The Meaning and Doing of Mindfulness: The Role of Values in the Link Between Mindfulness and Well-Being

Abstract

The role of values-based action in facilitating change is central to Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy but more peripheral in more traditional mindfulness-based
interventions. This paper examined the role of values-based action in the relationship
between mindfulness and both eudemonic and hedonic well-being in two samples - an
undergraduate sample (n = 630) and a post-graduate sample (n = 199). It was
hypothesized that mindfulness would be related to well-being indirectly through a
values-based action, measured as decreases in psychological barriers to values-based
action and increases in values-congruent behavior. In both samples, indirect effects
were identified from mindfulness to hedonic and eudemonic well-being through valuesbased
action. These studies provide initial evidence that mindfulness effects wellbeing
partly through facilitating meaningful behavioral change. The implication of this
finding is that mindfulness interventions may be enhanced with an explicit focus on
values clarification and the application of mindfulness to values-based behavior.

Full text

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The Meaning and Doing of Mindfulness:
The Role of Values in the Link Between
Mindfulness and Well-Being
AlisonM.Christie,
Phone: (61)403755113
Email: alison.christie@anu.edu.au
PaulW.B.Atkins,
JamesN.Donald,
AustralianNationalUniversity, Acton, ACT, 0200 Australia
AustralianCatholicUniversity, Strathfield, NSW, 2135 Australia
Abstract
TheroleofvaluesbasedactioninfacilitatingchangeiscentraltoAcceptanceand
CommitmentTherapybutmoreperipheralin moretraditionalmindfulnessbased
interventions. This paper examined the role of valuesbased action in the
relationshipbetweenmindfulnessandbotheudemonicandhedonicwellbeingin
twosamples—anundergraduatesample(n = 630)andapostgraduatesample(n =
199). It was hypothesized that mindfulness would be related to wellbeing
indirectlythroughavaluesbasedaction,measured asdecreasesinpsychological
barriers to valuesbased action and increases in valuescongruent behavior. In
both samples, indirect effects were identified from mindfulness to hedonic and
eudemonic wellbeingthrough valuesbasedaction. These studiesprovide initial
evidence that mindfulness effects wellbeing partly through facilitating
meaningfulbehavioralchange.Theimplicationofthisfindingisthatmindfulness
interventions maybe enhancedwithanexplicitfocuson values clarification and
theapplicationofmindfulnesstovaluesbasedbehavior.
Keywords
Values
Mindfulness
1,*
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Wellbeing
Acceptanceandcommitmenttherapy
Mechanismsofchange
Electronic supplementary material
Theonlineversionofthisarticle(doi:10.1007/s1267101606069)contains
supplementarymaterial,whichisavailabletoauthorizedusers.
Introduction
Mindfulnesshasbeenconsistentlyassociatedwithhedonicandeudemonicwell
beingthroughcrosssectionalstudies,whichconceptualizemindfulnessasa
naturallyoccurringtrait(BrownandRyan 2003 ;Kengetal. 2011 ),and
experimentalstudieswhichfocusonstrengtheningmindfulnessthroughtraining
(Khouryetal. 2013 ).Becauseofthevastliteraturesupportingthepositiveeffects
ofmindfulness,researchhasrecentlyshiftedfocusfromaskingifmindfulness
improveswellbeingtohowandwhyitresultsinchange(Chiesaetal. 2014 ;Guet
al. 2015 ;Holzeletal. 2011 ).Thisfocusontheidentificationofmechanismsby
whichmindfulnesseffectschangehasbecomeincreasinglyimportantwiththe
exponentialgrowthofmindfulnessbasedinterventionsanduseofmindfulnesstools
inclinicalsettings.AsarguedbyKazdin( 2007 ),thesuccessfulapplicationof
researchfindingstoclinicalapplicationdependsonunderstandinghowatreatment
works,whichinturnenablescliniciansmorecreative,strategic,andflexiblein
designingandindividualizingtheirinterventions.
Mosttheoreticalandempiricalstudiesexaminingtherelationshipbetween
mindfulnessandwellbeingpositthatgreatermindfulnessresultsinimprovedwell
beingbycultivatingamoreobjective,flexible,andnonreactivestancetowardinner
experience.Thisinturnimprovesemotionalregulationwhichfacilitatesthe
applicationofappropriatecopingskillsandresponsesindailylife(Baer 2010 ;
Carmodyetal. 2009 ;Holzeletal. 2011 ;Shapiroetal. 2006 )Mostmechanismsof
actionresearchedtodatehavebeencognitiveinnatureandrelatedtoeither
processesdirectlyassociatedwiththeconstructofmindfulness,suchaspresent
momentawareness,decentering,bodyawareness,andacceptance(Holzeletal.
2011 ;Kengetal. 2011 ;Shapiroetal. 2008 ;VagoandSilbersweig 2012 ),orother
cognitiveprocesseslinkedtowellbeingordistress,suchasworry,psychological
flexibility,emotionalregulation,orselfcompassion(Desrosiersetal. 2013 ;Van
Dametal. 2014 ).Asystematicreviewandmetaanalysisoftheliterature
examiningthesepotentialmechanismsidentifiedcognitiveandemotionalreactivity,

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mindfulness,rumination,andworryashavingthestrongestevidencebase(Guetal.
2015 ).
However,theseliteratureshavegenerallyfocusedupondistressreductionand
cognitivemechanisms.Theapplicationofmindfulnesstodailylifemaygowell
beyondreducingsymptomsandavoidantandunproductivebehaviorstoimproving
contactwithmeaningandpurposeandincreasingbehaviormotivatedandbasedon
theseattributes.Meaningfulandpurposefulbehaviorhasnotonlybeenlinkedto
betterlifeoutcomes,butmoremotivationtopersisttowardgoals,especiallyinthe
faceofpsychologicalobstacles(KoestnerandLosier 2002 ).Thisemphasisonthe
applicationofmindfulnesstomeaningfulbehavioralchangeisconceptualizedin
AcceptanceandCommitmentTherapy(ACT)asvaluesbasedaction.
Valueshavebeenbroadlydefinedinthesociologicalandpsychologicalliteratureas
guidingprinciplesthatgivemeaningtoandguidebehavior(Rokeach1973 ;
SchwartzandBilsky 1987 ),withthemajorityofresearchfocusedonthe
classificationofvalueschemasandidentifyinghowtheserelatetohumanbehavior
(forreviewssee:BraithwaiteandScott 1991 ;EcclesandWigfield 2002 ).TheACT
approachtovaluescentersontheidentificationofidiosyncraticorpersonalvalues
(WilsonandDufrene 2009 ).Thepracticeoflivingaccordingtoone’svalueshas
beencalledvaluedlivingorvaluesbasedaction.ACTdefinesvaluesas“freely
chosen,verballyconstructedconsequencesofongoing,dynamic,evolvingpatterns
ofactivity,whichestablishpredominantreinforcersfortheactivitythatareintrinsic
inengagementinthevaluedbehavioralpatternitself”(WilsonandDufrene 2009 ,
p.66).Thisimpliesthatvaluesareconstructedbytheindividual,notforcedupon
them,andmotivatedbythemeaninginherentintheactionitself,ratherthan
externalrewardorasenseofobligation.Forexample,ifcompassionisapersonal
value,justactingcompassionatelyinavarietyofcontextswouldprovideitsown
rewardthroughthebehavior,irrespectiveofexternalacknowledgment,either
immediatelyorinthelongerterm(Dahletal. 2009 ).FromanACTperspective,
valuesidentificationandclarificationarekeyfocusesoftherapybecausevalues
provideaflexibleandcontextualframeworktoguidebothgoalsandongoing
behaviorandtoincreaseperseverancethroughdifficulttimes.
Valuesbasedactionhasbeenidentifiedasakeycomponentofpsychological
flexibility,thedesiredoutcomeofanACTintervention(Hayesetal. 2012 ).Values
basedactionhasbeenassociatedwithlowerpsychologicaldistress(Wilsonetal.
2010 ),depression(Plumbetal. 2009 ),andanxiety(Emmons 1986 )andgreater
qualityoflife(Michelsonetal. 2011 ).Valuesbasedactionhasalsobeenfoundto

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predictlowerdistressandgreaterhedonicandeudemonicwellbeing(Ciarrochi,
Fisher,&Lane,2010;Ferssizidisetal. 2010 ;Smoutetal. 2014 ).
AQ1
TheresearchliteraturewhichismostconsistentwiththeACTconceptualizationof
valuesbasedactioncanbefoundinthefieldofselfdeterminationtheory(SDT:
DeciandRyan 1985 ).Autonomousfunctioning(asimilarconstructtovaluesbased
action)hasbeenfoundtoberelatedtogreaterwellbeing(BrownandRyan 2003 ),
anddailysatisfactionofbasicpsychologicalneeds(Weinsteinetal. 2012 ).
KoestnerandLosier( 2002 )foundthatanidentifiedmotivation(e.g.,basedon
valuesandgoals)emergedasabetterpredictorofpositivelifeoutcomesand
reducedpsychologicaldistressinacademicandpoliticaldomainsthaneither
explicitmotivations(basedonpunishmentorexternalreward)orintrinsic
motivations(e.g.,basedonthepleasureoftheactivityitself).Theytheorizedthata
valuesfocustobehaviorprovidedmoremotivationtopersistthroughuninteresting
ordifficulttimestoreachgoalsthanapurelyintrinsicmotivation.Forexample,a
valuesuchasloveappliedtothefamilydomainmayresultinsomebehaviorbased
onintrinsicmotivation(playingwithababytoenjoyhersmiles)oridentified
motivation(continuingtoplaythebabyforitsstimulationordevelopment,despitea
lackofpositivefeedback).
Thereisalsoevidencetosuggestthatjustaffirmingone’svaluespredictspositive
outcomesandimprovedwellbeing.Shorttermvaluesaffirmationinterventions,
suchaswritingaboutimportantvalues,havebeenfoundtopredictdiversepositive
outcomesincludinglongtermacademicachievementandperceptionsofacademic
adequacy(Cohenetal. 2009 ),lowerneuroendocrineandpsychologicalresponses
toastressfulactivity(Creswelletal. 2005 ),increasedpaintoleranceandlower
painbelievability(PáezBlarrinaetal. 2008 ),andreduceddefensiveness(Crocker
etal. 2008 ).Further,justimaginingthatpainwasintheserviceofacorevaluehas
beenfoundtoincreasepaintolerance(BranstetterRostetal. 2009 )overandabove
increasesattributedtomindfulnessstrategies.
ACTtheorylinksmindfulnessexplicitlywithvaluesbasedactionthroughitsmodel
ofpsychologicalflexibilitywhichiscomprisedofsixinterconnectedprocesses(S.
C.Hayesetal. 2012 ).Fourofthesearemindfulnessbasedprocesses(present
momentawareness,acceptance,defusion,andselfascontext)andtwoarerelatedto
valuesbasedaction(valuesclarityandcommittedaction)(Fletcheretal. 2010 ).
ACTtheorypositsthatmindfulnessimproveswellbeingbyenablingindividualsto
viewinternalverbalbehavior(thoughtsandfeelingsorinterpretationsof

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experience)moreobjectively,facilitatingamoreflexibleresponsetoexperience(S.
C.Hayesetal. 2012 ).Thisflexibleresponseincludestheabilitytoconnectwith
positiveverbalrepertoires,suchasvalues,andconsciouslychoosevaluescongruent
behavior(Stegeretal. 2013 ).Otherapproacheshaveemphasizedtheroleof
mindfulnessinminimizinghabitual,automatic,andimpulsiveprocessingand
reactions,allowingonetorecognizeandchooseone’struevalues(Shapiroetal.
2006 )andchoosebehaviormostcongruentwiththosevaluesandneeds(Brownand
Ryan 2003 ;DeciandRyan 1980 ).
Researchontherelationshipbetweenmindfulnessandvaluesbasedactionissparse.
Mindfulnesshasbeenfoundtobemoderatelycorrelatedwithvaluesbasedbehavior
(Guadagno 2012 ;Smoutetal. 2014 ;Trompetteretal. 2013 )intheACTliterature.
Similarly,fewstudieshavefocusedonvaluingvariablesasmediatorsofchange
betweenmindfulnessandwellbeing.Stateandtraitmindfulnesshasbeenfoundto
predicthigherautonomousbehaviorwhichinturnpredictedlessnegativeaffectina
dailydiarystudy(BrownandRyan 2003 ).Theauthorsconcludedthatthosewith
highermindfulnesstendedtobemoreawareofinnerexperienceandmoremindful
oftheirbehavior.Shapiroetal.( 2006 )theorizedacausalmodelinwhichpresent
momentawarenessfacilitatedreperceiving(anobjectivestancetowardconsciousor
internalexperience)whichinturncultivatedvaluesclarification,alongwithself
regulation,cognitive,emotionalandbehavioralflexibilityandexposure(or
acceptance)andthereforewellbeing.Whenthemodelwastested,itwasfoundthat
changesinmindfulnessandreperceivingfollowingamindfulnessintervention
predictedlowerperceivedstressandpsychologicaldistressandthischangewas
mediatedthroughchangesinvaluesclarity(operationalizedasRyff’sPurposein
Lifesubscale(Ryff 19 89 )),andcognitive,emotional,andbehavioralflexibility
(operationalizedasRyff ’sEnvironmentalMasterysubscale),butnotexposureor
selfregulation(Carmodyetal. 2009 ).Similarly,theeffectsofmindfulnesson
depressionandalcoholrelatedsymptomswerefoundtobemediatedbydecentering
(orreperceiving)andvaluesclarity(Pearsonetal. 2014 ),operationalizedbythe
LifeEngagementTest(LET:Scheieretal. 2006 ).AlthoughPurposeinLifeis
highlycorrelatedwithvaluesbasedaction(e.g.,r = 0.59inthisstudy),thepurpose
andengagementinlifemeasuresdifferfromthevaluesbasedactionbecausethey
refertotraitlikebehavior(e.g.,“Ivaluemyactivitiesalot”),whiletheitemsofthe
ValuingQuestionnaire(Smoutetal. 2014 )refertocognitionsandrelatedbehavior
inthepast2weeks(e.g.,“ImadeprogressinareasofmylifeIcaremostabout”).
Valuesbasedactiondiffersfromtheseconceptionsasit“occursataparticular
momentintimeandthatisdeliberatelylinkedtocreatingapatternofactionthat
servesthevalue”(Hayesetal. 2012 ,p.328).

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Wefoundonlyonestudyinwhichtheroleofvaluesbasedactionwasexaminedas
apotentialprocessofchangebetweenmindfulnessandwellbeing.Guadagno
( 2012 )foundvaluesbasedactionpartiallymediatedtherelationshipbetween
dispositionalmindfulnessandsatisfactionwithlife,whilepsychologicalflexibility,
selfcompassion,andselfconceptclaritywerefoundtopartiallymediatethe
relationshipbetweendispositionalmindfulnessandvaluesbasedaction.Following
amindfulnessintervention,changesinmindfulnesswererelatedtochangesin
satisfactionwithlife,indirectlythroughchangesinvaluedliving.
Thepurposeofthepresentstudieswastogainfurtherevidencefortheroleof
valuesbasedactioninlinkingmindfulnesstowellbeingBecausekeyprocesses
linkingbetweenmindfulnessandwellbeingtodatehavebeenpsychological(a
flexible,regulated,andnonreactivestancetowardexperience),wealsoincludeda
measureof“Valuesobstruction”inourmodel.Whilethisconstructmeasures
psychologicalprocessessimilartoestablishedprocessesofchange(e.g.,being
caughtupwithdifficultthoughtsandfeelingsandbeingonautopilot),italsolinks
theseprocessestotheabsenceorretardationofvaluesbasedactioninthepast
2weeks(e.g.,“Ispentalotoftimethinkingaboutthepastorfuture,ratherthan
beingengagedinactivitiesthatmatteredtome”).Thus,wehypothesizedthat
mindfulnesswouldberelatedtoeudemonicandhedonicwellbeingindirectly
throughbothvaluesprogressandvaluesobstruction.Wereplicatedourmodelon
twoseparatesamples,usingvariousmeasuresofhedonicandeudemonicwellbeing
andmindfulness.Giventhedifferenceinmeanagebetweenthetwosamples(study
1:M = 20;study2:M = 34),andthepotentialconfoundingeffectsofassociations
betweenageandgenderandvaluesbasedactionandwellbeing(Ferssizidisetal.
2010 ),weincludedageandgenderascovariatesinbothstudies(Wunsch 2007 ).
Study 1
Method
Participants
Participantsweren = 630undergraduatestudentsenrolledinpsychologycoursesat
theofAdelaiderecruitedforthevalidationstudyoftheValuingQuestionnaire
(Smoutetal. 2014 )in2011.Participantswereprimarilyfemale(68.5%),young
(M = 20.4,SD = 4.5),andCaucasian(68%,21.6%wereAsian).
AQ2
Procedure

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Participantswererecruitedviatheschoolwebsiteandreceivedcoursecreditfor
theirparticipationandcompletedthesurveyonline.
Measures
Cronbach’salphasforallmeasuresaredisplayedinTable 1 .
Table1
Descriptivestatisticsandzeroordercorrelationsbetweenpredictorandoutcomevariablesand
Cronbach’salphasoffullscales
N M SD α1. 2. 3.
1.MAAS 597 56.71 11.85 0.88 −  
2.Valuesprogress 623 17.18 6.32 0.87 0.44 – 
3.Valuesobstruction 623 12.00 6.73 0.88 −0.50 −0.55 –
Satisfactionwithlife 602 22.52 6.83 0.89 0.36 0.62 −0.53
Positiveaffect 602 31.36 8.22 0.91 0.40 0.68 −0.51
Negativeaffect 602 22.32 7.98 0.89 −0.34 −0.28 −0.58
Allcorrelationsaresignificanttop = 0.001
Mediators ValuesbasedactionwasmeasuredusingtheValuingQuestionnaire
(VQ:Smoutetal. 2014 ),a10itemscalemeasuringtwofactorsofvaluesbased
action,Valuesprogress(theextenttowhichpeoplefelttheylivedtheirvalues)and
Valuesobstruction(extenttowhichpsychologicalbarriersinterferedwithenacting
values).ItemsofValuesprogresstapintobehaviorinthepast2weeks,e.g.,“I
madeprogressinareasoflifeIcaremostabout”,andbeliefsaboutbehavior,e.g.,“I
feltlikeIhadapurposeinlife.”TheValuesobstructionmeasuresboth
psychologicalbarrierstovaluesbasedaction,e.g.,“difficultthoughts,feelingsor
memoriesgotinthewayofwhatIreallywantedtodo”and“Ispentalotoftime
thinkingaboutthepastorfuture,ratherthanbeingengagedinactivitiesthat
matteredtome.”TheVQscaleshavebeenfoundtobestrongerpredictorsofwell
beingandmindfulnessthansimilarmeasuresincludingthePersonalValues
Questionnaire(PVQ:Ciarrochietal. 2006 )andValuedLivingQuestionnaire
(VLQ:Wilsonetal. 2010 ).Valuesobstructioncorrelatedatr = −0.65withthe
AcceptanceandActionQuestionnaireII(AAQII:Bondetal. 2011 ),whichalso
measurestheinabilitytopursuevaluedbehaviorinthefaceofpsychological

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measurestheinabilitytopursuevaluedbehaviorinthefaceofpsychological
barriers.
Predictors MindfulnesswasmeasuredwiththeMindfulAttentionAwareness
Scale(MAAS:BrownandRyan 2003 ),a15iteminstrumentthatmeasures
attentiontoandawarenessofpresentmomentexperienceandactingwithawareness
indailylifeusinga6pointscale.TheMAAShasstrongpsychometricproperties
andhasbeenusedextensivelyasameasureofmindfulness(Khouryetal. 2013 ).
OutcomeVariables EudemonicwellbeingwasmeasuredwiththeSatisfaction
WithLifeScale(SWLS;Diener,Emmons,Larsen&Griffin,1985)whichmeasures
subjectivewellbeingwithfivestatementsratedona7pointscale.Hedonicwell
beingwasmeasuredusingthePositiveandNegativeAffectScales(PANAS:
Watsonetal. 1988 )whichconsistof10positiveand10negativeaffectstatements
formingtwosubscales.Participantswereaskedtoratetheextenttowhichtheyhad
experiencedeachaffectinthelastweekona5pointscale.
AQ3
Covariates Asbothageandgenderhavebeenfoundtopredictvaluesbased
actionandwellbeing(Ferssizidisetal. 2010 ),weincludedageandgenderas
covariates.
Data Analysis
PathanalysiswasconductedwithMplus7.4(Muthen&Muthen,20122015)using
maximumlikelihood(MLM)estimation.MLMestimationwaschosenbecauseit
correctsfornonnormalityinthedata,indicatedbyascalingcorrectionfactorsfor
models>1.00(Byrne 2012 ).Allmodelswere“justidentified,”meaningtherewere
nodegreesoffreedomtoassessfit.Rsquaredvalueswerereportedasameansto
comparethevarianceexplainedbythemodelineachvariable.Aswewere
primarilyinterestedintheroleofvaluesbasedactioninthelinkbetween
mindfulnessandwellbeing,wealsoreporttheindirecteffectsofmindfulnesson
wellbeingthroughValuesprogressandValuesobstruction(Hayes 2009 ).
AQ4
Results
Sevenmultivariateoutliers(z > 2.58)wereremoved;however,somedeviations
fromnormalityremainedasindicatedbyascalingcorrectionfactor>1.00forthe
model.Missingdatawerelessthan5%foranyonevariableandmissing
2

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completelyatrandom(MCAR)accordingtoLittle’sMCARtest(p = 0.934).ML
estimationallowsparticipantstobeincludedintheanalysisevenifdataismissing.
Table 1 containsdescriptivestatistics,correlationsbetweenkeyvariables,and
Cronbach’salphasofscales.AgewassignificantlycorrelatedwithMAAS(r = 0.09,
p = 0.037),andgender(beingfemale)wassignificantlyassociatedwithgreater
Valuesprogress(r = 0.08,p = 0.052)andSatisfactionwithlife(r = 0.17,p < 0.001),
andlessValuesobstruction(r = −0.08,p = 0.045).
Themodel,outlinedinFig. 1 ,testedtherelationshipbetweenmindfulness(MAAS)
andwellbeingthroughValuesprogressandValuesobstruction.Weadjustedforthe
effectsofgender(0 = males;1 = females)andageonthemediatorsandoutcome
variablestoallowmoreaccuratereplicationinstudy2,whichwasbasedonanolder
sample.TheRstatisticsindicatedthatthemodelexplained50%ofvariancein
positiveaffect,32%innegativeaffect,46%inSatisfactionwithlife,21%in
Valuesprogress,and26%inValuesobstruction.AsoutlinedinFig. 1 ,model
parameterswereinexpecteddirections.AsoutlinedinTable 2 ,significan tindirect
pathswereestimatedfrommindfulnesstoSatisfactionwithlifeandPositiveaffect
throughValuesobstructionandValuesprogress,andthroughValuesobstructionto
Negativeaffect.Directeffectswerenonsignificant.Indirectpathsindicatedthatas
mindfulnessincreasesby1SD,Valuesprogressincreasesby0.45SDandPositive
affectandSatisfactionwithlifeincreaseby0.20and0.25SD,respectively,through
Valuesprogress(adjustingfortheinfluenceofageandgender).Similarly,when
mindfulnessincreasesby1SD,Valuesobstructiondecreasesby0.50SD,and
Negativeaffectdecreasesby0.27SD,andSatisfactionwithlifeandPositiveaffect
increaseby0.13and0.09SD,respectively,throughValuesobstruction(adjusting
fortheinfluenceofageandgender).
Fig.1
Standardized (XY)directeffectsofmodel1. Onlysignificantpaths areincludedand
paths that are significant to p < 0.10 comprised of light broken lines. ***p < 0.001,
**p < 0.01,*p < 0.05, p < 0.10
2
+

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Table2
Standardized(XY)directandindirecteffects,standarderrors,andprobabilityvaluesformodel
1
 SWLS Negativeaffect Positiveaffect
β(SE) p β(SE) p β(SE) p
FromMAAS      
Viavalues
progress
0.20
(0.02)*** <0.001 0.02(0.20) 0.319 0.25
(0.03)*** <0.001
Viavalues
obstruction
0.13
(0.03)*** <0.001 −0.27
(0.03)***
.
<0.001
0.09
(0.02)* <0.001
Directeffects 0.05(0.04) 0.251 −0.08(0.04) 0.070 0.05(0.05) 0.138
βstandardizedbeta,SEstandarderror,SWLSsatisfactionwithlifescale
***p < 0.001;**p < 0.01;*p < 0.05
AgenegativelypredictedValuesobstructionbutunexpectedlyitalsonegatively
predictedSatisfactionwithlife.Nonstandardizedbetasalsoindicatedthatbeing
femalewasassociatedwithlessValuesobstruction(B = −1.58),andmoreValues

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progress(B = 1.35),Satisfactionwithlife(B = 1.84),andNegativeaffect(B = 1.35),
comparedwithmales.
Asapathanalysismodelassumesnomeasurementerror,theresultswerecompared
withastructuralequationmodel(SEM)whichincludedfullylatentvariables.The
fullSEMmodelresultedineffectswhichwereconsistentwiththepathanalysis
model,althoughindirecteffectsizesweregenerallyslightlylargerinthelatent
model.Wechosetopresentapathanalysismodel,ratherthanafullSEMmodel,
becauseofissueswiththelatentmodelinstudy2(outlinedinstudy2).Thus,to
keepaconsistentapproachacrossstudy1andstudy2,andenhancecomparability,
weusedapathanalysisapproach.DirectandindirecteffectsforthelatentSEM
versionofmodel1canbefoundinthe Supplementarymaterials .
Discussion
Theresultssupportedthehypothesisthatmindfulnesswouldberelatedtowell
beingpartlythroughvaluesbasedaction.Together,ValuesprogressandValues
obstructionaccountedformostoftherelationshipbetweenmindfulnessandwell
being.Anindirectrelationshipbetweenmindfulnessandthepositiveoutcome
variables(PositiveaffectandSatisfactionwithLife)wasidentifiedthroughboth
ValuesprogressandValuesobstruction,whiletheindirectrelationshipfrom
mindfulnesstoNegativeaffectwasidentifiedthroughValuesobstructiononly.
Study 2—Model Replication
Tovalidateresultsfromstudy1,thepathanalysismodelwasreplicatedusinga
secondsampleandalternatemeasuresofmindfulnessandwellbeing.Inthisstudy,
mindfulnesswasoperationalizedbytwosubscalesfromtheFiveFacetMindfulness
Questionnaire(FFMQ:Baeretal. 2006 ),Actingwithawareness(ameasureof
attention/awareness)andNonjudgingofinnerexperiences(nonjudging).Weused
onlytwoofthefiveFFMQscalestoreduceparticipantburden.Actingwith
awarenesswasselectedasitisasimilarmeasuretotheMAASusedinstudy1,
sharingfiveofitseightitemswiththe15itemMAASscale.BothActingwith
awarenessandNonjudgingwereselectedbecausetheyhavebeenfoundtobethe
mostreliableoftheFFMQscalesinpredictingwellbeingandnegative
psychologicaldistress(Baeretal. 2006 , 2008 ;Bohlmeijeretal. 2011 ;Cashand
Whittingham 2010 ;HollisWalkerandColosimo 2011 ;Tranetal. 2013 ).Basedon
theabove,itwasfurtherhypothesizedthatbothActingwithawarenessandNon
judgingwouldpredictwellbeingandthisrelationshipwouldbepartlyexplained
throughlowervaluesobstructionandhighervaluesbasedaction.

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AQ5
Method
Participants
Participantswere199postgraduate(courseworkandresearch)students(73%
female)aged18–60years(M = 34,SD = 11,mode = 23),and71%Caucasianand
29%Asian.
Procedure
ParticipantswereenrolledinamindfulnessandresiliencecourseatthreeAustralian
universitiesandcompletedanonlinesurveywhichincludedallmeasures1–3weeks
priortothecommencementoftheircourse.
Measures
Allmeasureswererewordedtopasttense,whererelevant,andparticipantsaskedto
rateagreementinthepastmonth.Cronbach’salphasforeachscaleareinTable 3 .
Table3
Descriptive statistics, Cronbach’s alphas, and correlations between predictor and outcome
variables
MSD α1234
1.Valuesbased
action 18.71 5.22 0.81 1   
2.Values
obstruction 15.51 5.62 0.75 −0.49*** 1  
3.Actwith
awareness 22.10 5.89 0.92 0.37*** −0.67*** 1 
4.Nonjudging 23.40 7.65 0.94 0.30*** −0.52*** 0.53*** 1
Flourishing 41.09 7.92 0.89 0.72*** −0.55*** 0.34*** 0.34***
Positive
experiences 20.38 3.99 0.89 0.52*** −0.42*** 0.20** 0.20**
Negative
experiences 17.83 3.81 0.79 −0.39*** 0.51*** −0.43*** −0.45***
PositiveexperiencespositivesubscaleofSPANE,Negativeexperiencesnegativesubscale
SPANE
***p < 0.001;**p < 0.01;α = Cronbach’salpha

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Predictor,Mediator,andCovariates Mindfulnesswasmeasuredusingtwo
subscalesoftheFFMQ(Baeretal. 2006 )—Actingwithawareness(e.g.,“WhenI
didthings,mymindwanderedoffandIwaseasilydistracted”and“Ifoundit
difficulttostayfocusedonwhatwashappeninginthepresent”)andNonjudgingof
innerexperience(e.g.,“Imadejudgmentsaboutwhethermythoughtsweregoodor
bad”and“IdisapprovedofmyselfwhenIhadirrationalideas”).Consistentwith
study1,theValuesprogressandValuesobstructionsubscalesoftheValuing
Questionnaire(Smoutetal. 2014 )wereusedtomeasurevaluesbasedactionand
ageandgenderwereincludedascovariates.
OutcomeVariables EudemonicwellbeingwasmeasuredusingtheFlourishing
scale(FS:Dieneretal. 2009 ),an8itemmeasuremeasuringselfreportedsuccess
inimportantareaspredictingwellbeingincludingrelationships,competence,self
esteem,purpose,andoptimism.HedonicwellbeingwasmeasuredwiththeScaleof
PositiveandNegativeExperience(SPANE;Dieneretal. 2009 ),whichusessix
itemstoproduceascoreforpositivefeelingsandexperiences(Positiveexperiences)
andsixitemsfornegativefeelingsandexperiences(Negativeexperiences).It
measurespositiveandnegativeemotions(e.g.,joyandanger),butitalsomeasures
moregeneralfeelings(e.g.,pleasantandunpleasant)andpositiveandnegative
states(e.g.,engagement,flow,andinterest).
Data Analyses
Theapproachreplicatedthatofstudy1usingMplus6.127.4(MuthenandMuthen
20112015 )androbustMLMestimationtotestpathanalysismodels.Themain
differencefromstudy1wasthattwomindfulnessvariablesweremodeled—Non
judgingandActingwithAwareness.Becausethepurposeofthesecondstudywasa
comparisonwithstudy1,wealsoranamodelwithonlyActingwithawarenessasa
predictingvariable.
Results
Therewerenomissingdata,severeviolationsofassumptions,orextremeoutliers.
Allcorrelationssignificantwereweresignificantandinexpecteddirections(see
Table 3 ).AgewassignificantlycorrelatedwithValuesobstruction(r = −0.22,p <
0.001),Actingwithawareness(r = 0.17,p = 0.04),andNonjudging(r = 0.29,p <
0.001).Gender(beingfemale)wasnotassociatedwithanyvariablesinthissample.
AQ6

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Themodel,outlinedinFig. 2 ,testedtherelationshipsbetweenmindfulness
variables(ActingwithawarenessandNonjudging)andwellbeingvariables
(PositiveexperiencesandNegativeexperiencesandFlourishing)throughValues
obstructionandValuesprogress.Weonceagainadjustedforgenderandageby
regressingthesevariablesonexogenousvariablesinthemodel.TheRstatistics
indicatedthatthemodelexplained35%ofvarianceinPositiveexperiences,35%
inNegativeexperiences,56%inFlourishing,15%inValuesprogress,and49%in
Valuesobstruction.AsoutlinedinFig. 2 ,allpathswereinexpecteddirections.
Fig.2
Standardized (XY) direct effects of model 2 including Acting with awareness and
Nonjudgingaspredictorvariables.Onlysignificantpathsareincludedandpathsthat
aresignificanttop < 0.10comprisedoflightbrokenlines.*p < 0.05,**p < 0.01,***p
< 0.001, p < 0.10
AsoutlinedinTable 4 ,allindirecteffectsfrommindfulnesstooutcomevariables
throughmediatorsweresignificantexceptforthetwoindirectpathsfromActing
withawarenessandNonjudgingthroughValuesprogresstoNegativeexperiences
(p = 0.06andp = 0.120,respectively).Directeffectswereallnonsignificant,except
theindirecteffectfromNonjudgingtoNegativeexperiences.
Table4
2
+

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Standardized(XY)directandindirecteffects,standarderrors,andprobabilityvaluesformodel
2
 Flourishing Negative
experiences
Positive
experiences
β(SE) p β(SE) p β(SE) p
FromActingwithawareness
Viavalues
progress
0.17(0.05)
*** <0.001 −0.05
(0.03) 0.060 0.12
(0.03)** 0.002
Viavalues
obstruction
0.14
(04)*** <0.001 −0.15
(0.05)** 0.003 0.18
(0.05)***
. <
0.001
Directeffects −0.03(0.06) 0.597 −0.08
(0.09) 0.347 −0.14
(0.09) 0.093
FromNonjudging
Viavalues
progress 0.09(0.04)* 0.043 −0.02
(0.02) 0.120 0.06
(0.03)* 0.049
Viavalues
obstruction
0.07
(0.02)** 0.002 −0.07
(0.03)* 0.012 0.09
(0.03)** 0.003
Directeffects 0.02(0.06) 0.734 −0.23
(0.08)* 0.004 0.02
(0.08) 0.844
βstandardizedbeta,SEstandarderror
***p < 0.001;**p < 0.01;*p < 0.05
Onceagain,resultswerecheckedagainstafullSEMmodelwithlatentvariables.
Thesizeofindirecteffectswassimilarwithtwokeyexceptions.Theindirecteffect
fromActingwithawarenessthroughValuesobstructiontoPositiveexperienceswas
larger(β = 0.45,SE = 0.21,p = 0.037),comparedwith(β = 0.18,SE = 0.05,p <
0.001)inthepathanalysismodel.Also,thedirecteffectfromActingwith
awarenesstoPositiveexperienceswaslargerandsignificant(β = 0.41,SE = 0.20,p
= 0.040)intheSEMmodel.Thekeydifference,however,wasthatthatmanypaths
inthefullylatentmodelwerenonsignificant,thoughtheyhadsimilarorlarger
effectsizescomparedwiththepathanalysismodel.Thiswastheattributedtoa
combinationofreducedpowerinthefullSEManalysisduetoasmallersamplesize
(comparedwithstudy1),andtherelativelylowreliabilityoftheValuesobstruction
variable(α = 0.75)inthissample.Itwasthereforedecidedtoreportthepath
analysismodelsandprovidedetailsofthefullylatentmodelsinthe Supplementary
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Wealsoranamodel(model2b)inwhichActingwithawarenesswasthesole
predictingvariabletoallowamoreaccuratecomparisonwithmodel1instudy1
whichincludedtheMAASscaleasthesolepredictor.Aspreviouslystated,Acting
withawarenesscontainsfiveitemsfromtheMAAS.TheRstatisticsindicatedthat
themodelexplainedaboutthesame,orslightlyless,amountsofvarianceineach
exogenousvariable:35%ofvarianceinPositiveexperiences,31%innegative
experiences,56%inFlourishing,13%inValuesprogress,and45%inValues
obstruction.Theonlydifferencesbetweenthetwomodelsintermsofstatistical
significanceofpathswasthatinmodel2b,theindirecteffectfromActingwith
awarenesstoNegativeexperiences,wassignificanttop = 0.03(whileinmodel2,it
wassignificanttop = 0.06).Consistentwithmodel2,alldirecteffectsinmodel2b
werenonsignificant.See Supplementarymaterials forpathestimatesformodel2.
Discussion
Theresultsofstudy2supportthehypothesesthatmindfulness,operationalizedas
bothactingwithawarenessandnonjudging,wouldbeassociatedwithboth
eudemonicandhedonicwellbeing,partlythroughtheeffectsofvaluesbasedaction
(ValuesprogressandValuesobstruction).Providingevidenceforreplication,the
indirectpathsfromActingwithawarenesstowellbeingvariableswereverysimilar
insizeandreliabilitytothosefromMAAStowellbeingvariablesinstudy1,
despitetheuseofdifferentmeasuresofeudemonicandhedonicwellbeing.Likein
study1,anindirectrelationshipfrommindfulness(operationalizedasbothActing
withawarenessandNonjudging)toNegativeexperienceswasidentifiedthrough
Valuesobstruction,butnotthroughValuesprogress.
Comparedwithmodel2,model1fromstudy1explainedmorevarianceinPositive
affect(50%comparedwith35%inPositiveexperiencesinstudy2),inValues
progress(21%comparedwith15%),butlessinthemeasureofeudemonicwell
being(46%inSatisfactionwithlifecomparedwith56%ofthevariancein
Flourishinginstudy2)andValuesobstruction(26%comparedwith49%).The
varianceexplainedinNegativeaffect/experienceswasaboutthesame(32%
comparedwith35%)inbothsamples.
General Discussion
Theaimofthesestudieswastoexploretheroleofvaluesbasedactionasa
potentialmechanismbywhichmindfulnessisrelatedtosubjectiveandeudemonic
wellbeing,giventheimportanceofvaluesbasedactionintheACTmodel.
Consistentwiththehypothesis,mindfulnessmeasures(MAAS,Actingwith
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awarenessandNonjudging)wererelatedtoeudemonicandsubjectivewellbeing
partlythroughvaluesbasedaction.Formostpaths,theindirectrelationshipfrom
mindfulnessandwellbeingthroughvaluesbasedactionwasstrongerthanthe
directrelationshipandthedirectrelationshipwasnonsignificant.Theexceptionto
thiswasthedirectpathfromNonjudgingtoNegativeexperienceswhichwas
significantandstrongerthantheindirecteffectsthroughvaluesbasedaction.
Akeyoutcomereplicatedacrossbothstudieswasthatmindfulnessinfluenced
NegativeaffectandexperiencesmorestronglyandreliablythroughValues
obstructionthanthroughValuesprogress.Conversely,Positiveaffect/experiences
andeudemonicwellbeingwasinfluencedthroughbothValuesprogressandValues
obstructioninconcert.Thisfindingsuggeststhattheremightbetwodistinct
pathwaysthroughvaluesbasedactionwherebymindfulnesscontributestowell
being.Mindfulnessismorelikelytocontributetoreducingnegativeoutcomesby
helpingpeopledealwiththeinevitabledifficultiestheyencounterwhenseekingto
actinvalueddirections(e.g.,fearoffailureorworryaboutpotentialloss).Tothe
extentthatmindfulnesshelpspeoplemanagethesedifficultexperiences,theyare
lesslikelytoexperiencenegativeaffect.Correspondingly,mindfulnessislikelyto
contributetoincreasingpositiveaffectandwellbeingbyhelpingtobothdealwith
psychologicalbarrierstovaluesbasedaction,asdescribedabove,andenhancea
capacitytonoticeopportunitiestoactinthedirectionofone’svalues(Values
progress).Andwhenoneisabletoactinaccordancetowhatismeaningfultothem,
theyaremorelikelytocultivatemeaningfulrelationships,feelcompetent,
optimistic,increasepositiveaffect,andbemoresatisfiedwithlife.
Anotherkeyoutcomeofthestudywasthatvaluesbasedactionemergedasa
strongerpredictorthanmindfulnessofmostmeasuresofwellbeing.Thishas
implicationsfortherapybecauselikeotherknowledgestructures,valuesand
thereforevaluesbasedaction,aremorelikelytobeenhancedthroughattentionand
reinforcement(VerplankenandHolland 2002 ).Thus,valuesclarificationexercises,
suchasthosefoundinACTprotocols,mayproveefficaciousasanadditional
componenttoawiderangeoftherapeuticinterventions,aswellasbeinganadjunct
tomindfulnessbasedtherapyorinstruction.Ourfindingssuggestthisapproach
maybeparticularlyimportantforinterventionsaimedatoptimizingwellbeing.
Furtherresearchshouldconsiderhowthesefindingsrelatetootherkeymeasuresof
psychologicaldistress.Itshouldalsoconsidermodelsincludingmoreestablished
cognitivebasedmediatorsofchangefrommindfulnesstowellbeinganddistress,

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suchasemotionalregulationandselfcompassion,alongsidevaluesbasedactionto
determinetheirrelativecontributionstopathwaystowellbeing.
Limitations
Thiswasacrosssectionalstudyandthereforewecannotthereforeassumeour
resultsreflectcausality.However,avastliteraturesuggeststhatacausalpathway
frommindfulnesstowellbeingismorelikelythanthereverse.Forexample,
Guadagno( 2012 )foundamindfulnessinterventionresultedinimprovementsin
valuesbasedaction,whichpartiallymediatedtherelationshipbetween
improvementsinmindfulnessandincreasesinsatisfactionwithlife.Itisstill
unknownifincreasesinmindfulnesscauseincreasesinvaluesbasedactionorthe
reverse,oriftheydevelopsimultaneously.Identifyingcausalityisclearlyafocus
forfutureresearchandwearecurrentlycollectinglongitudinalexperimentaldatato
testtheseassociationsovertime.Resultsdo,however,confirmthatmindfulnessis
relatedtovaluesbasedactionandmuchoftherelationshipbetweenmindfulness
andwellbeingcanbeaccountedforbymeasuresofvaluesbasedaction.
Nowthatthepositiverelationshipbetweenmindfulnessandwellbeingiswell
established,therehasbeenincreasingattentionpaidtotheactiveprocesseswhereby
mindfulnessexertsitspositiveeffects.Researchershaveidentifiedmediators
includingselfcompassionandemotionalregulation(VanDametal. 2014 ),
cognitiveandemotionalnonreactivity(Guetal. 2015 )andcognitivereappraisals,
andreducedrumination(Desrosiersetal. 2013 ).Ourresearchisthefirstto
demonstratethatactingon,ormakingprogresstowards,one’svalues,andbeing
abletomanageobstaclestoactingonvalues,explainsaconsiderableportionofthe
relationshipbetweenmindfulnessandwellbeing.Thisfindinghasbothresearch
andpracticalsignificance.Forresearchers,ourfindingssupportBrownandRyan’s
( 2003 )perspectivethatmindfulnessfacilitatestheabilitytoactivelychoose
autonomous,valuesandneedsbasedbehaviorratherthantoreactinhabitualways.
ForcliniciansworkingwithinanAcceptanceandCommitmentTherapyframework,
thisevidencesupportsthepositiveassociationbetweenACTprocesses—present
momentawareness,acceptance,andvaluesbasedbehavioralchange—and
improvementsinwellbeing.Forthoseworkingprimarilywithothermindfulness
basedtherapies,ourresultssuggestthatintegratingafocusonvaluesclarification
andactinginlinewithvaluesmayenhancetheeffectsofmindfulnessbased
interventionsuponwellbeing.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
ConflictofInterestTheauthorsdeclarethattheyhavenoconflictof

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ConflictofInterestTheauthorsdeclarethattheyhavenoconflictof
interest. Thesystemdidnotallowmetocommentaboutreferencesbelow.
Itriedtoinserttwonewreferencesinthecorrectorderbutthereferenceswenttothebottom
ofthepage.IalsoinitiallyusedtheDOInumbertogetthereferenceandassumedthesystem
wouldputthereferenceinwithAPAstylebutitdidnot.Asthesystemdoesn'tallowdeleting
thereferences,IaddedthetwonewreferenceswithAPAstyleonceagaintheyappearedat
thebottomofthereferencelist.
Sonowtherearetwonewreferences,intwostylesatthebottomofthereferencelist.I'm
sorryIdon'tknowhowtochangethis.
Electronic supplementary material
Belowisthelinktotheelectronicsupplementarymaterial.
ESM1
(DOC128kb)
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