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A Novel IoT-aware Smart Parking System based on the integration of RFID and WSN technologies
Abstract
Enabling a sustainable mobility is one of primary goals of the so-called Smart Cities vision, and in this perspective, the deployment of intelligent parking systems represents a key aspect. This paper presents a novel IoT-aware Smart Parking System based on the jointly use of different technologies, such as RFID, WSN, NFC, and mobile. It is able to collect, in real time, both environmental parameters and information about the occupancy state of parking spaces. To reduce the overall system costs, the possibility to use a solar RFID tag as cars' detection system has been analyzed. The system allows drivers to reach the nearest vacant parking spot and to pay for the parking fee, by using a customized mobile application. Furthermore, a software application based on RESTful Java and Google Cloud Messaging technologies has been installed on a CS in order to manage alert events. A proof-of-concept has been defined to demonstrate that the proposed solution is able to satisfy real requirements of an innovative Smart Parking System, while preliminary analysis of solar tag usage investigates the feasibility of the proposed detection solution.
... Indeed, in 2012, the consulting firm McKinsey & Company [1] reported that a Parisian driver would lose an average of four years throughout his life for parking spot cruising. Article [2] authors said that 30% of urban traffic congestion is due to vehicles looking for a parking space, which results in, on average for a vehicle, an additional time of 7.8 min to find a parking space. This cruising, besides, to increase traffic jams, contributes to engender more pollution said Shoup in [3]: in the district areas of Los Angeles, cars that run for parking purposes would create the equivalent of 38 trips around the world and would produce about 730 tons of CO 2 . ...
... Then, we proceed to the processing of images (computer vision) from these cameras. As the study [2] specifies, this technique requires the use of wire and is therefore intrusive. Some articles offer new algorithms specifically dedicated to cameras. ...
... This technique can allow realizing smart parking at high or middle cost (when cameras are already deployed). However, the main problems related to image processing techniques are multiple: the important amount of data to process, requiring the use of a wired network (at least for power supply) which are intrusive and not very scalable [2]. On the other hand, the processing algorithms will be more complex and subject to false-positives and false-negatives results according to the conditions of illumination, rain, etc. ...
Smart Parking is essential for any future smart cities due to the tremendous growth of the car fleet. Such infrastructures require a certain amount of equipment. Indeed, smart parking integrates a lot of actors, to manage the parking its equipment must be managed accordingly. Here, is proposed a distributed architecture to manage them by collecting efficiently their data. Two types of data relating to the parking must be collected: those coming from the deployed equipment in the parking and those coming from the internet due to remote users. Thus, a system of two main servers based on the multi-agent concept is proposed. This system manages the parking platform. The first server is dedicated to the parking equipment data collection (Processing Server–PS). The second server (Processing Web Server–PWS) collects the users’ online data such as reservation, and it is responsible for pricing policies, and receive post-processed data from the Processing Server. The parking equipment integrates a lot of commercial solutions, an intelligent multi-platform application based on this two server philosophy is developed and can be used for parking operation by users and parking managers. The flowcharts of the agents from the two mains servers are presented. These flowcharts are currently used in our demonstrator and still under improvements. Here, we present the architecture (hardware and software) of our smart parking demonstrator developed by our department and suitable for the experimentation of our future work related to this hot topic.
... RFID readers are other widely used sensors [101,126,228]. This technology requires a reading device which is usually installed in each parking slot or at the entrance to them. ...
... In these types of algorithms, the fact that information can vary is prioritized, so that several searches are generally performed, allowing the information to be updated at certain intervals [3]. In general, they do not establish a re-planning of the trajectory toward a parking slot, but they do offer a better performance than the static algorithms [101,141]. Those algorithms are able to react to everchanging conditions in the context in which they operate. ...
... While the sensors are highly accurate in measuring the information they provide [163], to operate, they require an underlying infrastructure [4], for instance, the purchase of and installation in each parking slot, plus nodes or antennas that collect the information, and servers that receive and provide all the sensed data [101]. This implies a cost that local government or private parking lots must consider when implementing an SPS to facilitate the task of parking for their citizens or users. ...
The large number of vehicles constantly seeking access to congested areas in cities means that finding a public parking place is often difficult and causes problems for drivers and citizens alike. In this context, strategies that guide vehicles from one point to another, looking for the most optimal path, are needed. Most contributions in the literature are routing strategies that take into account different criteria to select the optimal route required to find a parking space. This paper aims to identify the types of smart parking systems (SPS) that are available today, as well as investigate the kinds of vehicle detection techniques (VDT) they have and the algorithms or other methods they employ, in order to analyze where the development of these systems is at today. To do this, a survey of 274 publications from January 2012 to December 2019 was conducted. The survey considered four principal features: SPS types reported in the literature, the kinds of VDT used in these SPS, the algorithms or methods they implement, and the stage of development at which they are. Based on a search and extraction of results methodology, this work was able to effectively obtain the current state of the research area. In addition, the exhaustive study of the studies analyzed allowed for a discussion to be established concerning the main difficulties, as well as the gaps and open problems detected for the SPS. The results shown in this study may provide a base for future research on the subject.
... a) The core research theme of the paper should be SC. b) The research objective of the paper should be related to SC (for example; to study the development of SC projects (Mosannenzadeh et al. 2017a, b), to present a novel of SC services (Mainetti et al. 2016;Jin et al. 2016 etc), to study the appropriation process of public urban technologies in smart city (Ylipulli et al. 2014)). ...
... This theme of research in the SC domain was the most popular in the last decade and included those papers that examined SC services like Traffic application in SCs, Public transport applications in SCs, Supply chain design in SCs, Smart manufacturing, SC lighting system, Smart parking systems, etc. A number of researchers have studied the applications of technology necessary for enhancing the services offered by SCs to the citizens and for overcoming the growing urban problems (Kourtit 2017;Mainetti et al. 2016;Debnath et al. 2014). In the last decade, the rapid growth of urban population has resulted in the growing demand for energy, water, and transportation (UN 2014). ...
... In a recent study, Farooq et al. (2017) designed LabVIEW, an application for making the city's traffic services smart. Moreover, Mainetti et al. (2016) presented an innovative IoT-aware smart parking system, which is capable of reducing the traffic congestion. Some researchers have shown their concerns regarding the vulnerable urban transportation systems, particularly the traffic signal control systems (Laszka et al. 2016;Ghena et al. 2014), because it leads to authentication violation and spoofing at both the network and device layers. ...
Smart City (SC) has been a popular area of research and practice during the last decade. An in-depth examination of the existing literature reviews on SCs divulges the scarcity of studies classifying the literature into multiple themes and identifying the popular and less popular themes based on the number of peer reviewed research papers under respective theme. Hence, in this study, a descriptive literature review of 86 peer-reviewed papers on SCs has been conducted to bridge this gap. The findings demonstrate that themes such as SC services design and management, innovation and technology, and citizens’ engagement in design and development of SCs have been extensively studied, whereas, themes such as the social impact, governance and policy, and performance indicators and standards have received moderate attention. However, there are also less popular themes such as the implementation barriers and SC strategy. Further, this study provides a reference source to future researchers. It also delivers valuable information to the policymakers and government bodies, which are actively, involved in the SC projects.
... The application could also help in calculating the costs of the parking requests of drivers. Another example is the study of Mainetti et al. [35], who mapped out a smart parking system through an integrated ultra-high frequency (UHF), wireless sensor network (WSN) with RFID technologies. Their system is made up of software features that assemble the parking slot occupancy. ...
... The simulation shows that the algorithm assists in upgrading the probability of successful parking and lowers time wastage. Mainetti et al. [35] presented a sophisticated IoT-aware smart parking system on the basis of the joint use of various technologies that include RFID, WSN NFC, and Mobile. It is capable of collecting the environmental parameters and the information on the occupancy state of parking spaces in real time. ...
The Internet of Things (IoT) has come of age, and complex solutions can now be implemented seamlessly within urban governance and management frameworks and processes. For cities, growing rates of car ownership are rendering parking availability a challenge and lowering the quality of life through increased carbon emissions. The development of smart parking solutions is thus necessary to reduce the time spent looking for parking and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The principal role of this research paper is to analyze smart parking solutions from a technical perspective, underlining the systems and sensors that are available, as documented in the literature. The review seeks to provide comprehensive insights into the building of smart parking solutions. A holistic survey of the current state of smart parking systems should incorporate the classification of such systems as big vehicular detection technologies. Finally, communication modules are presented with clarity.
... This article presents an innovative approach that draws on scientific research standards to design and implement an IoT-based intelligent parking system. This approach aims to guarantee the reliability, reproducibility, and validity of the results obtained while promoting collaboration and interoperability between smart parking systems deployed worldwide Based on the research results by Mainetti et al. [1] , it has been shown that around 30% of instances of traffic congestion may be attributed to the act of searching for an available parking spot for vehicles. The process of finding a suitable parking spot typically leads to an additional duration of around 7.8 min for a car. ...
Inefficient urban parking management systems lead to limited capacity, congestion, and environmental contamination, resulting in time and fuel waste, increased carbon emissions, and economic inefficiency. Smart parking, a technology that uses the Internet of Things (IoT) to collect real-time data on parking availability, optimizes usage, improves traffic flow, and simplifies the driver's experience. This system can be integrated into urban infrastructure, contributing to more efficient and environmentally-friendly urban mobility. Benefits include reduced time spent searching for parking, reduced traffic congestion, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and new revenue opportunities for parking lot operators. This paper presents a multi-agent smart parking approach, providing a comprehensive architectural framework and workflow for various smart parking scenarios. The proposed methodology incorporates IoT technologies, enhancing efficiency and reducing the need for manual parking, ultimately improving urban parking efficiency.
... Manajemen dan analisis data yang efektif sangat penting. (Hong et al., 2023;Mainetti et al., 2016;Salunke & Bhambar, 2019) membahas tantangan dan solusi untuk mengelola data yang dihasilkan IoT, dengan menekankan pentingnya platform berbasis cloud dan analisis data besar, yang dapat memberikan wawasan yang berharga ke dalam data yang dikumpulkan dari node sensor dalam konteks lingkungan yang beragam di Indonesia. ...
Integrasi teknologi Internet of Things (IoT) dengan jaringan sensor nirkabel (WSN) telah mengantarkan era baru dalam pemantauan lingkungan dan pengumpulan data. Di Indonesia, negara yang kaya akan keanekaragaman ekologi dan tantangan lingkungan, penerapan teknologi IoT untuk mengoptimalkan WSN untuk pemantauan lingkungan menjadi sangat penting. Penelitian ini mengeksplorasi kondisi pemantauan lingkungan saat ini di Indonesia, mengidentifikasi tantangan dan peluang, dan mengevaluasi aspek teknis dari optimalisasi WSN. Survei dan wawancara mendalam dengan para pemangku kepentingan mengungkapkan terbatasnya adopsi IoT, tantangan infrastruktur, dan kekhawatiran mengenai privasi dan keamanan data. Evaluasi teknis penyebaran node sensor menunjukkan tantangan dalam efisiensi transmisi data dan konsumsi daya. Studi kasus menggambarkan tantangan kontekstual dan solusi inovatif dalam pengaturan lingkungan yang beragam. Untuk mengatasi masalah-masalah ini, rekomendasi yang diberikan termasuk mempromosikan adopsi IoT, standarisasi, peningkatan infrastruktur, keamanan data, efisiensi energi, inisiatif kolaboratif, dan pemantauan berkelanjutan. Rekomendasi-rekomendasi ini bertujuan untuk mendorong Indonesia menuju infrastruktur pemantauan lingkungan yang lebih efisien dan berkelanjutan, serta memastikan kelestarian ekosistem dan sumber dayanya yang unik.
... The literature highlighting the benefits of RFID for smart cities is well established. For instance, RFID is highlighted by several scholars as a key enabling technology for the IoT due to its ability to ensure real-time and automatic identification, cost-effective operations, and high readability rates in smart city applications, including smart parking [30,43,47,165], asset management, smart healthcare, smart homes, and air pollution monitoring [25,26,32]. Bagula et al. [43] integrate RFID technology in their implementation of smart parking to replace a paper-based ticketing system and allow drivers to use their RFID tag to be directed toward their pre-allocated parking location. ...
This study examines how the application of the IoT in smart cities is discussed in the current academic literature. Based on bibliometric techniques, 1,802 articles were retrieved from the Scopus database and analyzed to identify the temporal nature of IoT research, the most relevant journals, authors, countries, keywords, and studies. The software tool VOSviewer was used to build the keyword co-occurrence network and to cluster the pertinent literature. Results show the significant growth of IoT research in recent years. The most productive authors, journals, and countries were also identified. The main findings from the keyword co-occurrence clustering and an in-depth qualitative analysis indicate that the IoT is used alongside other technologies including cloud computing, big data analytics, blockchain, artificial intelligence, and wireless telecommunication networks. The major applications of the IoT for smart cities include smart buildings, transportation, healthcare, smart parking, and smart grids. This review is one of the first attempts to map global IoT research in a smart city context and uses a comprehensive set of articles and bibliometric techniques to provide scholars and practitioners with an overview of what has been studied so far and to identify research gaps at the intersection of the IoT and the smart city.
... The reservation will be held for a grace period (e.g. 15 minutes) and if the user is not able to come to the spot within that period, an SMS will be sent to the respective user about expiration of reservation. This IPA system is based on wireless sensor network like other intelligent parking management systems [21,25,27,34,36,37,39]. In a similar vein, a smart car parking system-iParker [20] proposed an intelligent resource allocation and reservation model. ...
Smart parking is becoming more and more an integral part of smart city initiatives. Utilizing and managing parking areas is a challenging task as space is often limited, finding empty spaces are hard and citizens want to park their vehicles close to their preferred places. This becomes worse in important/posh areas of major metropolitan cities during rush hour. Due to unavailability of proper parking management system, citizens have to roam around a lot in order to find a suitable parking area. This leads to the wastage of valuable time, unnecessary fuel consumption and environmental pollution. This paper proposes a smart parking management system (SPMS) based on multiple criteria based parking space reservation algorithm (MCPR) that allows the driver/owner of vehicles to find and reserve most appropriate parking space from anywhere at any time. The system also considers the concept of dynamic pricing strategy for calculating parking charge in order to gain more revenue by the government agencies as well as private investors. The system employs sensors to calculate concentration index, average inter-arrival time of vehicles of a parking area for better parking management and planning. The simulation results show that proposed system reduces the average extra driving required by the users to find a parking area and hence it will reduce traffic congestion, which in turn reduces air pollution caused by unnecessary driving to find a proper parking area.
... The authors in [12], have presented a Smart Parking System which is based on the integration of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technologies to detect the occupancy state of the parking spaces. The proposed system also employs a customized software application to direct the drivers to the nearest vacant parking spot. ...
The proper management of available parking spaces to enable a driver to locate the parking slot quickly during busiest hours of the day in the urban areas is a major concern to the city authorities. So, significant amount of research works have been devoted to the development of smart parking systems over the past few years. Most of these have paid attention to the detection of free parking slot within the parking areas along with guiding the driver to reach the parking area. Very few works have paid attention to the real-time management of all parking spaces available within a city. By keeping track of the occupancy status of all the parking spaces available within a city, it is possible to aid not only the driver to locate his/her preferable parking spot quickly but also the city authorities in generating revenues by proper utilization of the parking spaces. Thus, this paper presents an automated real-time parking management system for smart cities to address the above mentioned issues. The proposed parking management system provides online reservation facility for the parking spot in a secured manner via an an-droid application that is to be installed on the driver s phone and also integrate an electronic payment gateway to enable automatic collection of the parking charges by the city authorities. The experimental results and various screen shots of mobile client application provided in this paper validate the effectiveness of the proposed system.
... The authors of [1] use a network of RFID tags combining with RFIDs' antenna for the detection the occupation status of each parking lot, this solution can be misleading in the case of low sunshine. The authors of [2] propose to use QR-codes as sensors at each place. ...
The main goals of the demonstrator developed within the FRDISI (Foundation for Research, Development and Innovation in Engineering Sciences) in Casablanca (Morocco) are to allow the development of new concepts and tools in smart-parking management. It will also permit to experiment other smart sensors and parking management analysis algorithms. The demonstrator will offer a platform to develop and experiment innovative solutions for an efficient management of the energy consumption of all the infrastructure and physical equipment of the smart-parking. Here his architecture is exposed.
... The authors in (Mainetti et al., 2016) propose an IoT smart parking system application that uses the integration of different technologies (among these RFID and WSN) to collect, in real time, information about the use of parking space. The proposal uses a 6LLR (6LoWPAN Router Reader) node that combined with a 6LoWPAN node with an RFID tag reader. ...
Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a new paradigm that allows different objects interconnection to create new smart services and applications. In this sense, key features such as traceability, unique identification, energy efficiency, heterogeneity of devices, scalability and ubiquity, are necessary at the network structure for efficient performance of IoT applications. As a single technology, it is not capable to provide all these features, then, the integration of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) arises as an important approach for these solutions. In this paper, a framework aiming to provide the network features required for IoT applications is proposed, considering the challenges that comes from the integration of these two technologies. In this framework, two components are considered, the Fuzzy Q-Algorithm and the Fuzzy System-Based Route Classifier. The former comprises a fuzzy system to enhance an anti-collision protocol for RFID, and the latter is a fuzzy system that classifies routes and assists routing protocols in applications that use WSNs and RFID. Experiments show that framework provides the following benefits: improves the performance of RFID tags identification, lowers packet loss rates, decreases the nodes energy consumption, and shows improvements in network load balancing. Moreover, these benefits provide greater energy efficiency and quality of service for IoT applications.
... Our research is enables to pay a ticket by mobile phone and makes the traditional parking meter obsolete. Mainetti et al. [16] stressed out that with the upcoming of smart cities intelligent parking systems boast necessity. "Drivers can spend a significant amount of time searching for available spots" [17] while producing and disseminating real-time information to drivers [17]. ...
apparkB is a mobile parking payment application, which has been developed and implemented in the city of Barcelona, Spain. We empirically analyzed the awareness of Barcelona’s citizens of this service, the users’ satisfaction with it and their need to use it. Mobile applications are important services in smart cities, as they support citizens’ daily tasks. To critically evaluate apparkB we deployed the information service evaluation (ISE) model. In order to get data on apparkB we applied an online survey, conducted interviews with Barcelona’s smart city authorities, and performed rapid ethnographical field research in April 2016. Only a minority of Barcelona’s citizens use this service, as they do not know it or do not use a car in the city. However, those who really use it articulate a need and are satisfied with apparkB.
This paper proposes a new method for monitoring the irregularities in railway tracks by updating the status of the tracks in the cloud. The IoT based Railway Track Monitoring System (IoT-RMS) is proposed for monitoring the health of the railway track. The system identifies any abnormality in the tracks at an early stage. These abnormalities are rectified before they develop for smoother transportation. The micro electro mechanical system (MEMS) accelerometers are placed in the axle box for measuring the signal. It becomes hard to identify the exact location of abnormalities when the global positioning system (GPS) falters due to signalling issues. In this paper, a new hybrid method is proposed for locating irregularities on a track; even in the absence of a GPS signal. Pre-processing of the GPS signal is carried out effectively because the sensors used in IoT-RMS are capable of functioning in a high noise environment. The IoT-RMS updates the location of the abnormality in the cloud and shares it with other trains that will be passing through that location. As a result, the drivers of trains respond accordingly and avoid derailment. An experimental setup has been developed for a study of the performances for four different abnormal cases, and the result shows the effectiveness of the proposed system.
The parking plays a fundamental role in urban transport policy development, as an important factor impacting driver’s behavior and a major source of traffic problems. In this paper, we present some novel parking pricing schemes to solve the parking spots scarcity and enhance the traffic condition in urban areas. We capture the traveler behavior in term of joint route and parking selection using a simple congestion game. Each traveler aims to minimize his/her expected travel cost by choosing an optimal strategy (route and parking spot). We show how an efficient pricing can incentivize the travelers to optimally choose their route-parking while reducing the traffic congestion.
The detection of vehicle presence in parking slots is a fundamental part of smart parking systems. The problem is commonly approached with devices composed of specific sensors, which usually are either magnetic or infrared. The sensor is continuously sampled by an onboard microcontroller capable of determining the slot status (available or occupied) and sending the information to a central collection and gathering system by means of a wireless technology. Nevertheless, cost and power consumption are still an issue. Based on the consideration that the vehicle slot status is only a single bit of information, in this article an alternative low-power and cost-effective approach is proposed. Specifically, two novel vehicle presence detectors, one battery-powered and based on 868 MHz LoRa technology and one solar-cell-powered and adopting BAP 866 MHz UHF RFID technology, are presented, designed, realized, and tested. The obtained results demonstrate the appropriateness of the proposed approach since the same functionalities of conventional devices at lower cost and lower consumption are reached.
The evolution of modern mobile devices towards novel Radio Frequency (RF) capabilities, such as Near Field Communication, leads to a potential for delivering innovative mobile services, which is still partially unexplored. Mobile proximity payment systems are going to enhance the daily shopping experience, but the access to payment security resources of a mobile device (e.g. the "Secure Element") by third party applications is still blocked by smartphone and Operating System manufacturers. In this paper, the IDA-Pay system is presented, an innovative and secure NFC micro-payment system based on Peer-to-Peer NFC operating mode for Android mobile phones. It allows to deliver mobile-to-POS micro-payment services, bypassing the need for special hardware. A validation scenario and a system evaluation are also reported to demonstrate the system effectiveness and performance.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have received an ever-increasing attention in recent years, mainly because they represent two of the most important technologies enabling the Internet of Things vision. Although designed originally with different objectives, WSN and RFID represent two complementary technologies whose integration might increase their functionalities and extend their range of applications. However, important technological issues must still be solved in order to fully exploit the potentialities offered by such integration. In this work, an innovative RFID-WSN integration approach is presented and validated. It relies on the interconnection of a new-generation, long-range, EPCglobal Class-1 Generation-2 Ultra-High-Frequency (UHF) RFID tag with a commercial WSN node via the I2C interface. Experimental results have demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed approach compared to existing solution in the literature. Interesting application scenarios enabled by the proposed RFID-WSN integration approach are briefly summarized at the end of the paper.
This paper presents the generic concept of using cloud-based intelligent car parking services in smart cities as an important application of the Internet of Things (IoT) paradigm. This type of services will become an integral part of a generic IoT operational platform for smart cities due to its pure business-oriented features. A high-level view of the proposed middleware is outlined and the corresponding operational platform is illustrated. To demonstrate the provision of car parking services, based on the proposed middleware, a cloud-based intelligent car parking system for use within a university campus is described along with details of its design, implementation, and operation. A number of software solutions, including Kafka/Storm/Hbase clusters, OSGi web applications with distributed NoSQL, a rule engine, and mobile applications, are proposed to provide 'best' car parking service experience to mobile users, following the Always Best Connected and best Served (ABC&S) paradigm.
The paper presents an energy efficient MAC scheduler for wireless sensor networks, and its implementation in the Contiki Operating System. Simulations performed using the Contiki's simulations tools (i.e., Cooja and MPSim) show that the proposed scheme reduces the power consumption with respect to the ZigBee standard solution and the X-MAC protocol, already implemented in Contiki. Furthermore, the functionality and the portability of the implementation are validated using two test beds based on two different platforms.
A Wireless Sensor Network consists of a large
number of sensor nodes that are usually battery powered and
deployed in large areas in which changing or recharging batteries
may be impractical or completely unfeasible. Therefore, energy
efficiency represents one of the main design objectives for these
networks. Since most of the energy is consumed by the radio
communication, the development of Medium Access Control
protocols able to minimize the radio energy consumption is a
very attractive research area. This paper presents an energy
efficient communication protocol and its implementation in the
Contiki Operating System. The performances and the portability
of the proposed solution are thoroughly evaluated by means of
both simulations, carried out using the Contiki simulation tools
(i.e., Cooja and MPSim), and test beds based on two different
platforms. Obtained results show that the proposed scheme
significantly reduces the sensor nodes power consumption
compared to the IEEE 802.15.4 standard solution already
implemented in Contiki.
The most significant barrier to improving passive RFID tag performance for both fixed function ID tags and enhanced RFID tags is the limitation on the amount of power that can be harvested for operation. This paper presents a novel approach for incorporating solar harvesting capability into existing passive RFID tags without increasing the parts count or changing the tag assembly process. Our approach employs the tag's antenna as a dual function element in which the antenna simultaneously harvests RF energy, communicates with the RFID reader, and harvests solar energy for auxiliary power. This is accomplished by using low cost, printable photovoltaics deposited on flexible substrate to form part of the antenna's radiating structure. Several prototype UHF RFID antennas are demonstrated using commercially available thin film, amorphous solar cells. To quantify the improvement in tag performance, Intel's WISP was used as an initial test vehicle. The effective read range of the tag was increased by six times and exceeded the reader's sensitivity limitations. Additionally, the new antenna allowed for sensing and computing operations to take place independent of the RFID reader under typical office lighting conditions.
The Internet of Things (IoT) shall be able to incorporate transparently and seamlessly a large number of different and heterogeneous end systems, while providing open access to selected subsets of data for the development of a plethora of digital services. Building a general architecture for the IoT is hence a very complex task, mainly because of the extremely large variety of devices, link layer technologies, and services that may be involved in such a system. In this paper, we focus specifically to an urban IoT system that, while still being quite a broad category, are characterized by their specific application domain. Urban IoTs, in fact, are designed to support the Smart City vision, which aims at exploiting the most advanced communication technologies to support added-value services for the administration of the city and for the citizens. This paper hence provides a comprehensive survey of the enabling technologies, protocols, and architecture for an urban IoT. Furthermore, the paper will present and discuss the technical solutions and best-practice guidelines adopted in the Padova Smart City project, a proof-of-concept deployment of an IoT island in the city of Padova, Italy, performed in collaboration with the city municipality.
Parking is becoming an expensive resource in almost any major city in the world, and its limited availability is a concurrent cause of urban traffic congestion, and air pollution. In old cities, the structure of the public parking space is rigidly organised and often in the form of on-street public parking spots. Unfortunately, these public parking spots cannot be reserved beforehand during the pre-trip phase, and that often lead to a detriment of the quality of urban mobility. Addressing the problem of managing public parking spots is therefore vital to obtain environmentally friendlier and healthier cities. Recent technological progresses in industrial automation, wireless network, sensor communication along with the widespread of high-range smart devices and new rules concerning financial transactions in mobile payment allow the definition of new intelligent frameworks that enable a convenient management of public parking in urban area, which could improve sustainable urban mobility. In such a scenario, the proposed intelligent parking assistant (IPA) architecture aims at overcoming current public parking management solutions. This study discusses the conceptual architecture of IPA and the first prototype-scale simulations of the system.
With the advent of IPv6, the world is getting ready to incorporate smart objects to the current Internet to realize the idea of Internet of Things. The biggest challenge faced is the resource constraint of the smart objects to directly utilize the existing standard protocols and applications. A number of initiatives are currently witnessed to resolve this situation. One of such initiatives is the introduction of Constrained Application Protocol. This protocol is developed to fit in the resource-constrained smart object with the ability to easily translate to the prominent representational state transfer implementation, hypertext transfer protocol (and vice versa). The protocol has several optional extensions, one of them being, resource observation. With resource observation, a client may ask a server to be notified every state change of the resource. However, in many applications, all state changes are not significant enough for the clients. Therefore, the client will have to decide whether to use a value sent by a server or not. This results in wastage of the already constrained resources (bandwidth, processing power,…). In this paper, we introduced an alternative to the normal resource observation function, named Conditional Observation, where clients tell the servers the criteria for notification. We evaluated the power consumption and number of packets transmitted between clients and servers by using different network sizes and number of servers. In all cases, we found out that the existing observe option results in excessive number of packets (most of them unimportant for the client) and higher power consumption. We also made an extensive theoretical evaluation of the two approaches which give consistent result with the results we got from experimentation.
Performance evaluation of passive Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) tags is a crucial but challenging task. In fact, tag performance depends on multiple factors like the goodness of the conjugate matching between chip and antenna, the chip sensitivity, and the strength and quality of backscattered signal. Moreover, passive RFID tags lack wired connectors and therefore cannot be directly interfaced with conventional measurement instruments. Some solutions for tag testing and performance evaluation are commercially available on the market, but they are expensive and not totally flexible. In this work we propose a novel approach to the problem of tag performance analysis based on Software-Defined Radio (SDR). We show that a SDR tool for UHF RFID reading allows the characterization of tag performance by any metric and for any operating frequency, with a total equipment cost below 1000 USD. We present the methodology to measure tag sensitivity, differential radar cross-section and Signal-to-Noise ratio, and provide numerical results for five different tags.
A major problem in metropolitan areas is searching for parking spaces. In this paper, we propose a novel method for parking space detection. Given input video captured by a camera, we can distinguish the empty spaces from the occupied spaces by using an 8-class support vector machine (SVM) classifier with probabilistic outputs. Considering the inter-space correlation, the outputs of the SVM classifier are fused together using a Markov random field (MRF) framework. The result is much improved detection performance, even when there are significant occlusion and shadowing effects in the scene. Experimental results are given to show the robustness of the proposed approach.
This paper considers the design of a real time parking space locating system using a network of wireless sensor nodes that are equipped with magnetic sensors. Considerations for designing a reliable detection scheme for cars using magnetic signatures obtained by the wireless sensors are presented. All design considerations are derived from experimental data obtained from a campus parking garage. Results indicate that the proposed detection algorithm can effectively detect a wide range of passing vehicles with small error probability.
We estimate a vehicle's speed, its wheelbase length, and tire track length by jointly estimating its acoustic wave pattern with a single passive acoustic sensor that records the vehicle's drive-by noise. The acoustic wave pattern is determined using the vehicle's speed, the Doppler shift factor, the sensor's distance to the vehicle's closest-point-of-approach, and three envelope shape (ES) components, which approximate the shape variations of the received signal's power envelope. We incorporate the parameters of the ES components along with estimates of the vehicle engine RPM, the number of cylinders, and the vehicle's initial bearing, loudness and speed to form a vehicle profile vector. This vector provides a fingerprint that can be used for vehicle identification and classification. We also provide possible reasons why some of the existing methods are unable to provide unbiased vehicle speed estimates using the same framework. The approach is illustrated using vehicle speed estimation and classification results obtained with field data.
In metropolitan areas, parking management influences drivers search time and cost for parking spaces, parking revenue, and traffic congestion. The wide deployment of wireless parking meters with sensing and communications capabilities allows the parking authority to monitor the state of each parking space in real time and optimize the parking management.
In this thesis, we study state-of-the-art parking policies in smart parking systems, and show that the smart parking system needs to be "smarter". Our design goals of the smart parking systems include: (1) simplify the operations of parking systems, (2) improve drivers' satisfaction, (3) increase parking revenue, and (4) alleviate traffic congestion. Through analysis and simulations, we first show that the proposed reservation-based parking policy has the potential to achieve the above goals. We then model the behavior of both service providers and drivers in smart parking systems, and explore the dynamic pricing scheme to achieve the goals in smart parking system design.
Furthermore, we design and implement a prototype of Reservation-based Smart Parking System (RSPS) that allows drivers to effectively find and reserve the vacant parking spaces. With the real time tracking of parking status via various sensing technologies, a smart parking system will dynamically update the parking price according to the physical parking status, and the parking price will affect drivers decision on parking slot selection, therefore, affect the parking status. A smart parking system can be regarded as a full-fledged cyber-physical system (CPS). Through extensive experiment based on real traffic traces and a real-world parking map, the results show that the proposed reservation-based parking policy has the potential to simplify the operations of parking systems, as well as alleviate traffic congestion caused by searching for parking.
Adviser: Lisong Xu and Wenbo He
Wireless sensor networks are composed of large numbers of tiny networked devices that communicate untethered. For large scale networks, it is important to be able to download code into the network dynamically. We present Contiki, a lightweight operating system with support for dynamic loading and replacement of individual programs and services. Contiki is built around an event-driven kernel but provides optional preemptive multithreading that can be applied to individual processes. We show that dynamic loading and unloading is feasible in a resource constrained environment, while keeping the base system lightweight and compact.
Internet of Things devices will by and large be battery-operated, but existing application protocols have typically not been designed with power-efficiency in mind. In low-power wireless systems, power-efficiency is determined by the ability to maintain a low radio duty cycle: keeping the radio off as much as possible. We present an implementation of the IETF Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) for the Contiki operating system that leverages the ContikiMAC low-power duty cycling mechanism to provide power efficiency. We experimentally evaluate our low-power CoAP, demonstrating that an existing application layer protocol can be made power-efficient through a generic radio duty cycling mechanism. To the best of our knowledge, our CoAP implementation is the first to provide power-efficient operation through radio duty cycling. Our results question the need for specialized low-power mechanisms at the application layer, instead providing low-power operation only at the radio duty cycling layer.
This study introduces a new approach of parking system by using Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technology equipped with ultrasonic sensors. The system also implements shortest path algorithm to calculate the shortest distance from the parking berth to the nearest preferred entrance. The system operates by monitoring the availability of the vehicle berth and making the information collected available for patrons and car-park operator. The information gained from the detection sensor and calculation from the shortest path algorithm is used to guide patrons to parking berth. The car-park operators use the sensors’ information to aid in overall management and planning. WSN is chosen since it enables reliable information gathering and measurement to be transmitted through wireless channel without having to install new cabling for network and electricity to reach each sensing device.
There has been a considerable amount of reduction in transaction costs and decrease in stock shortage with the use of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology in automation. Most of the RFID networks include a wide range of automation technologies. These technologies are RFID readers, RFID writers, RFID barcode scanners, RFID smart sensors and RFID controllers. In this study, a solution has been provided for the problems encountered in parking-lot management systems via RFID technology. RFID readers, RFID labels, computers, barriers and software are used as for the main components of the RFID technology. The software has been handled for the management, controlling, transaction reporting and operation tasks for parking lots located on various parts of the city. Check-ins and check-outs of the parking-lots will be under control with RFID readers, labels and barriers. Personnel costs will be reduced considerably using this technology. It will be possible to see unmanned, secure, automized parking-lots functioning with RFID technology in the future. Check-ins and check-outs will be handled in a fast manner without having to stop the cars so that traffic jam problem will be avoided during these processes. Drivers will not have to stop at the circulation points and parking tickets will be out of usage during check-ins and check-outs. It will be avoided ticket-jamming problems for the ticket processing machines as well. Vehicle owners will not have to make any payments at each check-out thus a faster traffic flow will be possible. Since there won't be any waiting during check-ins and check-outs the formation of emission gas as a result of such waiting will be avoided. An automized income tracking system, a car tracking system for charging and a central parking-car tracking system have been developed and utilized. Instead of cars' parking on streets, a more modern and a fast operating parking-lot system have been developed.
Parking is the act of stopping and disengaging a vehicle and leaving it unoccupied. Parking on one or both sides of a road is often permitted, though sometimes with restrictions. Some buildings have parking facilities for use of the buildings' users. Countries and local governments have rules for design and use of parking spaces. Generally vehicle parking is done by manually and it is not automatic. Due to the manually vehicle parking system there may occur misalignment in parking and it is difficult to park in crowded place. In existing we uses high cost materials or sensors to park the vehicle in public places. But many of them preferred in manual parking system so we implement new concept for them. This is the automated parking system using the centre wheel attachment in the back wheel. By using this model we can park any vehicle within a second.
Enabling a sustainable urban mobility is one of primary goals of the so-called Smart Cities vision, and the deployment of smart parking systems represents a key aspect. The proper operation of these systems heavily depends on their ability to automatically detect the presence of vehicles in the parking spaces. To date, this problem is solved by expensive wireless/wired systems. As the car presence is only one bit of information, with importance of knowing the ID of a slot, in this paper we consider the possibility of using Battery Assisted Passive (BAP) tags for those purposes. Specifically, the considered system uses a BAP tag, with the battery replaced by a solar cell. Once the light level is below some thresholds (ensured by car on top of it), the tag stops transmitting the data, and the system recognizes the slot as occupied. The feasibility of the proposed solution is experimentally verified, and first results are reported.
This book explains how UHF tags and readers communicate wirelessly. It gives an understanding of what limits the read range of a tag, how to increase it (and why that might result in breaking the law), and the practical things that need to be addressed when designing and implementing RFID technology. Avoiding heavy math but giving breadth of coverage with the right amount of detail, it is an ideal introduction to radio communications for engineers who need insight into how tags and readers work. New to this edition: Examples of near-metal antenna techniques. Discussion of the wakeup challenge for battery-assisted tags, with a BAT architecture example. Latest development of protocols: EPC Gen 1.2.0. Update 18000-6 discussion with battery-assisted tags, sensor tags, Manchester tags and wakeup provisions.
This paper evaluates the impact of the EPCglobal international standard and some emerging Radio Frequency (RF) technologies, such as Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) and Near Field Communication (NFC), on the main processes of the fresh vegetables supply chain. Particular attention was focused on the first steps of the supply chain, which include cultivation in greenhouses and manufacturing of packaged vegetables, known as IV gamma products (i.e., goods ready to be consumed), because they represent crucial points of the considered supply chain. A qualitative and quantitative analysis of the current business processes was performed exploiting the experience of a big Italian company, with several locations and different brands. This analysis highlighted some critical aspects in the management of the whole supply chain, from the land to the table of the end-consumer, and allowed us to perform an efficient re-engineering of the main business processes. The re-engineered model was designed by exploiting the potentialities derived from the combined use of innovative technologies, including EPCglobal, RFID, NFC, and DataMatrix. Moreover, this work has led to the definition of important guidelines able to substantially improve both the culture techniques and the vegetables transformation procedures, based on strategic concepts such as precision agriculture, item-level traceability, and integration of heterogeneous Information Systems (IS). The proposed tracing and tracking system, based on EPCglobal standard, is able to guarantee to end-consumer the ability to know the entire history of the purchased product. Moreover, in order to evaluate the potential benefits of the re-engineered processes in a real supply chain, some metrics able to compare the current (AS IS) and reengineered (TO BE) models were considered. In particular, the Key Performance Indicator (KPI) method has been chosen to carry out this analysis on the pilot project implemented in the chosen company. Experimental results allowed us to derive a realistic estimate of the selected performance indicators for the re-engineered model.
In this paper, a Smart Parking System (SPS) based on the integration of Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and IEEE 802.15.4 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) technologies is presented. The system is able to collect information about the occupancy state of parking spaces, and to direct drivers to the nearest vacant parking spot by using a customized software application. Such application also leverages an NFC-based e-wallet system to allow users to pay for the parking fee. Furthermore, a software application based on RESTful Java and Google Cloud Messaging (GCM) technologies has been installed on a Central Server in order to manage alert events (e.g. improper use of a reserved space or expiration of the purchased time). In such a case, it promptly informs the traffic cops through an Android mobile app, which has been designed ad hoc for the considered scenario. A proof-of-concept has demonstrated that the proposed solution can meet the real requirements of a SPS.
Over the last few years, the convincing forward steps in the development of Internet of Things (IoT)-enabling solutions are spurring the advent of novel and fascinating applications. Among others, mainly radio frequency identification (RFID), wireless sensor network (WSN), and smart mobile technologies are leading this evolutionary trend. In the wake of this tendency, this paper proposes a novel, IoT-aware, smart architecture for automatic monitoring and tracking of patients, personnel, and biomedical devices within hospitals and nursing institutes. Staying true to the IoT vision, we propose a smart hospital system (SHS), which relies on different, yet complementary, technologies, specifically RFID, WSN, and smart mobile, interoperating with each other through a Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)/IPv6 over low-power wireless personal area network (6LoWPAN)/representational state transfer (REST) network infrastructure. The SHS is able to collect, in real time, both environmental conditions and patients' physiological parameters via an ultra-low-power hybrid sensing network (HSN) composed of 6LoWPAN nodes integrating UHF RFID functionalities. Sensed data are delivered to a control center where an advanced monitoring application (MA) makes them easily accessible by both local and remote users via a REST web service. The simple proof of concept implemented to validate the proposed SHS has highlighted a number of key capabilities and aspects of novelty, which represent a significant step forward compared to the actual state of the art.
Newer silicon-based consumer electronics became very popular due to its reduction in size, price, and power consumption. One of its applications today is building low-power devices for ubiquitous sensing. Although sensors are low-power devices, they need some energy source to function properly. One of the major challenges today is to develop systems where sensors do not require external power sources, and could be powered using available ambient energy. To address this power issue one could use energy harvesting concepts. In this paper, we present our probabilistic approach used for modeling the possible amount of Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) energy that could be harvested, including a demonstration of what power levels could be harvested using GSM rectifying antenna (rectenna). In addition to harvesting approach, we propose an application of its usage in increasing the communication range between Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) reader and battery free passive RFID tags.
Radio Frequency identification (RFID) technology has become important tool for items identification and tracking. In those purposes different types of RFID technologies could be used, depending on its application. Limitations of passive RFID technology, related to tags reading range and confidence in harsh environments, puts restrictions on implementation in the real life scenarios. To overcome the issue, but staying within the standards, we have considered development and implementation of active backscattering tag technology, which significantly improves tag reading range and confidence. Software Defined Radio (SDR) technology is promising technology for building mobiles of multiple radio standards in 4G networks. Regarding stated RFID technologies limitations and SDR technology, we present development and implementation of the Software Defined Radio (SDR) active backscattering tag compatible with the EPCglobal UHF Class 1 Generation 2 (Gen2) RFID standard. Such technology can be used for wide spectra of applications and services. The system is developed and tested on SDR platform. Validity and performances of developed Gen2 SDR tag are shown through actual presented results.
This paper attempts to evaluate the impact of radio frequency identification (RFID) technology, EPCglobal and ebXML on some business processes that are critical to the success of the pharmaceutical supply chain. Particular attention is focused on the wholesaler because it represents a particular stress point in terms of constraints and product flow. A quantitative and qualitative analysis of some current (AS IS) supply chain processes was performed on a big pharmaceutical wholesaler. It allowed us to identify some critical factors in the main business processes. In order to guarantee an efficient item-level tracing system in the whole supply chain, a re-engineering procedure has been defined exploiting an approach based on the combined use of RFID, EPCglobal, and ebXML. The key performance indicator (KPI) method has been chosen to carry out the analysis of the potential benefits by using an empirical method based on the living laboratory approach. This rigorous experimental approach, performed in a controlled test environment, allowed us to derive a realistic estimate of the selected performance indicators for the reengineered (TO BE) model.
In order to solve the ever-growing lack of parking space available, this paper designs and implements a smart parking management system based on the RFID (radio frequency identification) and internet. The system induces parking cars, each of which has the only RFID card, to park in right spaces of parking lots, and manages the information of parking cars there. Based on this, it can also help users query the information stored in database easily through the internet, which is designed in B/S architecture (Browser/Server architecture).
The evolution of modern mobile devices towards novel Radio Frequency (RF) capabilities, such as Near Field Communication (NFC), leads to a potential for delivering innovative mobile services which is still partially unexplored. Mobile NFC micro-payments systems can enhance the daily shopping experience, but the access to payment security resources of a mobile device (e.g. the “Secure Element”) by third party applications is still blocked by smartphone and OS manufacturers. In this paper, the IDA-Pay system is presented, an innovative and secure NFC micro-payment system based on peer-to-peer NFC operating mode for Android mobile phones. It allows to guarantee mobile-to-POS micro-payment services, bypassing the need for special hardware. A validation scenario is also depicted in order to demonstrate the system effectiveness.
In this paper, we present the design and implementation of a prototype system of Smart Parking Services based on Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) that allows vehicle drivers to effectively find the free parking places. The proposed scheme consists of wireless sensor networks, embedded web-server, central web-server and mobile phone application. In the system, low-cost wireless sensors networks modules are deployed into each parking slot equipped with one sensor node. The state of the parking slot is detected by sensor node and is reported periodically to embedded web-server via the deployed wireless sensor networks. This information is sent to central web-server using Wi-Fi networks in real-time, and also the vehicle driver can find vacant parking lots using standard mobile devices.
In this paper we present an architecture of the RFID UHF Gen2 tag which enables an increased reading range based on the integration of the HF harvester with the UHF Gen2 tag. HF harvester charges the circuitry of the UHF tag in a similar way as it works with a battery assisted scheme. In regard to a standard battery-assisted tag, the proposed solution is preferred since: i) the proposed tag, although performs like a battery equipped tag, is still a true passive system, ii) the problem of a limited life period of the battery is overcame, and iii) by simple charging control it is possible to synchronize reader to recognize true tag(s) position at a resolution defined by a dimension of the HF transmitter antenna(s). We present an experimental architecture of the integrated HF/UHF system and the measured results on the typical lab set up to show a benefit in the reading range of the RFID UHF Gen2 tag.
The Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is a transfer protocol for constrained nodes and networks, such as those that will form the Internet of Things. Much like its older and heavier cousin HTTP, CoAP uses the REST architectural style. Based on UDP and unencumbered by historical baggage, however, CoAP aims to achieve its modest goals with considerably less complexity.
One of the hottest topics that emerged these days between the area of Internet and distrubted computing and the area of operating system is Web Operating System (WOS). The objective of WOS is to deliver the full benefit of the World Wide Web. The WOS will support geographically distributed, highly available, incrementally scalable, and dynamically reconfiguring applications. WOS will include mechanisms for resource discovery, resource collaboration, persistent storage, remote process execution, resource management, authentication and security. This paper presents an overview of a typical WOS. It describes the WOS process, components, communication protocols, and resources. Additionally, the paper discusses all the resolved and unresolved issues and difficulties surrounding the implementation and design of WOS
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are playing more and more a key role in several application scenarios such as healthcare, agriculture, environment monitoring, and smart metering. Furthermore, WSNs are characterized by high heterogeneity because there are many different proprietary and non-proprietary solutions. This wide range of technologies has delayed new deployments and integration with existing sensor networks. The current trend, however, is to move away from proprietary and closed standards, to embrace IP-based sensor networks using the emerging standard 6LoWPAN/IPv6. This allows native connectivity between WSN and Internet, enabling smart objects to participate to the Internet of Things (IoT). Building an all-IP infrastructure from scratch, however, would be difficult because many different sensors and actuators technologies (both wired and wireless) have already been deployed over the years. After a review of the state of the art, this paper sketches a framework able to harmonize legacy and new installations, allowing migrating to an all-IP environment at a later stage. The Building Automation use case has been chosen to discuss potential benefits of the proposed framework.
Data fusion of sensors is a useful technique to obtain more comprehensive information about the monitoring targets in wireless sensor networks (WSN). This paper proposes a data fusion algorithm based on fuzzy logic theory to monitor a parking space in the parking lot using magnetic sensors and point out the probability of occupancy of the corresponding parking space. Simulation results show that our algorithm gathers more accurate information about the monitoring targets to support right decisions and has the ability of anti-interference.
In 2000, the average driver in US metropolitan areas endured 27 hours of traffic delays, a rise from 7 hours in 1980. In many other countries, traffic delays are considerably worse than in the United States, and in developing countries urban traffic congestion is increasing with alarming rapidity. For fifty years, economists have been advocating congestion pricing as the way to deal with urban traffic congestion; but today, even after some successes, congestion pricing is encountering considerable political resistance. The authors of Alleviating Urban Traffic Congestion advocate active consideration of more microscopic policies that attack the problem at the scale at which actual policy decisions are made. Microscopic models, rather than macroscopic models that are too simplified and too aggregated, they argue, will lead to the analysis of a wider and more creative range of policies, at least some of which should work well and be politically acceptable. After developing the themes of the book, the authors illustrate them by examining some areas of urban transport policy that have been neglected by the macroscopic approach. These include downtown parking policy, the encouragement of bicycling, the staggering of work hours by dominant employers, and the use by medium-sized cities of a "multimode" ticket that charges cars entering the city center a toll equal to the transit fare. The reorientation of urban transport analysis that they advocate will by no means eliminate traffic delays but should speed up the adoption of a richer, more flexible, and ultimately more effective set of policies to alleviate urban traffic congestion.
An EPC<sub>global</sub> Gen2 compatible semi-passive (or be called battery-assisted passive) tag is proposed. The transmission link is studied to optimize power distribution in a backscatter RFID system. For long read range consideration, design targets for low power tag are given. The tag chip is implemented in SMIC 0.18 mum standard CMOS technology. A high efficiency AC-DC charge pump serves as a rectifier. A low power wake-up circuit detects the input energy level and controls a button cell battery to supply the chip. The equivalent tag power is 230 nW by measurement.
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) provide an economical, convenient alternative solution to existing traffic monitoring systems, such as video recognition and inductive loops. However, there are many technical challenges in on-road real-time traffic information collection with WSN, e.g. accurate vehicle detection in low Signal-Noise-Ratio (SNR) conditions and reliable vehicle speed calculation. In this paper we propose a systematic solution to on-road real-time traffic monitoring with a magnetic sensor network. We propose a Similarity Based Vehicle Detection (SBVD) algorithm to detect vehicles in low SNR conditions by calculating the similarity between on-road signals and a referential signal. We propose a Collaborative Speed Calculation (CSC) mechanism to calculate vehicle speed reliably by redundant nodes and accurate reports of vehicle appearance. The CSC mechanism can calculate vehicle speeds accurately and trustworthily. We demonstrate through simulations and experiments that our proposed solution works effectively in noisy on-road environments. The vehicle detection rate is above 90% while no false alarm occurs and the error rate of speed calculation is under 10%.
The transformation to smarter cities will require innovation in planning, management, and operations. Several ongoing projects around the world illustrate the opportunities and challenges of this transformation. Cities must get smarter to address an array of emerging urbanization challenges, and as the projects highlighted in this article show, several distinct paths are available. The number of cities worldwide pursuing smarter transformation is growing rapidly. However, these efforts face many political, socioeconomic, and technical hurdles. Changing the status quo is always difficult for city administrators, and smarter city initiatives often require extensive coordination, sponsorship, and support across multiple functional silos. The need to visibly demonstrate a continuous return on investment also presents a challenge. The technical obstacles will center on achieving system interoperability, ensuring security and privacy, accommodating a proliferation of sensors and devices, and adopting a new closed-loop human-computer interaction paradigm.
An experimental passive infrared system was designed and developed
to detect and monitor vehicular road traffic. The system uses infrared
pyroelectric sensors to sense vehicles passing through its field of
view. In conjunction with computerized signal processing and correlation
techniques the sensor information can then be used to count the number
of vehicles passing and compute their speed and length. Laboratory and
field tests results indicate that this technology should be cost
effective, weather resistant and have the potential for a variety of
sophisticated traffic monitoring applications
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