Conservation in an ever-globalizing world: wildlife trade in, from, and through Morocco, a gateway to Europe

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CONSERVATION IN AN EVER- GLOBALIZING WORLD
WILDLIFE TRADE IN, FROM, AND THROUGH MOROCCO,
A GATEWAY TO EUROPE
Vincent Nijman, Daniel Bergin, and Els van Lavieren
INTRODUCTION
Wildlife trade can be defined as any sale (or ex-
change without involving money) of wild animals
and plants, in whole or in parts (Kazmar 2000; Roe
etal. 2002; Oldfield 2003; Smith etal. 2009). This
includes the live trade in animals and plants, trade
in their parts but also a large variety of products or
derivatives made out of animals and plants. While
the illegal international trade in elephant ivory,
rhino horn, and ti ger parts reg ularly m ake headl ines
in the media, a significant part of the wildlife trade
is legal and takes place within national borders.
As outlined by Oldfield (2003) and Roe et al.
(2002), the primary reasons for the wildlife trade
are for food consumption including fungi, fruits,
nuts, vegetative plant parts, and wild meat includ-
ing fish; fuel (trees and bushes); fodder; building
materials; clothing (both from plants and animals);
ornaments (from marine mollusk shells to deer ant-
lers); medicine (from plants and animals); and as a
pastime (i.e., aviculture, angling, falconry). Asig-
nificant proportion of the exchange of wildlife is
to obtain economic benefits, and this varies from
a farmer gaining an additional income by trading
wildlife locally in his/ her village to global commer-
cial enterprises involving hundreds of employees
and combining the efforts of players in numerous
countries (Oldfield 2003; Nijman2010).
Intrinsically linked to economic growth, the
demand for wildlife has increased and is exacer-
bated by ongoing globalization; hence, the scale
and extent of wildlife trade likewise has grown
geometrically. Human population growth and in-
creased buyer power have led to a rise in demand for
exotic wildlife (hence international trade), and this
has occurred in developed, emerging, and develop-
ing nations ali ke (Nijman 2010). In the media the il-
legal wildlife trade is often linked to tourism with
tourists knowingly or unknowingly bringing wild-
life products home from their holiday destinations.
Global tourism is constantly rising, not only in the
Western industrialized world but also in many trop-
ical countries (Theobald 2005), bringing people
from all corners of the globe into contact with wild-
life trade outside t heir home countries.
19
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314 Conservation and SustainableUse
314 315
International wildlife trade is seen as one of
the leading threats to biodiversity conservation
(Sutherland etal. 2009)and recog nizing t he need to
control this trade the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and
Fauna (CITES) as of 2014 has been ratified by 180
countries or states. Globally CITES is the most
important initiative to monitor and regulate the
international trade of plants and animals, regulat-
ing trade of some 34,000 species, and reducing the
threats associated with the over- harvesting of im-
periled species for internat ional trade. T he credibil-
ity of CI TES is depend ent on the qual ity of the tra de
data as this informs decisions and garners political
will and consensus among parties (Gehring and
Ruffing 2008; Phelps et al. 2010). Recently, Phelps
etal. (2010) stressed t he need for enha nced, rigorou s
analysis of existing trade data, as this would allow
better decisions to be made on sustainable levels of
trade, setting trade quotas and initiating suspen-
sions. While the rules, regulations, and intentions
of CITES are, or should be, the same for all signa-
tories, implementation of CITES is done at the na-
tional level and in practice the effective implemen-
tation of CITES differs between countries. Once a
country has ratified the Convention it obliges itself
to synchronize its domestic legislation with CITES
regulations. For some countries completion of this
process takes a considerable amount oftime.
Different parts of the world can be considered
major drivers of the international wildlife trade,
often depending on the type of trade and the spe-
cies involved. It is clear that Europe (or more clearly
delineated as the 27 member states of the European
Union) is a significant player having wildlife trade
links to a large number of tropical and subtropi-
cal countries (Kecse- Nagy etal. 2006; Engler and
Parry- Jones2007).
Here we focus on the role Morocco plays in
the international trade in wildlife. Morocco is an
excellent example of a country that because of its
geographic position (at the northwestern tip of the
African continent thus linking Africa and Europe),
and its large diasporas in Europe, combined with an
inadequate legal system in terms of wildlife protec-
tion and its lax enforcement of environmental laws,
plays a disproportionate role in the international
wildlife trade. We here present (1)an overview of
Morocco’s involve ment in the trade of C ITES- l isted
species, focusing on imports, exports, and re-
exports and (2)we focus on the trade in selected
species as observed within Morocco in recent years,
noting that this caters to domestic and international
markets. Throughout we ai m to link the situation i n
Morocco to t he consumer c ountrie s and the dema nd
outside Morocco. The international aspects of the
trade, the effects of globalization, and the improve-
ment of infrastructure for transporting wildlife are
emphasized. The large numbers of touri sts that vi sit
Morocco annually are intrinsically linked to the
substantial diaspora of Moroccans in Europe, and
where relevant we include reference tothis.
MOROCCO AS AN AFRICAN
GATEWAY TO EUROPE
Situat ed in the northernmost t ip of Africa, Morocco
is separated from mainland Europe by the 15 km
wide Gibraltar Strait. It shares its eastern border
with Algeria and its southern border with the non-
self- governing territory of the Western Sahara.
Morocco formally annexed this as their Southern
Provinces in 1975 and Morocco’s de facto southern
border is with Mauritania. To the north are Spain
and the British protectorate of Gibraltar, separated
by the Gibraltar Strait. There are two Spanish
exclave cities situated on the northern coast of
Morocco; from a wildlife trade perspective the
Spanish sovereign territories comprising of several
small (former) islands just off Morocco’s coast are
of less relevance, as apart from some military posts
none of them are inhabited. The cities of Ceuta
(~80,000 inhabitants) and Melilla (~75,000 in habit-
ants), however, are of relevance. Part of Spain, these
are the only two Eu ropean Union ter ritories located
in mainland Africa, and they are therefore a natural
gateway into Europe.
Northern Morocco is well connected to
Europe. There are regular ferry links to Tangier
from Tarifa, Algeciras, Barcelona (all Spain), Sète,
Marseille (France), Genoa (Italy), to Al Hoceima
from Almeria (Spain) and to Nador from Almeria
and Sète. Importantly, there are multiple ferries
each day between Ceuta and Algeciras, and be-
tween Melilla from Malaga and Almeria. In addi-
tion, Morocco has scheduled passenger services on
commercial airlines from 15 international airports.
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Wildlife Trade in Morocco 315
315
The three largest airports (Casablanca, Rabat, and
Marrakesh) receive close to 15 million visitors a
year, and the international airports serve a large set
of European countr ies.
Morocco c urrent ly has a popu lation of 35mil lion,
wit h the largest u rban concentr ations in Cas ablanca
(7.3 million), Rabat (3.5 million), and Marrakesh
(3.1 million). Contemporary large- scale migration
to Europe started in the 1960s and now some 3mil-
lion Moroccans live in Europe, with 0.8 million in
Spain, 1.3million in France, and 0.6million in the
Low Countries (the Netherlands and Belgium).
Moroccan citizenship is constitutionally inalien-
able, and Moroccans obtaining citizenship of their
country of settlement cannot relinquish their
Moroccan nationality (viz., they automatically ac-
quire dual citizenship) and the Moroccan state con-
siders each child with at least one Moroccan parent
as Moroccan (de Haas 2007). All in all this resulted
in strong ties between Morocco and its European
diaspora.
DATA ACQUISITION AND APPROACH
A range of methods was employed to provide an
overview of the w ildlife trade in and from Morocco,
and especially trade with an international aspect or
where it involves globally threatened species. Some
cover short periods and are based on spot checks
of markets, others involve long- term monitoring of
trade in selected species, and yet others are based
on official trade statistics such as the CITES trade
database. The analysis of CITES trade data fol-
lows the methodology outlined in Nijman (2010)
using data that was provided to CITES by Morocco
as well as by countries that import wildlife from
Morocco. In some instances data were collected
by the authors, either through site visits or retriev-
ing raw data. Sometimes second- hand information
from informants was available but not confirmed
and yet at other times literature reviews were per-
formed. While this inevitably has an effect on the
“quality” of the data, the preference was to perform
an overview as broad as possible so as to fully cap-
ture its extent and magnitude of the wildlife trade.
By and large, this approach was restricted from
2008 to 2 013, noting that CITES t rade database data
only reliably covers the period up to 2012, and we
occasionally refer to studies conducted prior to this
period to corroborate our findings.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN CITES
LISTED SPECIES
Import and Re- Export of CITES
Listed Species into Morocco
Significant volumes of caviar (from CITES
Appendix II listed Acipenser spp. and Huso spp.),
cacti, and reptilian leather have been imported
into Morocco over the last decade. Morocco im-
ported some 600kg of caviar originating from Iran
and Kazakhstan but re- exported via France and
Spain; re- exports are limited and it is expected
that the caviar is used for internal consumption,
or is re- exported out of the county without proper
CITES documentation. Morocco imports signifi-
cant numbers of cacti with some 75,000 individual
plants being imported over a decade. The vast ma-
jority is artificially propagated and originates from
France , Spain, and t he Netherland s. Given the sma ll
amount of r e- ex ports, it is e xpected t hat these pla nts
are mostly for internaluse.
The import of leather products of a variety of
CITES- listed reptiles is numerically of impor-
tance, that is, 11,000 from crocodiles (Alligator
spp., Caiman spp., Crocodylus spp.), 9,000 from
snakes (Ptyas spp., Python spp.), and almost 2,000
from monitor lizards (Varanus spp.). These species
originate from a range of American, African, and
Asian countries, but all are imported into Morocco
via France, Italy, and Switzerland. Crocodile skins
and products are routinely re- exported (approxi-
mating one- third of the import volume) mainly
to Switzerland; snake skins are predominantly re-
exported (in volumes equal or larger than that what
has been imported) with Belgium as the dominant
trade partner; there are no records of re- export of
monitor lizard sk ins or products.
Export of CITES Listed Species
from Morocco
In terms of plants, Morocco exports mainly cacti
and cy cads with E urope as the ma in tradi ng partne r.
Some 20,000kg of live cacti (mainly Opuntia spp.,
Echinopsis spp.) and 30,000kg of dried c acti (main ly
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316 Conser vation and SustainableUse
316 317
Opuntia spp., Selenicereus spp.) were exported to
Germany, Italy, and Portugal (fig. 19.1). The vast
majority of these was derived from the wild, and
there were noticeable discrepancies in volumes re-
ported by Morocco and the importing countries.
Atotal of 20,000 individual cycads were exported
from Morocco, largely artificially propagated, with
the Net herlands and Sp ain as ma in tradi ng part ners.
Few marine fish are included on CITES appen-
dices but recently the eel Anguilla anguilla has been
included as it suffered heavily from overharvest-
ing and experienced rapid declines; this includes
populations in southern Europe and North A frica
(Kettle et al. 2011). Exports from Morocco prior
to 2009 are not known, noting that as well as the
Morocca n fleet several other c ounties, most notably
Spain, have, or had, permission to fish in Moroccan
waters and this catch is transported straight back
to the European harbor where it is landed (Baddyr
and Gue nette 2001; Gue nette etal. 2001). Sabatié
and Fontenelle (2007) argued that most of the eel
fishing in Moroccan water was done by the Spa nish.
This all formally ceased in 2010 with the European
Union no longer a llowi ng the import of (Moroccan)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Exports (x 1000 kg)
Flowers
Dried
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Volume (x 1000 kg)
Catch
Export
Figure19.1 Top:Export of CITES- listed cacti collected from the wild from Morocco. Shown are three- year running
means of volumes of dried and f lowering plants (in metric tonnes) exported exclusively to Germany (three- quarters
of total volume) and Italy. Bottom:Volumes (metric tonnes) of eel caught in inland waters (data from Wariaghli etal.
2012)and export of eel (data from CITES trade database), both ex pressed as three- year run ning means. Exports are to
Hong Kong , China, and SouthKorea
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Wildlife Trade in Morocco 317
317
eel, having adopted a zero- quota approach.
Morocco then looked eastwards and between 2009
and 2012 the country exported 150,000kg of eel (as
meat or as glass eels) to Hong Kong, China, and
South Korea (fig. 19.1). Morocco banned eel fishing
in the Mediterranean off icially in 2005 and a ll these
thus have been captured from Morocco’s Atlantic
coast or indeed from inland waters (Wariaghli etal.
2012). All eels exported from Morocco are listed as
wild- caught.
There is little data concerning the export of
spur- thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca) or Bell’s
dabb li zard (Uromastyx axanthinu ra) f rom Morocco
in the CITES trade database, but data from 15 sei-
zures of turtles (involving some 60 individuals) and
two seizures of lizards (involving 1,000 individuals)
in Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the Czech
Republic, suggest the export figures may be larger
than official trade data indicate (Znari et al. 2005;
Kaddour etal. 2006; Salinas etal. 2011). Given the
illegal nature of the ex ports it is l ikely that t hese ani-
mals were derived f rom thewild.
In terms of birds, Morocco is a significant ex-
porter of peregrine falcons (Falco perigrinus),
saker falcon (F.cher rug), gyrfalcon (F.rusticolus),
and their hybrids with over 550 live individuals
exported to the United Arab Emirates and Saudi
Arabia between 2002 and 2012. Some 8,000 live
bustards, both houbara bustard (Chlamydotis un-
dulate) and Macqueen’s bustard (C. macqueenii)
were exported over the same time period to the
United Arab Emirates and Libya. All bustards are
reported by Morocco to be captive- born or captive-
bred (41 Macqueen’s bustard were reported by the
United Arab Emirates as wild- caught), whereas
apart from 21 gyrfalcons and 44 hybrids that were
declared as captive- bred or captive- born, none of
the exported falcons are reported as being exported
by Morocco leaving the origin of these birds un-
known. However, data from the reports of imports
of Moroccan falcons from United Arab Emirates
and Saudi Arabia suggest that about two- thirds of
falcons are captive- born or captive- bred and the re-
mainder wild- caught.
The export of mammals is largely restricted
to single individuals from zoos, with for instance
14 live lions (Panthera leo) and eight gazelle spe-
cies including Dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas) and
Cuvier’s gazelle (G. cuvie ri) exported to a combi-
nation of European and Middle Eastern countries.
The majority of these are declared as captive- bred.
WILDLIFE TRADE WITHIN MOROCCO
Live Animal Trade
The trade in live reptiles in the different towns in
Morocco has been sporadically reported in the in-
ternational literature. Species that are most promi-
nent in this trade are spur- thighed tortoise (fig. 19.2),
Mediterranean chameleon (Chamaeleo chamae-
leon) and Bell’s dabb lizard (fig. 19.3) (Lambert 1969;
Highfield and Bayley 1996; Shipp 2002; Kaddour
etal. 2006). During a survey in 2013 of markets in 17
towns and cities throughout Morocco a total of 1,650
live s pur- th ighed tortoi ses, 103 live c hameleons, a nd 34
Bell ’s dabb lizards were observed (Bergin and Nijman
2014b) (fig. 19.2). Small numbers of live European
pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis) and desert moni-
tor lizard (Varanus griseus) were openly for sale. The
majority of these animals are traded as pets, with un-
known quantities being purchased by foreigners to be
exported abroad. Towns that feature prominent in the
live reptile trade are Marrakech, Rabat, Casablanca,
and Tangier (fig. 19.4) (Highfield and Bayley 1996,
2007; Shipp 2002; Kaddour etal. 2006; Bergin and
Nijman 2014a).
The trade in mammals in Morocco’s open
markets is largely restricted to Barbary macaque
(Macaca sylvanus) (fig. 19.3; see Case Study 11),
Barbary ground squirrel (Atlantoxerus getu-
lus), and North African hedgehog (Atelerix al-
girus), as to supply the domestic and, to a lesser
extent, the international demand for exotic pets.
Raptors feature prominently in the Moroccan
open markets including common kestrel (Falco
tinnunculus), Barbary falcon (F. pelegrinoides),
long- legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus), booted eagle
(Aquila pennata), and black k ite (Milvus migrans).
All these species are legally protected within
Morocco and their trade is illegal. Likewise song-
birds such as European goldfinch (Carduelis car-
duelis), common linnet (C.cannabina), Eurasian
siskin (C. spinus), greenfinch (Chloris chloris),
and serin (Serinus serinus) are offered openly for
sale. W hile these songbirds are not included on
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318 Conservation and SustainableUse
318 319
Morocco’s list of protected species at present, it is
uncertain to what extent the trade in these wild-
caught species abides by the country’s natural re-
source management legislation.
Trade in Animal Parts
The trade in marine turtles, primarily logger-
heads (Caretta caretta) involves small quantities
with typically the carapaces of less than 10 indi-
viduals recorded during market surveys at a time.
Systematic data were collected in the late 1980s and
early 2000s (Benhardouze etal. 2004)suggesting a
role for Tétouan and nearby smaller fishing villages
on the north coast, with some of the trade links to
Ceuta. Benhardouze et al. (2012) estimated levels
of turtle by- catch by fishing boats in the Atlantic
Ocean of f Tangier at ~ 700/ year for loggerheads and
~100/ year for leatherback turtles (Dermochelys co-
riacea), and Casale (2011) estimated their by- catch
in the Moroccan part of the Mediterranean Sea at
~15,000/ year. An unknown proportion of these may
be landed and sold commercially.
Trade in the parts of reptiles is especially promi-
nent for spur- thighed tortoise (carapaces made into
banjos or sold a s novelty item s); and to a lesser e xtent
chameleons and Bell’s dab lizard (dried individuals
sold to be use d for medicina l purpose s); a nd Afric an
rock pythons (Python sebae) (skins for decoration
or to be turned into leather) (Highfield and Bayley
1996, 2007; Bergin and Nijman 2014b) (fig. 19.4).
Carapace banjos have gone out of fashion in recent
0
ALGERIA
MOROCCO
N
Taroudant
Marrakech 170
Agadir 47
Meknes 116
Fez 154 Taza 1 Oujda 60
Chefchaouen 17
Tetouan 10
Tangier 358
Asilah
Rabat/Salé 387
Casablanca 330
El Jadida
Safi
Essaouira
200 km
Figure19.2 Towns surveyed for the presence of spur- thighed tortoises in April‒June 2013 showing the numbers ob-
serv ed in each mar ket; with in Morocco, the tortoises a re confined to the nort hwestern pa rt of the country as i ndicated
by the thick blackline
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319
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure19.3 Wildlife trade i n Morocco:From top- left, clockwise:(a)animal parts on display i n Marrakesh, April 2013,
including a leopa rd and Afr ican rock py thon skins and dried Bell ’s dab lizards; (b)baby Barbary macaque, tethered on
a chain, traded as a commodity in Morocco, (c)market stall in Casablanca, June 2013, showcasing a variety of animal
ski ns and tax idermy spec imens; (d)Bell’s dab lizards and spur- thig hed tortoises for sale in M arrakesh, June2013
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320 Conservation and SustainableUse
320 321
times with Lambert’s (1969) data suggesting levels
of trade of ~10,000 a year in the 1960s, Highfield
and Bayley’s (1996) data suggesting levels of several
1,000s a year for the 1980s and 1990s, whereas more
recent ly, data f rom Bergin a nd Nijman (2014b) from
2013 suggests levels in the low100s.
During market surveys in 17 towns and cities
Bergin and Nijman (2014b) documented the trade in
mammal skins, primarily protected red foxes (Vulpes
vulpes) with 67 skins, 37 leopard skins, and 15 dorcas
gazelle skins but also smaller numbers of other carni-
vore skins, including 12 common genets (Genetta ge-
netta), 8 golden jackals (Canis aureus), 3 African wild-
cats (Felis silvestris), 2 Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes
ichneumon), 2 lions, 2 least weasels (Mustela nivalis),
1 European otter (Lutra lutra), and 1 striped hyaena
(Hyaena hyaena). Smaller numbers of mammal skins
in tr ade have been repor ted (Shipp 2002 ; Cuyten2011).
While the trade in ivory has a long history in
many parts of Africa, in recent years the amount
of ivory openly for sale in Morocco seems to be
relatively small (Martin and Perry- Martin 2012). In
December 2011, the sa me authors sur veyed the mar-
kets in Fez and Marrakesh and recorded both “old”
(pre- 1990) and “recent” (post- 1990) ivory. Table
19.1 provides an overview of their findings, pooling
both old and recent ivory. In total some 145 pieces of
ivory were observed in the two cities. The vast ma-
jority of ivory was carved in, and originated from,
Central and West Africa. However, some intricate
carvings were Chinese in origin (and could have
comprised African or Asian elephant ivory) and
some older pieces were carved in Europe. Several
dagger handles and rifle stocks were carved in the
south of Morocco. Links between the ivory trade in
West and Central Africa were also evident when in
July 2013 a large shipment of ivory (2,400kg) was
intercepted in Hong Kong. It was shipped from
Togo in West Africa and had arrived via Morocco.
According to experts, the ivory most likely was
derived from elephants in the Central African
Republic (Anonymous 2013). Seizure data of ivory
From West
Afric
a
To East
Asia
Introduc-
tion from
the sea
To North
America
To and
from
Europe
To the
Middle East
Fez
Tangier
N
Rabat
Casablanca
Marrakech
Tétouan
0 500 km
Figu re19.4 Center s and network of w ildli fe trade in, to, and from Mor occo. The siz e of the circle i s proportiona l to the
amount of wildlife that is on offer (data from Bergin and Nijman 2014b) and the arrows ind icate the f low of wildl ife to
and from Morocco, with the siz e being proportional to t he levels oftrade.
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Wildlife Trade in Morocco 321
321
from Morocco are sparse, with one report of 2 ivory
carvings from the Netherlands in 2004 and two
reports of 42 and 1 ivory carving from the United
States from 2005 and 2006, respectively.
TRADE CENTERS AND TRADE
NETWORKS
Marrakech has traditionally been identified as an
important center for the wildlife trade in Morocco
and indeed several (short) surveys have been con-
ducted in this city on a variety of taxa (Fogg 1938;
Shipp 2002; Znari et al. 2005; Van Lavieren 2008,
2012; Cuyten 2011; Martin and Perry- Martin
2012). There are two main areas of wildlife trade in
Marrakech:one in Souk Lag hzel in the main tour ist
thoroughfare and one in Mellah, the “spice market.”
The former appeared to be more directed toward
foreign visitors and traders in Mellah cater more to
the domestic consumers.
Casablanca is the next largest center for trade.
Trade in this city more resembles that of the
Mellah spice market in Marrakech, as it is far re-
moved from the main tourist areas and appears to
have a focus on the medicinal uses of the animals,
rather than the pet or souvenir trade. Outside of
this core area, which contained an estimated 20
shops, wildlife was present but in much sparser
quantities.
Rabat and Tangier both catered predominantly
to the pet trade, with the majority of wildlife ob-
served in both cities being in live animals (Bergin
and Nijman 2014a). Spur- thighed tortoises were
the most frequently observed animals in both
cities; Barbary ground squirrels were present in
both, chameleons featured in Rabat and terrapins
featured in Tangier. The pet stalls in Rabat could
be found dotted around the tourist shopping
streets, whereas the animals sold in Tangier were
in more established pet shops, which also sold do-
mestic animals.
The leve l of wildl ife trade i n the city of Taroud ant
is relatively small in volume but the open sale, for
instance, of appreciable numbers of (fresh) leop-
ard skins (Bergin and Nijman 2014b) suggests that
it may act as a center for the trade in protected and
high- priced w ildlife. It also suggests that Taroudant,
very much in line with its geographic position, as
one of the larger towns in the southern half of the
Table . Ivory for sale in December  with numbers of
items observed in Marrakech and Fez listed separately
Item Number
(Marrakech/ Fez)
Manufacturera
Necklace 0/ 1 Centra l or West Af rica
Fruit carving 3/ 0 China
Human statue 46/ 0 Central or West Afr ica
Bangle 31/ 0 Central or West Africa
Tusk 2 / 4 Central or West Africa
Dagger handle 7/ 0 South Morocco
Rifle stock 4/ 0 South Morocco
Knife handle/ rest 4/ 4 Central or West Africa
Animal figurine 0/ 2 Centra l or West Af rica
Jewelery 31/ 5 Central or West Africa
Other 0/ 2 Europe
Source:Mart in and Per ry- M arti n2012.
a This indicates the area where the ivory was manufac tured or carved, suggesting st rong
trade l inks w ith Cent ral and or Wes t Afric a.
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322 Conservation and SustainableUse
322 323
country, acts as the Moroccan entry point for West
African wildlife.
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
Focusing on the wildlife trade in, from, and going
through Morocco demonstrates the international as-
pects of conservation. When mitigating the effects of
wildlife trade, it appears futile to follow a purely do-
mestic approach. The data presented herein demon-
strate a small but significant f low of African wildlife
into, or through, Morocco, including items such as
leopard skins and elephant ivory. Appreciable vol-
umes of sp ecies such a s cacti , tortoises , mamma l skin s,
and high- value birds (falcons and bustards) are har-
vested in various parts of the country and are openly
offered for sale. The consumers of these species are
both Moroccans living in Morocco, Morocca ns livi ng
in the European diaspora and visiting Morocco, as
well as other visitors vacationing in the country. The
trade of eel appears to be largely for the international
market, with (on average) 60 tons being exported to
the Far East in the period 2009‒2011.
It is ack nowledged t hat this c hapter is onl y a small
contr ibution in obta ining a more c omplete pictu re of
the flow of wildlife from the South to the North. As
often with research on (the illegal aspects of) wild-
life trade obtaining systematic data is problematic.
Official statistics are fraught with inaccuracies (as
seen here with regards to the levels of trade in cacti,
where Morocco reports higher export volumes than
the European countries report as having imported,
or in case of the export of high- value falcons, where
Morocco does not report any trade but hundreds of
birds are reported as being imported from Morocco
into the Middle East) and extrapolating from spot
checks of individual towns may lead to serious over-
or underestimations of true levels oftrade.
It is hoped that by providing this overview a
process can be initiated where more accurate trade
data is recorded and reported, with the aim of al-
lowing the Moroccan authorities to implement
effective mitigation strategies to assure that wild-
life trade is no longer detrimental to the survival
of Morocco’s own wildlife but also to ensure that
Morocco play s a role in the su rviv al of wi ldlife f rom
its southern neighbors. Effective implementation
and subsequent enforcement of Law 29- 05 on the
Protection of Species of Wild Flora and Fauna and
their Trade, introduced in 2013, is fundamental in
this process. Asubstantial number of species men-
tioned i n this chapt er are covered in L aw 29- 0 5 pre-
cluding trade in them and imposing hefty fines on
those that violate this piece of legislation.
In addition, closer collaboration between
customs and other law enforcement agencies of
Morocco, Mauritania, and Algeria are paramount
in curbing the illegal international wildlife trade
out of Morocco. It is also clear that mitigating trade
cannot be achieved without the explicit coopera-
tion of Morocco’s European counterparts, and we
urge greater and more open collaboration, perhaps
initially by greater cooperation between Morocco’s
and Europe’s CITES Management Authorities, as
this would benefit those species most in needfirst.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank A.A. Aguirre for inviting us to contribute
to this volume and for his patience and support. We
hope that w e have made a conv incing c ase that t ransit
countries are a v ital component in t he “North‒Sout h
conservation” debate. Karim Ahwash, Mohamed
Amezian, Abderrahmane Mataame, Nelly Ménard,
and Mohamed Mouna are acknowledged for infor-
mation and support. AAP Sanctuary, Nationale
Postcodeloterij, and International Primate
Protection League provided f inancial support.
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