lists will be
useful tools when going into the field to establish the initial survey of the site, and
an updated list can be taken out on each subsequent visit until all taxa have been
recorded. The Atlas of Living Australia (www.ala.org.au) is an excellent resource
for this data, as it gathers in one place a range of data sets, including both non-
governmental organizations such as Fungimap and field naturalists groups, along
with herbarium and historical records.
 To find a list of fungi that have been previously recorded in an area, you can use the
Atlas of Living Australia at www.ala.org.au or the Fungimap Survey Resources at
www.fungimap.org.au/index.php/surveyingfungi
Figure 12. Using the Atlas of Living Australia at www.ala.org.au you can obtain a list of all fungal
species seen at a specific location.
Keep it simple. Choose a specific site or set of sites that you can access easily.
Plots can be defined rectangular or circular areas (‘quadrats’) or by the boundaries
around or within a particular portion of bushland (such as fences, paths, etc). For
example, a single section of a walking track or a local urban park would be suitable
sites with easily defined boundaries.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
17
Divide the survey area up if there are different vegetation types within it. Typically,
a single site will cover an area of about 100m2, but may be divided into smaller
subplots (5 plots of 10x2m2 for example, or even smaller). Use surveying tape or
flags to mark the boundaries of subplots within the site, and give each subplot a
unique name or number to use when recording species within it. When considering
how large your survey site should be, note that species constancy (whether a
species is found throughout the site or not) and species richness/diversity (how
many different species are present on the site) are a function of plot size, with
constancy usually decreasing and species richness increasing as the plot size
increases.
If you are looking at the effect of factors such as vegetation type, different
management practices, or fire, plots must be replicated. To replicate your survey
you will need a plot of the same size duplicated at another location that has
the same site characteristics and history, and ideally varying only on the factor
that you are researching. Very useful data can be gathered if you are able to visit
sites regularly over several years.
Note the fungi found on each visit to the site, and if possible their substrates and
associated plants. If you have permission to do so, collect a set of specimens of all
the different species that you find.
Finally, write up your results and lodge copies with fungal studies groups,
Fungimap, and herbaria (See further details in Chapter 5). The reports by
Catcheside & Catcheside (1999), Robinson (2001) and Syme (1992), all of which
are listed in the References section at the end of this Guide, are good examples of
how to record survey results.
The Survey Site
When determining an area to survey, and particularly when replicating survey sites,
you will want to find out in advance about the bio-geographical region, or IBRA
bioregion of your survey area. This will tell you a great deal about the likely plant
associations and land system of your survey area which can then be confirmed
when you are on the ground. You can find out about the vegetation community
present at the site by looking up the Major Vegetation Group (MVG) for the area,
either using the National Vegetation Information System (NVIS) classifications, or
using state-based ones such as the NSW Vegetation Information System (VIS).
 The IBRA 6.1 bioregion boundaries are available at
www.environment.gov.au/parks/nrs/science/bioregion-framework/ibra/
See the Fungal Survey Record Sheet in the Appendices for examples of
information to record about the species you observe and collect.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
18
 Discover Information Geographically (DIG) is an online portal for finding a range of
information held by the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts that
can then be displayed graphically (on maps) in a GIS (Geographic Information System).
See: www.environment.gov.au/metadataexplorer/explorer.jsp
In addition, you may find information about soil and landform patterns and
disturbance regimes (land management, anthropogenic activities, livestock
grazing, feral animals, fire history) helpful to both choosing and interpreting your
survey site.
Whether you are doing a Site or Species-specific survey, the survey site should
ideally:
Be a place that you can access for the duration and at the intervals that you
intend for your survey;
Have an area that can be measured, for comparison with other sites;
Be easy to determine where the site begins and ends, and should have the
same habitat throughout;
Be large enough to reduce the effects of trampling when repeated visits are
required, or when large teams are surveying.
Timing of Surveys
In general, surveys should begin during or just before the wet season and after
sufficient rains have moistened the substrate, which means allowing extra time for
rain to reach the ground in densely forested areas. It is during the wet season
when fruit bodies for many species are more likely to be present, though different
species do produce fruit bodies at different times throughout the year and in
response to different weather conditions. Multi-season and multiple surveys per
season are required to identify the full range of species present if you are
conducting a site-specific survey. Survey visits 2-3 weeks apart maximize the
chances of detecting a fungus, but keep in mind that fruit bodies often quickly
disintegrate when exposed to extreme temperatures such as hot weather or frost,
so you may need to shorten the interval if extreme temperatures are forecast.
Survey Methods
There are many different survey methods that have been used in community
based surveys for fungi as well as by professional researchers, but not all methods
are suitable for all types of surveys; the method you choose should suit both your
ability and experience in conducting surveys as some methods are easier to
implement than others, and it should also suit the questions that you hope to be
able to answer using your survey data. If you intend to visit a site more than once,
you should ensure that the survey method you choose can be replicated each time
so that the results of each survey can be compared.
See Fungal Survey Site Description Sheet in the Appendices
for an example of data to collect about the site.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
19
Some examples of survey methods that have been used include:
• Setting up two or more replicated plots (of the same area at sites with similar
habitats) to compare fungal species in plots that have and have not experienced
recent fire activity or timber harvesting, or to simply compare the biodiversity at the
two sites.
• Setting up plots along transects, with transects stratified by upper, middle and
lower slope position for example to record the fungi found at different slopes.
• Wandering for a given time in a given area, which could include walking bush
tracks or paths, and recording all of the species that are seen.
Again, your survey methods will depend on your own skills and experience and the
questions you think are relevant to ask about the fungi or site that you are
surveying. What is critical is only that you write down what you do in enough
detail so that you – or someone else – would be able to repeat it again later.
Timed Wanderings
If the survey area is large and has diverse vegetation and habitats and it is
acceptable that not all of the species present at the site are going to be spotted
during a single survey event, then traversing through and around the survey area,
often for a specific amount of time (“timed wanderings”), or focusing survey efforts
in areas with likely fungi habitats may be a suitable method to choose. No special
equipment is required to mark out plots or transects doing timed wanderings, but
since you may be traversing different habitats using this methodology be sure to
record the habitat where each fungus was found.
In this case, “survey effort” is a key factor to record about the survey design. One
measure of survey effort is to multiply the hours of surveying by the number
of surveyors. So, for example, the survey effort for a survey group of four people
surveying a site for two hours is 4 x 2 = 8 person-hours survey effort. Surveyors
should be counted who are actively engaged in visually inspecting the site, so if
photographers or collectors are mainly involved with processing observations
made by others, they should not be counted when recording survey effort. When
doing species-specific surveys, the survey effort even for those surveys where you
did not find evidence of the species you are looking for should be recorded so that
it will be possible to judge whether the species is missing only because insufficient
time has been expended looking for it there, relative to surveys at sites with similar
characteristics. Survey effort enables comparison of surveys of varying durations at
the same site.
You should be aware that surveys of this type, by their nature, may involve some
accessibility bias in that those areas and slopes that are easiest to access may
also be those that are given the greatest attention, and this accessibility bias may
vary depending on the individual. If there are areas of the site that are not
surveyed, be sure to record this in the details and reports about your survey.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
20
Using Plots and Transects
Surveyors can also set up plots or transects at permanent locations in order to
survey the area in a systematic and regular manner, recording only those species
that are within the boundary of their plot. Using plots and transects are useful when
seeking to record changes in the species composition or abundance over the site,
such as where transitions exist between different vegetation types or habitats and
you wish to record the impact of these transitions on the species present or overall
levels of biodiversity. These surveys complete a 100% visual examination of the
survey area, or subplot, and ideally each subplot within the survey site will have a
homogeneous vegetation type.
As mentioned above, timed wanderings are unlikely to result in observing 100% of
the species present, and efforts to reduce false absences in areas where there is a
dense or structurally complicated understory can require significantly more survey-
effort. Thus, restricting your survey to smaller “sample” subplots can make the
survey less time-consuming, and give greater confidence that there were no false
absences in the surveyed transect or plot.
To install a plot or transect you will need a compass, measuring tape, GPS,
a map, and a post or semi-permanent flagging to mark each plot or
transect.
To avoid “edge effects” try to allow a distance of one tree height or 20m2
from roads or unnatural clearings before marking your first transect origin
or centre point of your plot.
Permanently mark your transect origin or one corner of your plot with a
durable wooden or metal post and label it with an inscribed metal tag
(plastic cattle tags are also acceptable.)
When monitoring try to avoid walking directly on your transect line of in
your plot.
Always survey your transect from the same side of the line, and keep the
survey width at 1m.
As the transects are walked, record the position of each fruit body and in
which subplot the fungus is recorded.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
21
Preparing to go into the Field
Appropriate preparation will ensure that you and your survey team enjoy a safe,
efficient, enjoyable time in the field.
Permits and Permissions
You must have a permit to collect fungi from any land other than private
property. Permits may be obtained from the appropriate State or Territory
government department and come with responsibilities and requirements such as
the submission of a report on any results of the survey. On private property you
should obtain written permission from the landowner to collect, and you should
clearly explain the nature and intentions of your
survey work; some property owners are wary of
people speculating or of illicitly obtaining some
commercial benefit from their land.
When submitting a permit application, allow plenty of
time before the expected date of the survey for the
documentation to be processed; six weeks is the
minimum turn-around time that you should expect. If
you intend to visit the same location over a period of time, try to obtain a permit that
will cover you for a whole year, rather than having to reapply for each visit. On
private property, of course, each visit must be confirmed in advance with the land-
owner.
You will also need a permit to enter some state and national parks regardless of
whether or not you intend to collect any specimens - you will need to check this
with the relevant department.
Finally, in most states and territories you will need a permit to enter or pass through
Aboriginal land. The requirements and contacts for each state/territory are below:
In Western Australia you can obtain a permit to enter Aboriginal lands from
the Department of Indigenous Affairs:
http://www.dia.wa.gov.au/en/Entry-Permits/EP_Y_PermitForm/
In the Northern Territories/South Australia you should check with the
Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara (APY) at
http://www.anangu.com.au/permits.html
Chapter
3
Follow the rules of the
bush by leaving gates as
they were found (open or
closed), keeping to paths
where possible and
minimising your impact on
the local environment.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
22
There are no Land Councils in Queensland but you should check with each
of the individual communities that you intend to pass through or visit. You
can contact the Office of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Affairs on
(07) 3224 2111 for any queries.
In Victoria, contact the Department of Aboriginal Affairs at
http://www.dpcd.vic.gov.au/indigenous.
In New South Wales, contact the Aboriginal Land Council at
http://www.alc.org.au/.
Insurance
If your survey will involve more people than just yourself, you should have public
liability insurance cover for at least $10,000,000. You can take out your own
personal public liability insurance, but it may also be possible to get local field
naturalist groups to extend their coverage to your survey if it is organized under
their auspices. Fungimap may also be able to extend their Public Liability
Insurance to your survey if you arrange this with them in advance, use the
Fungimap name, and agree to share all survey results.
Prepare for Your Safety: Assessing Risks
It is well-known that the Australian bush can be a dangerous place for the
unprepared. Care taken to ensure that you can cope with any likely emergencies
can save you or your fellow surveyors’ lives.
Box 3: To Collect or Not to Collect?
Ideally, a collection will be made of all species encountered for a site-specific
survey at some point. Collections of macrofungi differ from collections of plants
in that it is only the fruit body which is being collected, and not the whole plant;
the mycelium will not be affected by the removal of the fruit bodies and will be
able to fruit again. However, it is always the best idea to collect sparingly and
wisely, if only to save yourself the considerable time of describing and
preparing an inferior specimen.
Here are some questions to ask before you collect:
1. Is the specimen in good condition?
2. Has it been collected from this site before? Is there something special or
unusual about this specimen that would make another collection
worthwhile?
3. Is it too old or too young?
4. Is it needed for your study?
5. Do you have time to describe, prepare, and dry the collections. As a rule of
thumb, the maximum number of specimens an individual can process
in a day is about ten.
Further details about making collections can be found in the Chapter 4.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
23
You should carry out a risk assessment before each survey, and the results and
plans to handle any risks should be made clear to all involved in advance. While
the list that follows is not exhaustive, it is a good starting point for considering what
risks may be encountered during your survey:
1. Inclement weather
2. Fires
3. Dehydration
4. Snakes and insect bites
5. Falling branches
6. Getting Lost
7. Slips, falls and other accidents
8. Heat exhaustion or hypothermia
9. Falling ill
10. Getting stranded
Inclement Weather
Let’s face it; Fungi Season can be wet. Weather conditions in many areas of
Australia, especially in mountainous regions, can change rapidly. Snow, rain, wind,
hail, and even baking hot sun are all possible so make sure that you are properly
equipped for conditions in your area. Ensure that all members of the survey group
are aware that they must dress appropriately and wear footwear that can cope with
slippery and/or steep surfaces.
See the Sample Risk Assessment in the Appendices.
S A F E T Y D U R I N G S U R V E Y S
1. In an emergency dial 000. If you cannot get a connection dial 112
(mobile phones).
2. Take a first aid kit and know how to use it. Local field naturalist or
bushwalking groups may let you borrow their kits. You should always try
to have at least one member of your survey group trained in first aid.
3. Take a personal locator beacon (PLB). In some states you can obtain
these for free from Parks & Wildlife Services (see further details below),
or else they are available to rent for very reasonable rates.
4. Plan for your safety and the safety of others in your survey group.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
24
Before you go out, check the weather report from the Bureau of Meteorology at
www.bom.gov.au. If you do not have access to the web, contact your local regional
office, as below:
Decide in advance what weather conditions are unacceptable and will require you
to cancel or reschedule your survey, and ensure that this is clear to the other
survey members. If the survey is cancelled or rescheduled, the Survey Leader
should contact each member of the group individually to advise them in person or
by telephone: do not rely on emails or text messages which may not be read
in time!
Getting Lost
Writing field descriptions and taking good photographs can take time. Survey
members who are not involved with these tasks can sometimes be in a rush to find
the next mushroom rather than waiting with the rest of the survey team to complete
their recordings, and these are generally the ones most at risk for becoming
separated from the team.
A phone number for the Survey Leader should be provided to all participants, as
well as instructions and a map of the area. The duration of the foray should be
made clear, including departure and return locations and times. The Survey Leader
should also ensure that they have an up-to-date list of all members of the survey
team, along with their contact and emergency contact details.
A strategy for ensuring that no survey members are missing should be agreed
upon at the start of the foray – i.e. a buddy system, or regular head counts. It is
good practice for the Survey Leader to stop regularly and show the team where
they are at that moment on the map so that surveyors remain aware of their
location. A GPS or compass will also be needed, but do not rely entirely on the use
of the GPS and know your GPS’s limitations; many consumer GPS units will have
difficulty pinpointing your location accurately if you are under thick foliage or tree
cover, and can misplace your location by several kilometers. Use all of the
instruments available to double-check against a reputable paper or static digital
map.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
25
A personal locator beacon (PLB) is
also recommended for each survey
group that will be surveying
independently (for example, in large
teams that may split up into smaller
units.) A PLB is a distress beacon that,
when activated, sends an SOS signal to
a special global satellite system that is
then relayed to local search and rescue
services. Most PLB’s have a GPS fitted
in them; the GPS location will be sent
along with the signal to permit
emergency services to find you faster.
PLB’s are available for free or for hire in
many locations. Some sources include:
If you are surveying in the Blue Mountains region of New South Wales,
the Think Before You Trek safety initiative between the NSW Police Force
and the National Parks and Wildlife Service provides bushwalkers with a
free loaned Personal Locator Beacon (PLB), and can be picked up from
the Katoomba or Springwood Police Stations or from the National parks
and Wildlife Service in Blackheath. Details can be found here:
http://www.police.nsw.gov.au/community_issues/crime_prevention/trek
In Tasmania, personal locator beacons can be hired for $40 per week from
Service Tasmania shops in Hobart, Launceston, Burnie and Devonport.
More details available from: www.parks.tas.gov.au/index.aspx?id=7364
 The Bush Walkers Wilderness Safety Organisation has a great list of Do’s and Don’ts on
their website. See http://www.bwrs.org.au/?q=faq-do-dont , as well as an explanation of
PLB’s and how they work: http://www.bwrs.org.au/?q=faq-plb-epirb
 Before you walk, Essential Bushwalking Guide for Tasmania;
http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/index.aspx?base=403
 Bushwalkers of Western Australia Club’s Bushwalking Safety Procedures:
www.bowa.iinet.net.au/documents/other/BOWA%20Safety%20Procedure.pdf
Slips, Falls and Accidents
The condition and difficulty of the site or track should be
investigated prior to the survey, and any surveyors with
mobility issues should be warned of potential barriers. If you
are checking the site in dry weather, consider also what it will
be like after several days of rain and if this might constitute
good reason to postpone or cancel the survey if very wet
weather transpires.
If a hazard is found during a survey, such as a deep hole or a steep, unexpected
incline, make sure to stop the survey and warn the team of it, mark it off with bright
safety tape if possible, and also mark it on your map for future surveys.
Figure 13. NASA Goddard/Rebecca Roth.
A Micro PLB.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
26
In your first aid kit you should carry triangular bandages, pressure bandages, ice
packs, and materials to make a splint. If someone has fallen from a height or there
is a chance they may have neck or spinal damage, make them comfortable with as
little movement of their neck or spine as possible and call emergency services on
000 or 112 immediately.
Fire Safety
The Fungi Season takes place during the wettest period of the year, so it is
unlikely for many surveys to take place under fire hazard conditions. Fires are most
likely from November to April in most regions of Australia, although the Kimberley
fire season runs from June through to late October. Always check the local media
and contact your fire station to check on local conditions. Never go surveying on
days when there is an elevated fire risk.
If you are caught in or near a bush fire, try to move downhill if safe to do so and get
clear of the brush into an area clear of long grass and shrubs, such as a road. If
you can make it to your car but are unable to safely drive away from the fire, close
all windows and vents, lie down on the floor and cover yourself with woolen
blankets. Leave your headlights and hazard lights on while keeping the engine
running. Drink water. Do not get out of the vehicle or open the windows unless the
fire front has passed. Try not to panic. If you are on foot, cover all exposed skin as
best you can and move quickly, keeping as low to the ground as possible avoiding
dense vegetation, logs, or uneven ground. If you are able to, call 000 or 112 as
they may be able to direct you safely out of the fire zone.
Remember: fires can move quickly and switch directions suddenly.
Falling Branches
Most deaths in Australia attributed to falling branches have been occupationally
related to forestry and other industrial activities around trees. That said, there is
always some risk of falling branches when involved in any activity around trees.
You should be careful around trees that seem to be suffering rot or damage, any
trees with loose branches suspended in their canopy, and any fire-scarred trees as
these may have been weakened and represent a lingering hazard. Always take
care in forested areas, especially on wet or windy days.
Snake and Insect Bites
If bit by a snake or insect, including funnel web spiders, bees, wasps, and ants for
allergic individuals, call 000 or 112 for an ambulance, apply the pressure
immobilization technique and keep the affected individual as motionless as
possible.
The pressure immobilization technique involves wrapping a broad pressure
bandage – or clothing /towels torn into strips – around the bitten area as tightly as
you would wrap a sprained ankle. If bitten on the torso or head, apply pressure
directly to the site without restricting breathing and blood flow to the head.
Do not remove clothing as any movement will push the venom into the blood
stream. Keep the patient and any bitten limbs still, which may require you to
apply a splint to the limb to keep it and the person from moving.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
27
Do NOT cut or excise the bitten or stung area
Do NOT wipe or wash the bitten or stung area. The type of snake
involved may be identified by the detection of venom on the skin.
Supplies
Equipment that you should carry with you:
To Make Collections
1. Wax paper bags (full sandwich size) or brown paper bags and a roll of
aluminum or wax paper for larger specimens (fungi are placed inside
with the two ends twisted around like a Christmas cracker). Plastic
containers - old take-away or ice-cream containers work well.
2. Trowel or large knife to dig up the base of fruit bodies
3. 4-prong garden cultivator/rake to turn over leaf matter; ensure the
handle is at least 1-meter and mark it legibly to make a built-in
measuring tool (a garden stake could also be used)
4. Sharp knife/ razor blade (a cheese knife works well)
5. Specimen field tags (jeweler’s tags are inexpensive and work well)
6. Flagging and permanent tags to mark collection sites
7. Basket or bucket to carry collected specimens
General Equipment
8. Survey data forms and fungal description forms
9. GPS unit, compass, and maps
10. Digital camera
11. An 18% grey card and/or a white balance card to take photos with
appropriate exposure and colour balance. (See section Photographing
in the Field in Chapter 4 for an explanation.)
12. Permanent marking pens
13. Field guides (such as Fungi Down Under, and others recommended at
the end of this Guide)
14. 10x or 5x hand lens
15. A small mirror
16. Waterproof notebooks (such as Rite in the Rain® brand products),
pencils, OR pocket voice recorder
17. Pin markers and/or flagging tape if needed to mark out plot boundaries
18. Tape measure
For Comfort and Safety
19. Waterproof clothing
20. Boots or wellies and a change of socks
21. Lunch, water, and warm drinks
22. First aid kit
23. Emergency space blanket (used to treat shock, and their reflective foil
can help you be seen through the trees if you require rescue.)

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
28
24. Whistle (to summon help if needed)
25. A small canister of salt for leeches
26. Waterproof matches
27. Sunscreen
28. Sun hat
29. Insect repellent
30. Pressure bandages for snakebites as well as sprains
31. Appropriate anti-Phytophthora equipment (70% methylated spirits and
brushes/spray bottles to wipe boots, hats, equipment, and car wheels.)
Back at the Base
32. PC or laptop computer, preferably with internet access
33. Thumb drive to back up data
34. Colour charts for describing colours accurately
35. Dryer/dehydrator
36. Fridge for keeping specimens fresh before they go into the driers
(depending on the specimen they may keep for up to three days)
37. Polypropylene bags to store dried collections
38. Silica gel to store with collections to keep them from rehydrating
39. Microscope (if you have one! This is not absolutely necessary.)
40. Ruler, caliper for measuring fruit bodies
41. Archival quality (acid-free) paper for descriptions and spore prints
42. Pencils
Final Considerations
Be mindful of how many individuals the survey site can support, and
ensure that – if coming by car –there are sufficient, safely-located parking
spots to accommodate all of the vehicles. Foray Leaders should not leave
the site until they have accounted for all participants and all cars have
departed with all of the people that they arrived with.
Don’t take dogs. While they make great walking companions, dogs have a
tendency to eat things they shouldn’t, and there are some fungi that can be
toxic or even deadly to our canine friends.
Don’t leave behind any rubbish. That’s just good manners in Mother
Nature’s house.
Follow protocols to ensure you are not introducing diseased materials into
the area; boots, hats, gloves and tools should be cleaned of any mud long
before entering the survey site and disinfected with 70% methylated spirits
or products such as Coolacide®, Phytoclean® or Biogram®. Any mud
should also be removed with a scraper from boots and tools before leaving
the survey site. Hats can also be a source of infectious spores; with Myrtle
Rust for example, hats were found to be the most contaminated with
diseased materials so ensure that these are disinfected and washed
appropriately.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
29
Survey Protocols
Establishing clear responsibilities, methods, and goals for your fungal survey will
ensure that you get the best results.
Organisation of Survey Teams
While some surveys may be done around your home and on your own, it is
recommended that you do not travel into the bush alone. When you are surveying
with others, it is important that each person in the group understand their role
during the survey. If the survey team is quite large, it is good practice to break the
group into smaller units of less than 10 individuals each. These units can then
survey different areas, assigned to ensure that no areas are missed. Each survey
unit should have its own Photographer, Recorder, and Describer if possible.
Foray Leader
The Foray Leader is in charge of getting together the organisational aspects of the
foray, arranging any permits, transport, risk assessments, and communication with
the survey members. The Foray Leader has a great deal of responsibility to ensure
that the survey is safe, well-organised, and enjoyable for the participants. Ideally,
Foray Leaders should have accreditation in First Aid.
Often this individual will have the most experience in
identifying species, but this is not necessarily required.
What is key is their ability to plan, make responsible
decisions, and keep everyone on track to fulfill the goals
of the survey. Everyone on the survey should have the
Foray Leader’s contact details, and vice versa.
 Fungimap offers training in becoming a Foray Leader for those who have not had much
experience leading groups into the bush.
Photographer
Each observational record or collection made should be photographed in the
field. While many, if not all, of the survey members will have a camera of their own,
it is highly recommended that one individual be designated the Survey
Photographer in each survey unit. This will make it much easier to ensure that
there is a photograph of each specimen; if each survey member has taken
Chapter
4
When the Foray Leader
is talking in the field,
they should check that
everyone is listening
and can hear them.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
30
photographs of their own observations and collections, these can be difficult to
collate back at the survey base, leaving records incomplete or unidentifiable. The
Photographer should ideally have some experience in nature photography and
should know how to work their camera. Taking photographs of fungi in the field is
covered later in this chapter.
Recorder
The Recorder takes notes as the survey unit finds each specimen, listing field
number, the genus and species if known, the habitat, substrate, any associated
species, and whether a photograph and/or collection was taken. They will carry the
Fungal Survey Record Sheet (see Appendices), or similar. This individual will
spend a good amount of time writing notes in the field, and less time looking
around, thus it can be a difficult post to fill. If that is an issue, the Foray Leader
should rotate the position through several members of the survey unit. This role
requires waterproof paper, pencils, clear handwriting, and a methodical nature that
ensures that every observation or collection is recorded. If your handwriting can be
difficult to read, it is equally possible that a good voice recorder could be used and
the records transcribed later.
Collector
For any collections which are
made, text descriptions and
sometimes drawings are made
in the field covering all of the
key characteristics of the
specimen before it is collected.
The fruit body may deteriorate
rapidly once removed from its
substrate so these will
complement further descriptions
made once the specimen has
been prepared and dried. Like
the role of Recorder, the
Collector will need waterproof
paper, pencils, and clear
handwriting. Unlike the
Recorder, the Collector may
spend significantly longer with a
single specimen taking very
detailed notes, rather than
recording each target species
observed.
Figure 14. Katrina Syme.
An example of a full description of a fungus collection.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
31
Identifier
This is not a set role, but one which may be different for each record. The Identifier
is the individual who identifies the specimen to genus or species level, i.e. the
person who recognizes the fungus and can make an informed decision about the
identification. Often, this won’t take place in the field at all but may be someone
who researches the characters that were noted in field guides sometime later and
finds evidence sufficient to make the identification. It is important to record the
Identifier for each record in case there are any questions later about how the
identification was made. It is not at all uncommon not to be able to confidently
identify a fungal species in the field; this is something that improves with practice
as you become familiar with more species.
Finding the Fungi
Finding macrofungal fruit bodies involves a visual examination of the site. If you are
surveying particular species, then the key to locating their fruit bodies will be
knowing what they look like (i.e., size, colour), and where they are most likely to
occur, particularly what substrate they prefer (such as leaf litter, soil, sand, grass,
bones, dung, etc). If your survey is looking for all fungi within a given area then you
will need to examine all possible substrates.
If you have a large enough group, it is good practice to have each member looking
for specimens at a different height and in different substrates, and to switch these
roles up a few times during the survey; it can be hard on your neck holding your
head up or down at right angles for long periods of time. Also, be sensitive to any
physical restrictions survey members may have in terms of kneeling or
hiking up steep embankments.
If you are surveying hypogeous fungi, better known as truffles, these fruit below
ground in almost any location where there are trees. They usually occur in a zone
between the organic leaf-litter and the soil, about 2.5 to 15 centimeters deep, but
can sometimes be more than a 30 centimetres deep. Evidence that small animals
have been digging in an area recently is often a good indication that truffles are
near.
To find truffles:
Look under mounds on the forest floor,
around fresh animal digs, under leaf litter,
and around areas where water naturally
pools. Rakes can be used to gently peel back
the litter layer. (Remember to replace the
litter when you are done and always try to
leave the area as you found it.) Dig into the
soil and work through it with your hands.
Use your sense of smell and touch.
Truffles are fragrant
and smells can range
from maple syrup to
peanut butter to fish
and even bubble gum.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
32
Most truffles range in size from pea to walnut-sized, and in shape are
globose (round) or tuberoid (like a potato). Most truffles are dense, but
others are hollow so be gentle when probing them.
Just like any fungi that you come across in the field, DO NOT EAT any
truffles or assume that they are edible!
Photographing in the Field
Photographs are a very important aspect of documenting the fungi that are found
during your survey. While it is important for the photographer to be skilled with the
use of their equipment, they must also be aware of several unique issues that must
be addressed when photographing fungi.
The first step to photographing a fungus is to decide what type of fungus it is and
therefore which characters will need to be documented for future identifications and
confirmation of any field identifications. The photographer must get a clear, in-focus
view of the part of the fungus that produces spores e.g. its gills, pores or teeth. In
addition, the photographer should take shots from several angles – especially from
the sides. The photographer’s role may end up being the muddiest of them all, as it
will frequently require getting down onto the ground for an appropriate angle!
Don't be afraid to pick one or two specimens to arrange in different orientations so
that multiple characters can be viewed in a single photograph, or to show the age
range of fruiting bodies to illustrate how they change in colour and texture with
maturity. If at all possible, cut a specimen in half from top to bottom to show internal
features. Also make sure that you take a shot that shows the size of the specimen
– either by putting a ruler into the shot or by using a finger/hand/other appropriate
size-indicator.
Figure 15. Paul George. Note how the photographer has arranged the field collection tag number and
several specimens at different angles in the shot to show the gills and stem as well as several stages
of maturity for the fungus.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
33
Finally, think about the composition of your shot. Make sure the fungus fills as
much of the view as possible and is in focus. Not even an expert mycologist can
identify a small blurry bump in a field!
When preparing your shots it is recommended that you use an 18% grey card
and/or a white balance card to take photos with appropriate exposure and
colour balance. To use an 18% grey card, point your camera at the card and
make note of the f-stops and shutter speed values given, and then take the picture
with these adjusted meter readings for perfect exposure. A white balance card is
often used to calibrate photographs in order to obtain “true” colours later when
using the white balance tools that come with your digital photo-processing
software. Take a reference photo with the white balance card in it when you are in
a location with new lighting conditions, and then use this reference shot to tell your
photo-processing software that this card’s colour should be considered 100%
white, regardless of how the camera picked up this colour due to shadowing and
low-light. The user manuals for your photo-processing software will give more
details on using the white balance tools in that particular package.
Making Collections
To make a fungal collection, first gently brush off any soil or other debris. Write the
unique collection number legibly on a piece of paper or a collection tag and
photograph it along with the fresh specimen before it has been removed from its
substrate. It is useful to photograph the first image in a series with the collection tag
and remove it from subsequent images of the same specimen. The fresh
characteristics of specimens such as spore colour, exterior traits, and
bruising are critical for correct identification. Also record details of the host
(such as for leaf- or wood-inhabiting fungi), substrate, and associated species. A
collection without full documentation is almost useless.
Place the specimen and completed field tag in its own wax paper bag, plastic take-
out container or heavy aluminum foil wrapping and write the unique collection
number in permanent marker on the outside of the storage container. Pack the
specimens so as to avoid damage in transport; sometimes buckets are used to
carry specimens in.
Further things to keep in mind when making collections:
Make sure that collections are adequate but do not over-collect: fruit-bodies
are eaten by many animal species and perform other important ecological
functions. Generally up to five specimens of medium-sized mushrooms or
ten specimens of smaller fruit bodies such as tiny mycenas will be
sufficient.
Collect unopened mushrooms or immature fruit bodies sparingly: lack of
spore release may result in future reduction of populations. Additionally, it
may be impossible to identify the fungus if the spores are immature.
However, it can be useful to include an immature fruit body in a collection
along with mature fruit-bodies, to show features such as the partial veil.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
34
Do not collect anything unless you know you will have sufficient time to
document the specimens appropriately. As a guide, ten collections is
usually the maximum that can be fully described and documented in
a day.
Avoid collecting damaged or decayed specimens: critical diagnostic
characters may have been destroyed.
Collect the whole specimen by carefully digging around the base with a
knife or removing it from bark or dead wood. Include features such as the
volva (basal sac), which helps to identify Amanita species, or a
pseudorhiza (rooting base). Remove as much substrate as possible,
although if there is a lot of obvious mycelium, a small portion should be
collected
For truffles, try to photograph a specimen that has been cut open, cutting
from the base to apex, and photographing both the outer skin and the inner
gleba (spore mass). Cutting fresh specimens is important because it will
indicate lactation, bruising, or smells.
Regularly clean your collecting materials to reduce the risk of spreading
disease.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
35
Back at Base
It is very important that you factor in sufficient time to process your records and
specimens after the foray has concluded.
opefully, your preparation beforehand made the time you spent out in the
field efficient and straight-forward, but if the fungi was out it was no doubt
also very exciting! In Fungi Season, it was probably also very wet and it is
easy for exhaustion to set in once you are back at your warm base
resting your feet. However, it is very important that you get some tasks done as
soon as you return and before your survey team disperses. You should factor in
at least three hours of data processing for every hour out in the field. This
processing time is critical and it is best to do it as soon as possible, not only
because any collections you have made will be degrading rapidly, but also
because you will be able to gather any missing or misplaced material and/or
information from your team while they are all still in one place, and their memories
are fresh.
Dry and Prepare Your Collections
If you have made any collections, the first thing you will need to do is to describe
them so that they can be placed into the dehydrator as soon as possible. In
particular, you should record any characteristics that have changed since they
were described in the field.
Chapter
5
H
SAFETY BACK AT BASE
1. Wash your hands after handling fungi.
2. Avoid breathing in spores.
3. Keep specimens away from small children and
pets.
4. Some fungi are poisonous or cause allergies. We
do not know the toxicity of many species so
always exercise caution.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
36
After they have been dried, you may also want to look at the specimens under a
microscope and record anything of note, such as the shape of the spores. A
microscope will be required to see most of the smaller structures, but if you do not
have one at your disposal it is not likely to be worth investing in one; high quality
descriptions can be made by focusing only on those characters visible to the
naked eye.
Figure 16. Katrina Syme. Photo taken before specimens were placed in the dehydrator showing the
key characteristics for the specimens and at several stages of maturity. The larger fungus has been cut
in half in order to show any internal structures, and a ruler has been placed in the shot to communicate
scale. Both the top and underside of the cap is visible. Finally, the collector’s tag number “KS 2776” is
also in the image so that it can be readily associated with other information recorded about this
collection. The specimens were placed on a white background (such as a piece of paper); wood-grain
can be distracting. This collection was identified initially as either genus Lepiota or Leucoagricus.
The next step is to get the collections into the dehydrator. The temperature of the
dehydrator should be set to about 35° Celsius. You do not want to cook the
specimens; anything over 40° Celsius will affect the viability of extracting the DNA.
Depending on the size of the fungus, it will take anywhere from a day to several
days for the specimen to dry out completely. Larger specimens can be sectioned
into smaller pieces by cutting them into quarters, enabling them to dry more
quickly. For agarics, the mushroom will start out quite pliable and you can consider
it done when it has become brittle and hard to bend.
If you have collected any Slime moulds, which are usually
found on moist wood like the inside of rotting logs – these
collections are usually dried along with the attached piece of
wood and then stored in a box with the substrate (i.e., the
wood) glued to a piece of card that fits inside it.
Slime moulds are
dried with their
substrate attached
and then glued to a
piece of card.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
37
Figure 15, S JM McMullan-Fisher. This jelly fungus, Sirobasidium brefeldianum, has been collected
with a small piece of its substrate. They will be dried and stored together.
If you cannot get all of your specimens into the dehydrator right away, fresh
specimens can be stored in a refrigerator in plastic containers (such as take-out
containers) for two to three days, depending on the condition of the fungus when it
was collected; older, mature specimens will deteriorate more rapidly than younger,
fresher ones. Consider how many specimens you can fit into your dehydrator when
deciding whether to make a collection in the field, and prioritize which specimens
go into the dryer first according to their condition and the rapidity with which that
type of fungus is likely to deteriorate.
Collectors should pay particular attention to recording features which disappear on
drying, e.g. colour, texture, degree of stickiness, colour changes on cutting,
whether it exudes fluid, odour, etc.
 See Fungi of Southern Australia by Neale L. Bougher and Katrina Syme for further
details of characters to record.
Numbering and Labeling Collections
It is very useful to use a numbering system to identify each of your collections. This
system might be used the same way across all of your collections, or you might
want to further group them by the survey site or survey species that you are
collecting. For example, you might record your first collection as “Your
Name/Initials - 1” or “Holland Park Survey 2013 - 1” or “Amanita austroviridis -
1”.You should keep a log book or a spreadsheet with each of these numbers listed
along with the date and location of the collection and your initial identification of the
genus and species.
Each collection must then be labeled. If you are sending your collection to a
herbarium then they may have specific guidelines for how this label should be
formatted and the information that must be included. It is a great help to them to

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
38
follow their formatting rules, as this will enable them to easily and quickly database
the collection, allowing other researchers around the world to use it for their own
identifications and investigations.
In general, the following information should be included on your label:
Genus and Species (if identifiable to species). If you cannot identify it, then
put Unknown. It is quite common even for very experienced mycologists to
be unable to identify a fungus to species level in the field, or even back in
the lab. Remember that only 15-30% of the estimated total number of
Australian fungi have been named and described. These unidentified
(“Unknown”) specimens represent a wealth of opportunities for researchers
and taxonomists to sort, classify, describe, and eventually name them; just
because a name can’t be applied to a specimen now doesn’t mean it never
will be. If you can identify it to genus level, such as “Agaricus” but not to
species level, then write “Agaricus sp.”
Locality: Where was the collection made? Be as accurate as you can be
with confidence. The latitude and longitude or the Australian map grid
coordinates/grid references from another standard map will all do. Also give
an indication of your uncertainty. If you used a consumer GPS device this
may – for example - only be rated for accuracy to within 10m, whereas
some professional GPS units (such as those produced by Trimble) can be
as accurate as 20cm. If you know the location of the parking lot but nothing
else then provide that along with the estimated distance from that spot to
your survey site. It is always recommended that you include a textual
description of the locality, along with the nearest town and the state.
Date: Give the month in words, as there can sometimes be confusion in
dd/mm/yy versus mm/dd/yy, but a format like “September 8, 2012” is more
widely understood.
Collectors name and any co-collectors.
Collectors reference number: The numbers you applied to the specimen in
your own records.
Substrate: What the fungus is growing - grass, living tree, soil, dung, etc.
Host: If relevant and if you can identify the species of plant/insect/animal
that the specimen was growing on.
Habitat: A brief description of the ecological community of the survey site,
such as “Temperate Rainforest” or “Urban Park”.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
39
Identify Your Photographs and Collections
To identify your records means to name them to genus or species level with some
level of certainty, either based on your expertise in recognizing the species or
based on field guides and other publications which describe the fungus with the
same or similar characteristics as the characteristics that you have recorded. When
using resources, always note the reference used; it can happen that
photographs of fungi on the web and even in very reputable books have been
misidentified. When they are corrected, those observations that used that
photograph or description in order to make the determination may also need to be
re-assessed.
Colour photographs (taken in the field or after collecting) are especially useful in
documenting the characters of fleshy fungi such as Agarics.
Steps to Identify Macrofungi
1. First, identify the morphogroup using a reference such as Fungi Down
Under or other guide; Guides are usually organized by morphogroup so
knowing where to look in other references will be useful.
2. Look for the fungus in common field guides or keys for your area, if any
exist, to try to narrow down the genus. In many cases, this may be as
far as you are able to go.
3. Ask for help from experts and experienced field naturalists. Fungimap
may be able to assist if clear photographs and descriptions are emailed
to us at info@fungimap.org.au
4. If the specimen is important enough, make a voucher collection and
send the specimen to a Herbarium; staff there may be able to further
identify it though this may happen at a much later date.
 Expected in mid-2013, FunKey: an interactive guide to the macrofungi of Australia by
Tom May, Keven Thiele, Christopher Dunk and Simon Lewis, will be an tool for identifying
agarics to genus.
Figure 17. Sarah Lloyd.
How would you begin to
identify what species of
fungus this is? First, note that
based on its shape it belongs
to the morphogroup called
Coral Fungi (because their
shape is reminiscent of sea
corals.)

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
40
Lodge Specimens with Herbaria
You may wish to lodge your specimens at a
herbarium. This may also be a requirement from
your funding agency or for your permit. Each
herbarium has its own preferred documentation to
submit with specimens, so check their
requirements first.
Figure 18. Australia’s Virtual Herbarium, avh.ala.org.au/.Map of Australian herbaria.
National Herbarium of Victoria (MEL). Due to a historical focus on
mycology at the National Herbarium of Victoria and the presence of expert
mycologists Dr Tom May and Dr Teresa Lebel, this herbarium holds the
largest number of macrofungi specimens (over 43,000) and is well equipped
to database and identify new fungus collections. Fungimap is also based
here, with office space and in-kind support provided by the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Melbourne. Website:www.rbg.vic.gov.au/science/information-and-
resources/identification-and-information-services
Tasmanian Herbarium (HO). The Tasmanian Herbarium holds only
about 5,200 collections of fungi, but is particularly specialised in Tasmanian
lichens (47,500 lichen specimens including significant historical collections.)
Email: herbarium@tmag.tas.gov.au
National Herbarium of New South Wales (NSW). This herbarium’s
collection is strongly focused on flowering plants, and has about 8,000 fungi
Not all herbaria accept
fungal specimens or have
the capacity to identify
them. Check with them
before you send it.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
41
and 31,000 lichens specimens in their collection. Website:
http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/science/Herbarium_and_resources
State Herbarium of South Australia (AD). Holds the significant J.B
Cleland collection of macrofungi, lichens collected during the British and
Australian Antarctic Expeditions of the early 20th century associated with
Professor Sir Douglas Mawson, and benefits from associates with fungal
expertise such as Pam
Catcheside. The herbarium holds
29,000 fungi and 15,000 lichen
specimens. Website:
http://www.environment.sa.gov.a
u/Science/Science_research/Sta
te_Herbarium/Collections
Queensland Herbarium
(BRI). Mainly covering
Queensland with almost 10,000
fungi and over 22,000 lichen
specimens. Website:
www.derm.qld.gov.au/herbarium
Western Australian
Herbarium (PERTH).
This herbarium has a history of
mycological research from staff such as Neale Bougher. Their collection
numbers 23,000 fungi and 16,000 lichen specimens. Website:
http://www.dec.wa.gov.au/our-environment/science-and-research/wa-
herbarium/
Australian National Herbarium (CANB). This herbarium has the largest
collection of lichens in Australia with 103,000, but only 12,500 fungi
specimens. Website: www.anbg.gov.au/cpbr/herbarium/
Northern Territory Herbarium (DNA-NT). This herbarium has a strong
focus on vascular plants, and with only 47 fungi and 72 lichen specimens,
they may not presently have the capacity to identify many fungi specimens.
Website: lrm.nt.gov.au/herbarium
There are also significant holdings of fungi at the New South Wales Plant
Pathology Herbarium (DAR), the National Collection of Fungi, Knoxfield
Herbarium (VPRI), and the Queensland Plant Pathology Herbarium (BRIP),
but the focus of these herbaria is plant pathogenic microfungi.
Figure 19. Example of a MEL specimen label.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
42
Submit the Data
The final step in your surveying journey is sharing your labours with the world.
You should provide the manager/landowner with a list of species collected or
recorded and send any specimens to herbaria if required. You may also be
required to submit a report to the department responsible for your permit.
You can send your records and images (digital preferred but hand written/printed
is also acceptable) to Fungimap using the Fungimap Survey Portal, who will add
your records to the National Australian Fungimap Database, and who will also
upload your observations to the publically accessible internet portal the Atlas of
Living Australia (www.ala.org.au ) so that others can access and use your
findings.
Your local newspaper, field naturalist group, and Conservation or Forestry Office
will likely also be very interested in any of your results and you may wish to write
up a report or a short article detailing your findings and any significant species
that you observed. Remember to publish your metadata along with your survey
results, that is the methodology you used in collecting observations, who was
involved, and any other details that will enable others to compare and replicate
your survey and thereby continue to add to our understanding of the fungi present
at your site or the distributions of your target species.
Figure 20. www.bowerbird.org.au is a new citizen-science platform where you can upload your
records and images and share your projects with others. If you notify Fungimap that your survey
results are on BowerBird, our Fungi ID Team will review your images and try to confirm any
identifications.

G U I D E T O S U R V E Y I N G F U N G I I N A U S T R A L I A
43
Glossary
This glossary, taken in part from Fungi Down Under (2005) explains
terms commonly used in describing fungi. Terms in bold italics are
defined elsewhere in the glossary. Species named in parentheses are
examples which exhibit the particular feature or characteristic, with the
page numbers being pages in Fungi Down Under where images and
descriptions of this species or structure can be found.
adnate refers to gills/ pores/
wrinkles/teeth, broadly attached to
top of stem (diagram p. 12).
adnexed refers to gills/ pores/
wrinkles/ teeth, partially attached to
top of stem (diagram p. 12).
aecium (pl. aecia) see cluster-
cup.
agaric a fungus that produces
spores on gills (Yellow Stainer p.
17, also diagram p. 8).
anastomosing with cross
connections between gills (Yellow
Navel p. 52).
annulus see ring.
asexual reproduction not
involving union of two nuclei,
compared with sexual reproduction.
Ascomycota previously referred to
as Ascomycetes, fungi with sexual
spores borne in a flask-shaped
structure called an ascus.
ascus (pl. asci) microscopic flask-
like structure containing sexual
spores of Ascomycota.
basal disc a disc-like structure at
the base of the stem (Pixie’s
Parasol p. 47).
Basidiomycota previously referred
to as Basidiomycetes, fungi with
sexual spores borne on the outside
of a special club-shaped structure
called a basidium.
basidium (pl. basidia) microscopic
club-like structure with prongs on
which sexual spores of
Basidiomycota are produced.
bifid divided into two (arms of
Anemone Stinkhorn p. 95).
bracket pored fungus with a
bracket-shaped fruit-body, on trees
or dead wood (Curry Punk p. 73). A
similar shaped fruit-body without
pores is referred to as either a
shelf or a fan.
bryophyte a collective name for
mosses, liverworts and hornworts.
bulbous usually refers to the stem,
with a swollen base (Green-gilled
Amanita p. 18, also diagram p. 12).
caespitose with fruit-bodies
growing in a dense clump
(Australian Honey Fungus p. 23).
cap (pileus) typical umbrella-
shaped upper part of fruit-body
supporting the spore-bearing
surface – gills, pores, wrinkles or
teeth (diagram p. 5).

44
clavate club-shaped (Dark
Vegetable Caterpillar p. 104).
close refers to gill spacing, neither
crowded nor distant (diagram p.12).
cluster-cup a short or long
cylindrical fruit-body of one of the
stages in the life cycle of rusts
(Tangled Lignum Rust p. 85).
concentric with circular or arc-like
zones or bands, having a common
centre (Dark-footed Tinypore p.70).
contorted twisted or bent.
convex of caps, rounded or domed
(diagram p. 12).
convoluted wrinkled, brain-like,
intricately folded (White Brain p.
83).
coprophilous growing on dung
(Small Dung Button p. 113).
cortina a cobweb-like partial veil
(Elegant Blue Webcap p. 30, also
diagram p. 8).
crowded refers to gill spacing, very
close together (diagram p. 12).
decurrent refers to gills/ pores/
wrinkles/teeth whose attachment to
the stem extends down for some
distance (diagram p. 12).
deliquescent liquefying at maturity,
common among Ink-caps Coprinus
spp. (Lawyer’s Wig p. 26).
depressed of caps, sunk in centre
like a saucer (Rose-pink Waxcap
p. 39).
distant refers to gills, widely
spaced (diagram p. 12).
diversity number of different
species occurring in a given area.
downy with soft, fluffy hairs.
edge effects effects that occur at
the boundary between vegetation
or habitat types, and are not
representative of the surrounding
site.
egg initial egg-shaped stage of
some fungi, which have a universal
veil covering the developing cap
and stem (stinkhorns, amanitas,
puffballs, e.g. Wrinkled Cage p.
98).
endoperidium the inner layer of a
multilayered peridium, covering the
spore mass. See spore sac.
exoperidium typically of earthstars
and stalked puffballs, outer layer of
a multilayered peridium (Desert
Prettymouth p. 89).
family a group of closely related
genera, the name ending in -aceae,
e.g. Cortinariaceae.
fan a bracket-shaped fruit-body
with gills on the underside of the
cap (Orange Fan p. 23).
fertile surface surface bearing
spores such as the surface
covering gills or spines. See also
sterile surface.
fetid foul-smelling (Seastar
Stinkhorn p. 94).

45
fibrillose covered with fine, silky
fibres which are usually appressed
i.e. pressed flat to the surface
(stem of Australian Honey Fungus
p. 23).
forked usually refers to gills,
divided or pronged like a fork
(Leathery Sawgill p. 51).
free refers to
gills/pores/wrinkles/teeth, not
attached to stem (diagram p. 12).
fruit-body also called the
sporocarp, this is the visible,
reproductive structure of any
fungus.
fungus (pl. fungi) a member of the
Kingdom Fungi; organisms which
typically are composed of hyphae,
reproduce by spores and possess
nuclei, and which lack roots, leaves
and chlorophyll (to carry out
photosynthesis).
gelatinous jelly-like (White Brain p.
83).
genus (pl. genera) a group of
closely related species.
gill (lamella) blade- or leaf-like
plate on which spores are
produced, beneath the cap of an
agaric (diagrams pp. 5, 8).
gleba see spore mass.
gluten clear, jelly-like, sticky liquid
exuded by some fungi (Austral
Dripping Bonnet p. 46).
gregarious with many fruit-bodies
growing close to one another.
habit manner of growth of fruit-
body, whether single, gregarious or
clustered (caespitose).
habitat the vegetation, soil and any
other distinctive components of the
place where the fungus naturally
occurs.
head refers to fungi without caps,
the part of the fruit-body supported
on a stem.
hygrophanous changing colour
upon drying (Burgundy Wood
Tubaria p. 58).
hygroscopic sensitive to moisture
(Barometer Earthstar p. 86, where
exoperidium opens and closes
according to humidity).
hypha (pl. hyphae) microscopic,
tubular, filamentous units of a
fungus.
incurved of cap margin, turned
under towards stem (Little Ping-
pong Bat p. 64, also diagram p.
12).
indusium in some stinkhorns, net-
like veil which hangs down like a
skirt (White Crinoline Stinkhorn p.
100).
inrolled of cap margin, strongly
rolled in towards the gills (see small
fruit-body of Purple Turnover p. 43,
also diagram p. 12).
inturned of cap margin, slightly
incurved (Wood Blewit p. 42).
lamella (pl. lamellae) see gill.

46
lateral of stems, attached at side of
cap (Beefsteak Fungus p. 65).
lobed with rounded projections
(Orange Fan p. 22).
look-alikes species that look
superficially similar to the species
being described.
luminescent glowing in the dark
(Ghost Fungus p. 53).
margin typically of cap or gills,
outer edge.
membranous typically of ring, like
a membrane or skin (Steel-blue
Rozites p. 28).
mesoperidium typically of stalked
puffballs, the middle layer of a
three-layered peridium.
mouth opening through which
spores are discharged. See stoma
and ostiole.
mushroom fungus with gills on the
underside of the cap, usually with a
stem; generally refers to an agaric.
mycelial disc disc-like structure
found at base of stem, consisting of
a compact mass of mycelium (Fairy
Club p. 80).
mycelium (pl. mycelia) mass of
hyphae.
mycorrhiza a mutually beneficial
association (symbiotic) between
fungal hyphae and roots of higher
plants (Splendid Red Skinhead p.
35). See also Fungal nutrition p. 3.
off-centre refers to stem, to one
side (Beenak Long Tooth p. 74).
ostiole the tiny mouth of a spore-
producing chamber in some
Ascomycota (Small Dung Button
p.113).
ovoid egg-shaped.
parasite a fungus that lives in or on
another organism at the expense of
the host (Dark Vegetable
Caterpillar p. 104). See also Fungal
nutrition p. 3.
partial veil membrane covering the
gills in an unexpanded fruit-body,
extending from stem to cap margin.
See also ring and universal veil
(diagram p. 8).
pathogen a disease-causing
organism (Splitgill p. 57).
pendulous hanging down (Icicle
p. 81).
peridium the covering layer (or
layers) of the spore mass. See also
exoperidium, mesoperidium and
endoperidium.
pileus see cap.
polymorphic having a number of
shapes.
pore the mouth of a tube in boletes
and polypores (Rhubarb Bolete
p.62).
pseudorhiza root-like structure at
base of stem (Rooting Shank p.
54).

47
pseudosclerotium an
underground food storage organ,
composed of soil particles bound
together with fungal hyphae
(Pancake Stack p. 66). See also
sclerotium.
radially-fibrillose with radiating
silky fibres (Sky-blue Pinkgill p. 36).
resupinate lying flat on a surface
(Golden Splash Tooth p. 76).
ring (annulus) band or collar of
tissue encircling the stem of some
agarics (Yellow Stainer p. 17),
formed by the rupture of the partial
veil. (See p. 8)
saprophagous obtaining nutrients
from decaying animal carcasses
(Ghoul Fungus p. 38).
saprotrophic obtaining nutrients
from dead or decaying organic
matter, including dead wood. (See
Fungal nutrition p. 3)
scales usually refers to cap or
stem surface, raised flakes or flaps
of tissue (Nargan’s Bonnet p. 49).
sclerotium an underground food
storage organ composed of a
compact mass of fungal hyphae
(Native Bread p. 69).
scurfy with loose small scales, like
dandruff.
serrate usually refers to gills, with a
saw-like, jagged edge (Leathery
Sawgill p. 51).
sessile lacks a stem, attached
directly.
shelf a bracket-shaped fruit-body,
thin and leathery with a smooth
fertile surface, attached directly to
the substrate (Hairy Curtain Crust
p. 78).
sinuate refers to gills, attached to
the stem such that the gill edge is
sinuously curved (Elegant Blue
Webcap p. 14, also diagram p. 12).
sp. (pl. spp.) abbreviation of the
word ‘species’ (which can be either
singular or plural).
species organisms that have a
high degree of similarity and are
capable of interbreeding.
spine usually in toothed (hydnoid)
fungi, a tooth with a pointed tip
(Beenak Long Tooth p. 74).
spore the microscopic reproductive
unit of a fungus.
spore mass (gleba) powdery or
slimy mass containing the spores of
stinkhorns (Seastar Stinkhorn p.
94), earthstars (Arched Earthstar p.
87), stalked puffballs (Desert
Prettymouth p. 89) or truffles.
spore print mass deposit of
mature spores whose colour may
help in identification (Green
Skinhead p. 34).
spore sac typically of
earthstars/stalked puffballs, the
spore mass and its inner covering
layer (endoperidium) (Barometer
Earthstar p. 86).

48
stem (stipe) usually a more or less
cylindrical structure which supports
the cap or head.
sterile surface surface which does
not produce spores, such as the
cap or stem. See also fertile
surface.
stipe see stem.
stoma mouth of a spore sac
(Desert Prettymouth p. 89).
striate usually refers to caps and
stems, marked with lines or furrows
(diagram p. 12).
substrate what the fruit-body is
growing on.
tessellate like small tiles
(Barometer Earthstar p. 86).
toadstool an outdated term that
was generally used for mushrooms
that look different from the edible
field mushrooms, or used in a
restricted sense for poisonous
species.
translucent semi-transparent.
translucent-striate refers to cap,
gills visible through cap as radial
lines from the margin towards the
centre (Slimy Green Waxcap p.40).
truffles fungi whose fruit-bodies
grow beneath the ground.
type collection the collection upon
which the original description of a
species was based.
umbilicus a navel-like depression.
umbo a dome-like swelling at the
centre of the cap (Grey Jockey p.
24).
umbonate with a distinct umbo
(Fairy Ring Champignon p. 45, also
diagram p. 12).
universal veil protective
membrane that initially totally
encloses the unexpanded fruit-
body and, after rupturing, remains
as scales or patches on cap and as
a volva at base of stem (Vermilion
Grisette p. 21). See also partial veil
(diagram p. 8).
veil remnants remains of the
universal veil found on cap as
patches, warts or scales (Fly Agaric
p. 19, also diagram p. 8).
viscid sticky or slimy.
volva remains of the universal veil
found at the base of the stem; may
be sac-like (Death Cap p. 20), a
narrow ridge (Vermilion Grisette p.
21) or a series of scaly bands (Fly
Agaric p. 19).
warts usually refers to caps or
heads, small raised protuberances
(Forest Prettymouth p. 91).

49
Further References
Fungal conservation
Bougher N.L., Tommerup I.C. (1996) Conservation significance of
ectomycorrhizal fungi in Western Australia In 'Gondwanan Heritage: Past,
Present and Future of the Western Australian biota'. (Eds H S., C J., H M. and
G A.) pp. 299-308. (Surrey Beatty & Sons: Chipping Norton).
Brown M.J., Jarman S.J., Kantvilas G. (1994) Conservation and reservation of
nonvascular plants in Tasmania, with special reference to lichens. Biodiversity
and Conservation 3, 263-278.
Buchanan P.K., May T.W. (2003) Conservation of New Zealand and Australian
fungi. New Zealand Journal of Botany 41, 407-421.
Catcheside P.S., Catcheside D.E. (2008) A fungal hotspot: Stringybark
Walking Trail, Deep Creek Conservation Park, South Australia and the
conservation status of its macrofungi. Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens
22, 9-30.
Grgurinovic C.A., Simpson J.A. (2001) Conservation Status of the known
Agaricales, Boletales, Cantharellales, Lycoperdales, Phallales and Russulales of
South Australia. Fungal Diversity 8, 97-127.
House of Lords Science and Technology Committee (2008) Systematics and
Taxonomy: Follow-up. In. (The Stationery Office Limited, London).
Johnston P.R., May T.W., Park D., Horak E. (2007) Hypocreopsis amplectens sp.
nov., a rare fungus from New Zealand and Australia. New Zealand Journal of
Botany 45, 715-719.
Kantvilas, G., Elix, J.A. & Jarman, S.J. (2002). Tasmanian lichens. Identification,
distribution and conservation status. I. Parmeliaceae. Australian Biological
Resources Study, Canberra and Tasmanian Herbarium, Hobart.
Kearney, R. & Kearney, E. (2000). Significance of the Hygrocybeae community of
Lane Cove Bushland park in listings under the NSW Threatened Species
Conservation Act 1995 and under the Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975.
Australasian Mycologist 19: 64-70.
May, T.W. & Avram, J. (1997). The Conservation Status and Distribution of
Macrofungi in Victoria. Report prepared for the Australian Heritage Commission. 44
pp.
May T.W. (2002) Where are the short-range endemics among Western Australian
macrofungi? Australian Systematic Botany 15, 501-511.

50
May T.W. (2003) Conservation of Australian fungi - knowledge is the key. In
'Plant conservation - approaches and techniques from an Australian
perspective'. (Eds CL Brown, F Hall and J Mill) pp. Module 9, 1-16. (Australian
Network for Plant Conservation: Canberra, Australia).
May T.W. (2011) How do fungi fare in Australia's Biodiversity Conservation
Strategy 2010-2030? . Fungimap Newsletter 44, 6-7.
McMullan-Fisher S.J.M., Kirkpatrick J.B., May T.W., Pharo E.J. (2010)
Surrogates for Macrofungi and Mosses in Reservation Planning. Conservation
Biology 24, 730-736.
McMullan-Fisher S.J.M., May T.W., Robinson R.M., Bell T.L., Lebel T.,
Catcheside P., York A. (2011) Fungi and fire in Australian ecosystems: a
review of current knowledge, management implications and future directions.
Australian Journal of Botany 59, 70-90.
Mueller G.M., Schmit J.P., Leacock P.R., Buyck B., Cifuentes Jn, Desjardin
DE, Halling R.E., Hjortstam K., Iturriaga T., Larsson K-H, Lodge D.J., May
T.W., Minter D., Rajchenberg M., Redhead S.A., Ryvarden L., Trappe J.M.,
Watling R., Wu Q. (2007) Global diversity and distribution of macrofungi.
Biodiversity and Conservation 16, 37-48.
May, T.W. (1994). Conservation reserve for Hypocreopsis. Australian
Mycological Newsletter 12: 2.
Pouliot, A.M., and May, T.W. (2010) The third ‘F’ — fungi in Australian
biodiversity conservation: actions, issues and initiatives. Mycologia Balcanica
7, 41–48.
Raphael, M.G., and Molina, R. (Eds) (2007) 'Conservation of rare or little-
known species.' (Island Press: Washington, USA)
Scott, G.A.M., Entwisle, T.J., May, T.W. & Stevens, G.N. (Eds) (1997). A
conservation overview of Australian non-marine lichens, bryophytes, algae and
fungi. (Environment Australia: Canberra.)
Syme K (2004) 'Fungi information for the south coast natural resources
management strategy.' A report commissioned by SCRIPT (South Coast
Regional Initiative Planning Team)
www.southcoastnrm.com.au/site/downloads
Young A.M., Fechner N.A. (2008) 'Climate change and Brisbane macrofungi: A
critique on how Climate Change may affect Macrofungal Biodiversity with
recommendations for their conservation.' Report for Brisbane City Council,
Brisbane.

51
Fungal community/ survey/ management
Catcheside, P.S. & Catcheside, D.E.A. (1999). The macrofungi of South Australia.
Report on a project supported by a grant from The Wildlife Conservation Fund
in 1999. [Excellent report with details of sites surveyed for macrofungi, species
lists, and descriptions and illustrations of selected macrofungi.] [See also
similar reports for 2000 and 2001.]
May, T.W., and McMullan-Fisher, S.J.M. (2012) Don’t be afraid of the F-word:
prospects for integrating fungi into biodiversity monitoring. Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Victoria 124(1), 79-90.
McMullan-Fisher, S.J.M., May, T.W. & Keane, P.J. (2002). The macrofungal
community and fire in a Mountain Ash forest in southern Australia. Fungal
Diversity 10: 57-76
Mueller, G.M., Bills, G.F., and Foster, M.S. (2004) 'Biodiversity of fungi -
Inventory and monitoring methods.' (Elsevier Academic Press: London) 1-777
Packham, J.M., May, T.W., Brown, M.J., Wardlaw, T.J. & Mills, A.K. (2002).
Macrofungal diversity and community ecology in mature and regrowth wet
eucalypt forest in Tasmania: a multivariate study. Austral Ecology 27: 149-161.
Neldner, V.J., Thomson, E.J., Bean, A.R. and Dilleward, H.A. 1999.
Methodology for Survey and Mapping of Vegetation Communities and
Regional Ecosystems in Queensland. Queensland Herbarium, Environment
Protection Agency, Brisbane.
Robinson, R.M. (2001). The effect of wildfire on the fruiting of macrofungi in
regrowth Karri forests III. Results from the third year of monitoring. SBP
98/0015 Progress report. Department of Conservation and Land Management
CALMScience Division, Manjimup, WA. [See also reports for first and second
years.]
Syme, K. (1992), Survey of the Larger Fungi of the Two Peoples Bay Nature
Reserve. Denmark Environment Centre, Denmark. [Lists 504 collections of
fungi from Two Peoples Bay, of which 76 named to species; all collections
lodged at PERTH along with comprehensive descriptions, sample recording
sheet included in report.]
Tommerup, I.C., Bougher, N.L., Syme, K., Syme, A. & Fernie, G. (2000).
Preliminary guidelines for managing fungal biodiversity in remnant Eucalyptus
marginata or other Eucalyptus forest types using fire as a tool. Ecological
Management & Restoration 1: 146-147.

52
Fungal Biology, Diversity, Classification
& Ecology
Fungi of Australia Volume 1A Introduction - classification. Volume 1B
Introduction - fungi in the Environment. Australian Biological Resources Study,
Canberra (1996). [Chapters on classification, ecology, history.]
Hawksworth, D.L. (2001). The magnitude of fungal diversity: the 1.5 million
species estimate revisited. Mycological Research 105: 1422-1432.
Kirk, P.M., Winter, D.W., Cannon, P., Staple, J. (2011), Dictionary of the Fungi.
10th edn. CAB International, Wallingford. [Essential reference listing all genera
and higher taxa of fungi, and also comprehensive glossary of mycological
terms].
Kendrick B. (1992). The Fifth Kingdom. (2nd ed.). Mycologue Publications,
Ontario. [Good introductory textbook, covering all groups of fungi, and also
ecology]
May, T.W. and Simpson, J. (2001). Preface to 'Biodiversity and biogeography
of Australasian fungi' special issue. Australian Systematic Botany 14(3), i–iii.
Checklists
May, T.W. & Wood, A.E. (1997). Catalogue and bibliography of Australian
macrofungi 1. Basidiomycota p.p. Fungi of Australia 2A.
May, T.W., Milne, J., Shingles, S. & Jones, R.H. (2003). Catalogue and
bibliography of Australian fungi. 2. Basidiomycota p.p. & Myxomycota p.p.
Fungi of Australia Volume 2B in press.
Interactive Catalogue of Australian Fungi
May, T.W., Milne, J., Wood, A.E., Shingles, S., Jones, R.H. & Neish, P. (2002).
Interactive Catalogue of Australian Fungi. Version 2.0. Australian Biological
Resources Study, Canberra / Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne.
http://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/dbpages/cat/index.php/fungicatalogue
Australian Fungi Field Guides &
Identifications Keys
Bougher, N. & Syme, K. (1998), Fungi of Southern Australia. University of
Western Australia Press, Nedlands. [Excellent field guide, great illustrations,
text for more than 100 species, with copious introductory material, including on
collecting and describing.]
Brundrett, M., Bougher, N., Dell, B., Grove, T. & Malajczuk, N. (1996), Working
with Mycorrhizae in Forestry and Agriculture. ACIAR Monograph 32. Australian

53
Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. [Good sections on
describing macrofungi.]
Chinchilla Field Naturalists Club (2007) 'Fungi Out West: some fungi of
southern inland Queensland.' (Chinchilla Field Naturalists Club: Chinchilla,
Qld).
Cleland J.B. (1976) 'Toadstools and Mushrooms and other larger Fungi of
South Australia. Part I and II.' (Adelaide).
Cunningham G.H. (1963) 'The Thelephoraceae of Australia and New Zealand.'
(Government Printer: Wellington).
Cunningham G.H. (1965) 'Polyporaceae of New Zealand.' (Government
Printer: Wellington).
Cunningham G.H. (1979) 'The Gasteromycetes of Australia and New Zealand.'
(J. Cramer).
Fuhrer B., Robinson R. (1992) 'Rainforest fungi of Tasmania and south-east
Australia.' (CSIRO Publishing Australia: East Melbourne, Australia).
Fuhrer B. (2009) 'A field guide to Australian Fungi.' (Bloomings Books:
Melbourne).
Grey, E., Grey P., (2005) Fungi Down Under. Fungimap Inc, Melbourne.
Griffiths K. (1985) 'A field Guide to the Larger Fungi of the Darling Scarp and
Sout West of Western Australia.' (Kevn Griffiths: Hong Kong).
McCann I.R. (2003) 'Australian Fungi Illustrated.' (Macdown Productions:
Vermont).
Grgurinovic C.A. (1997) 'Larger Fungi of South Australia.' (Botanic Gardens of
Adelaide and State Herbarium: Adelaide, South Australia).
Grgurinovic C.A. (2003) 'The Genus Mycena in South-eastern Australia.'
(Fungal Diversity Press and Australian Biological Resources Study: Canberra).
Hood I.A. (2003) 'An introduction to fungi on wood in Queensland.' (University
of New England: Armidale).
Leonard P. (2010) (Ed.) 'A guide to collecting and preserving fungal specimens
for the Queensland Herbarium.' (Queensland Herbarium, Department of
Environment and Resource Management: Brisbane, Australia).
Ratkowsky, D. & Gates, G. (2002). Keys to the Tasmanian families and genera
of gilled fungi. Tasmanian Naturalist 124: 2-24.
Robinson R. (2003) 'Fungi of the South-West forests.' (Department of
Conservation and Land Management: Kensington, Western Australia).
Shepard C.J., Totterdell C.J. (1988) 'Mushrooms and Toadstools of Australia.'
(Inkata Press: Melbourne).

54
Young A.M. (2005) 'A Field Guide to the Fungi of Australia.' (University of New
South Wales Press: Sydney).
Young A.M. (2005) 'Fungi of Australia: Hygrophoraceae ' (ABRS, Canberra:
CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne).
Lichens
(1992) 'Flora of Australia - Lichens 1 - Introduction, Lecanorales.' (Australian
Government Publishing Service: Canberra).
(1994) 'Flora of Australia Lichens 2- Lecanorales , Parmeliaceae.' (ABRS:
Canberra).
(2001) 'Flora of Australia - Lichens 3.' (ABRS / CSIRO Australia: Melbourne).
McCarthy P.M., Malcolm W.M. (2004) 'Key to the genera of Australian
macrolichens.' (Australian Biological Resources Study: Canberra).
Kantvilas G., Jarman S.J. (1999) 'Lichens of rainforest in Tasmania and
southeastern Australia.' (Australian Biological Resources Study: Canberra).
Websites
Fungimap, www.fungimap.org.au
Australian National Botanic Gardens' Fungi Pages
http://www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/index.html
International Society for Fungal Conservation, www.fungal-conservation.org
Mycology Online, University of Adelaide,
http://www.mycology.adelaide.edu.au/
Periodicals
Fungimap Newsletter, published three times per year and sent out to
Fungimap members.
Australasian Mycologist, Published by Australasian Mycological Society,
http://www.australasianmycology.com/
Organisations and Groups
Fungimap, c/o Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, Private Bag 2000, Birdwood
Avenue, South Yarra, VIC 3141. http://www.fungimap.org.au
Australasian Mycological Society http://www.australasianmycology.com/
Sydney Fungal Studies Group www.sydneyfungalstudies.org.au

55
Queensland Mycological Society http://qldfungi.org.au/
Field Naturalists Club of Victoria Fungi Group www.vicnet.net.au/~fncv
Western Australian Naturalists, Fungi Study Group
www.wanats.iinet.net.au/fungigroup.html
Adelaide Fungal Studies Group / Field Naturalists Society of South Australia
www.fnssa.org.au
The Tasmanian Field Naturalists Club www.tasfieldnats.org.au and also the
Central North Field Naturalists in Tasmania at
http://www.disjunctnaturalists.com/
Perth Urban Bushland Fungi, www.fungiperth.org.au

Describing a Fungus
Below are some common terms used when describing a
fungus. Consult the Glossary for definitions.
Gills/Pores/Wrinkles/Teeth
Adnate versus Adnexed versus Free
Close versus Crowded versus Distant
Decurrent
Forked
Sinuate
Serrate
Translucent-striate
Cap
Bell-shaped
Convex
Cylindrical
Depressed
Flat
Inrolled versus Inturned versus Incurved
Scurfy
Striate
Umbonate
Stem
Bulbous
Lateral
Off-center
Sessile
Striate
Tapering
Shape of the fruit-body
Clavate
Convoluted
Gelatinous
Lobed
Ovoid
Pendulous
Nutrient Source
Coprophilous
Saprotrophic
Saprophagous
Texture
Downy
Fibrillose
Glutinous
Viscid
Smell
Fetid
Phenolic
Habit
Caespitose
Gregarious/ Solitary

Morphogroups

1For Brief Description note substrate, substrate description, host/associated taxa, individual count, other surveyed variables.
2If specimens were collected, provide further details under COLLECTIONS on next page.
FUNGAL SURVEY RECORD SHEET
This Record Sheet should be used in concert with the Survey Site Description Sheet. It is recommended that these be
printed on waterproof paper and details be transcribed into digital formats at the earliest opportunity. When taking
photographs, write the Field number on a tag and photograph that tag with the specimen (on at least the first photograph in
a series) in order to aid matching photographs with observations later.
Further guidance and resources for conducting fungal surveys in Australia can be found by contacting Fungimap or visiting
our website at www.fungimap.org.au, email: info@fungimap.org.au , phone: (03) 9252 2374, or by post Fungimap, c/o
Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, Private Bag 2000, South Yarra, Victoria, 3141.
SITE N AME:
DATE O F SURVEY:
TIME S URVEY BEGAN:
TIME S URVEY END ED:
PLOT OR FIELD DETAIL S (IF RELEVANT ):
RECENT WEATHE R EVENT S AT SITE (RAINFAL L, STORMS,
SNOWFALL, ETC):
WEATHE R DURIN G SU RVE Y (TEMP, HU MIDITY, RAINFALL, ETC ):
SURVEY PARTIC IPANTS (WRITE SURVEY LEADE R FIRST , UNDER LINE RECO RDER AND CIRCLE PRIM ARY PHOTOGRAPHER ):
SURVEY PARTIC IPANTS SKILLS AND EXP ERIENCE OF NOTE:
GENERAL COM MENTS:
FIELD #
GENUS
SPECIE S
IDENTI FIED BY
BRIEF DESCRIP TION1
TICK IF
COLLEC TED2

FIELD #
GENUS
SPECIE S
IDENTI FIED BY
BRIEF DESCRIP TION1
TICK IF
COLLEC TED2
COLLECTIONS
Record further details of collections made below.
FIELD #
COLLEC TED BY
COLLEC TOR T AG #
OTHER COLLECT ORS
DESCRI BER
NOTES
CONT. FUNGAL SURVEY RECORD SHEET

FUNGAL SURVEY SITE DESCRIPTION SHEET
Further guidance and resources for conducting fungal surveys in Australia can be found by contacting Fungimap or
visiting our website at www.fungimap.org.au, email: info@fungimap.org.au , phone: (03) 9252 2374, or by post
Fungimap, c/o Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne, Private Bag 2000, South Yarra, Victoria,
SITE NAME:
SITE ASSESSED BY:
DATE SITE ASSESSED
(MM/DD/YYYY):
CONTACT DETAILS FOR ASSESSOR(S):
STATE OR TERRITORY:
AMG NORTHING:
AMG EASTING:
DECIMAL LATITUDE:
DECIMAL LONGITUDE:
ALTITUDE:
ACCURACY IN METERS:
SOURCE OF COORDINATES:
PROJECTION:
DESCRIPTION OF SITE LOCALITY:
GENERAL COMMENTS ABO UT THE SITE:
VEGETATION CLASSIFICATION:
DOMINANT SPECIES:
CONDITION AND QUALITY OF VEGETATION:
HABITAT COVERAGE:
DISTRUBANCE HISTORY:
FIRE EVENTS:
EDGE EFFECTS?
CAUSES AND INTENTSITY OF EDGE EFFECTS?

SURVEY GROUP AND CONTACTS:
PURPOSE OF SURVEY:
INTENDED DURATION OF SURVEY:
INTENDED FREQUENCY OF SURVEYS:
SITE OWNER/MANAGER:
CONTACT DETAILS FOR SITE OWNER/MANAGER:
PERMISSION REQUIRED FOR ENRTY?
CONDITION AND DIFFICULTY OF SITE:
SITE FACILITIES (TOILETS, PHONES, ETC):
PARKING AND VEHICLE CAPACITY AT
SITE:
Attach PERMIT DETAILS and/or LETTERS OF PERMISSION from site
owners/managers,
MAPS, and PHOTOGRAPHS of the site.
HOW IS THE SITE BEING MARKED?
ECOLOGICAL THREATS AT/NEAR SITE:
TREATMENTS AT SITE:
IS THERE A DISEASE RISK IN THIS AREA?
IF YES, GIVE DISEASE RISK DETAILS:

Fungal Survey Risk Assessment
This Risk Assessment should be completed once for each survey site, and re-assessed before each survey event.
Date of Survey: Survey Site Name: Organiser:
Identified
hazards
People at risk
Risk classification
e.g. high, medium,
low
Precautions and protective measures
Example : Fire
Everybody
Low
 Fire warnings for the area will be checked before going out.
 Survey will not take place during times of elevated fire risk
Slipping and
tripping
Heat
exhaustion
Dehydration
Falling branches
Getting Lost
Hypothermia
from exposure
to cold or
becoming wet
Bites/stings
from insects
Poisonous
plants