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Psychological Features of Female Runners Presenting with Pathological Weight Control Behaviors
Abstract
The present study was conducted to determine if female distance runners who report engaging in pathological food behaviors display the psychological characteristics of clinically diagnosed female eating-disordered patients. Comparisons were made among 29 eating-disturbed college runners, 31 normal college runners, 19 clinically diagnosed eating-disordered patients, and 34 nonathletic, non-eating-disordered college students. Measures included a 3-day diet journal, questionnaires collecting both personal information and information on eating behaviors and sports participation, the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI), the Setting Conditions for Anorexia Nervosa Scale (SCANS), and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Without reaching eating-disordered clinical levels, the eating-disturbed runners appeared on psychological inventories as being more concerned with food and dieting than were the comparison runners and non-eating-disordered nonathletes. Only the eating-disordered group presented wi...
... Each study compares female distance runners with at least one of the following: other female distance runners (Henrickson, Schell, & Hirschberg, 2000;Cobb et al., 2003;Gibson, Mitchell, Harries, & Reeve, 2004;Hulley, & Hill, 2001;Owens, & Slade, 1987), female athletes of other sports (Bale, Doust, & Dawson, 1996;Hopkinson, & Lock, 2004;Karlson, Becker, & Merkur, 2001;Pasman, & Thompson, 1988;Rippon, Nash, Myburgh, & Noakes, 1988), male distance runners (Gutgesell, & Timmerman, 1998;Hopkinson, & Lock, 2004;Pasman, & Thompson, 1988;Ryujin, Breaux, & Marks, 1999), female non-athletes without diagnosed eating disorders (Gleaves, Williamson, & Fuller, 1992;Gutgesell, & Timmerman, 1998;Hulley, Currie, Njenga, & Hill, 2006;Karlson et al., 2001;Klock, & Desouza, 1995;Parker, Lambert, & Burlingame, 1994;Pasman, & Thompson, 1988;Rippon et al., 1988;Ryujin et al., 1999;Weight, & Noakes, 1986), and female eating disordered non-athletes (Bale et al., 1996;Gleaves, 1992). ...
... The studies in which runners were compared with non-athletes generally found that runners reported less body dissatisfaction than non-athletes (Hulley et al., 2006;Parker, 1994;Ryujin et al., 1999) or similar levels of body dissatisfaction to non-athletes (Gleaves, 1992;Owens, & Slade, 1987;Weight, & Noakes,1986). However, Owens and Slade (1987) and Ryujin and colleagues (1999) also found that runners exhibited higher levels of perfectionism (as measured by the Perfectionism scale on the EDI-2) than non-athletes who did not exhibit disordered eating. ...
This literature review aims to discern patterns among empirical research regarding the association between distance running and disordered eating among females. The findings show that female distance runners share certain characteristics with eating disordered non-athletes, such as low BMI, perfectionist tendencies, and menstrual dysfunction. These characteristics, indicative of disordered eating among non-athletic females, do not indicate a similar risk among runners. These findings suggest that perfectionism may be channeled more healthily through exercise than through disordered eating, and that low BMI and menstrual dysfunction among distance runners can appear in the absence of disordered eating.
... An argument in support of sport-specific pressures playing a significant role in the development of eating disturbances in athletic populations is that these disturbances can exist without the accompanying psychopathology typically found in clinically eating disordered populations (2,3,21,26). Research has revealed that athletes can be diagnosed with an eating disturbance without having the personality problems typically found in clinical cases of eating disorders. ...
... When not all symptoms of a full eating disorder are present, the individual may be classified as having a sub-clinical eating disorder. For example, Parker et al. (21) found that female runners who were considered to have disturbed eating patterns were more concerned with food and dieting than runners who were not considered to have abnormal eating habits. This eating disturbed group, however, did not exhibit any of the psychopathology found in a comparison group of females diagnosed with a clinical eating disorder. ...
Aesthetic sport athletes are subject to pressures to be thin. Because such pressures may vary across different subtypes of gymnastics, differences between 3 gymnastics types (artistic, rhythmic, and sports acrobatics) on indices of eating disturbances were investigated. This was performed with a younger sample than has commonly been the norm. Fifty competitive female gymnasts, 10–15 years of age, completed subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory. Rhythmic gymnasts scored the highest for Drive for Thinness and for total eating disturbance (both p
... These studies offer some insights into how desire for weight control is a part of the normative running body discourse for distance runners. In addition, female distance runners have frequently been the focus of physiological and psychological research (Parker, Lambert, & Burlingame, 1994;Thompson, 2007;Weight & Noakes, 1987) concerning the intersections of weight control and eating disorders. This research indicates that there is a greater tendency for high performance female runners to display physical signifiers of eating disordered bodies (i.e., extremely thin). ...
This article examines the ways in which high-performance female ultrarunning bodies are created by and understood through the discourses of the normative running body, the ideal female body and pain. Using a Foucauldian framework, this paper shows how the ultrarunning body becomes a desired body beyond the marathon and how these same desires produce multiple and complex subjectivities for female ultrarunners. In-depth interviews were conducted with 8 high performance female ultrarunners. Findings suggest that ultrarunning is a sporting space which gives rise to more diverse subjectivities than previously found in distance running literature. Simultaneously, this discourse produces disciplined bodies through the mode of desire and "unquestioned"social norms, paralleling the constructs of extreme sports and (re)producing middle-classness.
... Mientras que algunos estudios indican que las atletas no tienen una incidencia mayor de trastornos alimenticios que la población general (Weight & Noakes, 1987;Ryujin, Breaux & Marks, 1999), otros indican que entre 8% y 25% de corredores pueden padecer de estos trastornos (Bickford, 1999;Johnson, Powers & Dick, 1999;Downes, 2000;Hulley & Hill, 2001). Algunos estudios citan que más de 39-50% de las atletas tienen desordenes en la conducta alimentaria (Parker, Lambert & Burlingame, 1994;Bickford, 1999), lo que afecta a su correcta nutrición (Beals & Manore, 1998). Además, la incidencia puede aumentar en alto rendimiento (Bale, Doust & Dawson, 1996;Picard, 1999;Downes, 2000). ...
Este estudio aborda los factores de riesgo, y el conocimiento de los atletas sobre los trastornos alimenticios en corredoras universitarias de cross country. La muestra objeto de estudio estuvo compuesta por un total de 24 atletas participantes en el Campeonato de España Universitario de 2003-2004 (22 ± 2 años; 5 ± 1 días de entrenamiento a la semana; 2 ± 1 horas de entrenamiento al día; 165 ± 6 cm de altura; 55 ± 5 kg de peso). Los resultados muestran que: un 34,8% de las atletas indica no esta satisfechas con sus cuerpos; un 60,9% indica haber recibido presiones para estar delgadas; un 73,9% de las deportistas indica haber utilizado medios para el control de su peso; y un 13% de las atletas ha sido diagnosticado con trastornos alimenticios. Los resultados indican que los entrenadores deben tener un papel activo en la reducción del estrés de sus atletas, aportar información y mecanismos de ayuda a las mismas, así como conocer los primeros pasos a realizar en caso de que los atletas presenten trastornos alimenticios.
Abstract : This paper studied the risk factors, and runner's knowledge of eating disorders in female college cross-country runners. A total of 24 female cross country athletes from University National Spanish Championship (22 ± 2 years; 5 ± 1 training days by; 2 ± 1 training hours by day; 165 ± 6 cm of height; 55 ± 5 kg of weight) were studied. A 34.8% of subjects are not satisfied with their bodies, and 60.9% have received pressure to be thin. A 73.9% have used methods to control their weight, and 13.0 % had been diagnosed with clinical eating disorders. The results show that the coaches must have an active role in the reduction of the stress of their athletes, give them information and help mechanics, and know the first steps to take in case that an athlete has an eating disorder.
Keywords: Eating disorders. Cross-country. Risk factors. Knowledge.
... To date, only two studies have simultaneously evaluated all aspects of the triad as defined in the original position stand; one study was in runners, i.e. athletes (Cobb et al., 2003), and the other in military women . Most studies have evaluated the combination of two aspects of the triad, i.e. menstrual irregularities and bone health (Drinkwater et al., 1984(Drinkwater et al., , 1986(Drinkwater et al., , 1990Lloyd et al., 1988;Marcus et al., 1985;Carbon et al., M.J.De Souza and N.I.Williams 1990;Prior et al., 1990;Jonnavithula et al., 1993;Keen and Drinkwater, 1997;De Souza et al., 1997;Warren et al., 2002;Winters et al., 1996) or menstrual irregularities and disordered eating (Dummer et al., 1987;Garner et al., 1987;Davis, 1992;Parker et al., 1994;Sundgot-Borgen, 1994;O'Connor et al., 1995;O'Connor and Lewis, 1997;Cox et al., 1992;Johnson et al., 1999;Williams et al., 1999;Beals and Manore, 2000;McNulty et al., 2001;Khan et al., 2002). Amenorrhoea and disordered eating have been repeatedly demonstrated to exhibit associations with low BMD, emphasizing that the identification of either one of these conditions in a female athlete should prompt an inquiry into the status of the athlete's bone health. ...
Amenorrhoea associated with reduced caloric intake and strenuous exercise leads to hypoestrogenism and is associated with clinical manifestations that include disordered eating, stress fractures, osteoporosis, and, as recently reported, a potential increase in the risk of premature cardiovascular disease. Disordered eating, menstrual irregularities and bone loss comprise the clinical condition known as the 'female athlete triad'. The aetiology of the triad is linked to a high prevalence of disordered eating and cognitive restraint. This results in inadequate caloric intake for high exercise energy expenditures that leads to energy deficiency. This in turn stimulates compensatory mechanisms, such as weight loss or energy conservation, subsequently causing a central suppression of reproductive function and concomitant hypoestrogenism. Because the aetiology of menstrual disturbances and the female athlete triad is causally linked to energy deficiency, there is no justification for fears that exercise itself is unhealthy for women. However, improved detection, monitoring, and treatment of all components of the triad in exercising women should be emphasized. This paper critically reviews the physiological aspects and clinical sequelae of energy deficiency and hypoestrogenism associated with the female athlete triad in exercising women.
... understanding of these behaviors. Some researchers found that these patients had significantly more evidence of psychopathology than male or female distance runners (31,34), that high intensity or habitual female runners were similar to anorexics in their views of body image (34), preoccupations with food (13), and motivation to decrease percent body fat (13,40). Moreover, 25% of the female participants who ran > 30 mi/wk had Eating Attitudes Test scores indicating a higher risk for anorexia (13,36), and women runners displayed more disordered eating patterns than men (36,40). ...
This study examined the relationships among eating attitudes, exercise identity, and body alienation in ultramarathoners. Eighty-seven competitive ultramarathoners (73 males, 14 females) completed the Eating Attitudes Test-26, Exercise Identity Scale, and Body Alienation Scale as part of their pre-race registration. Correlation coefficients revealed that eating attitudes were positively related to exercise identity (R = 0.31) and injury tolerance (R = 0.43), and that exercise identity was positively related to injury tolerance (R = 0.33). MANOVA further indicated that subjects with high exercise identity reported more eating disorder behaviors [F(2, 80) = 7.73, P <0.001] and higher injury tolerance [F(2, 80) = 3.69, P <0.05] than persons with low exercise identity. Female ultramarathoners scoring high on exercise identity were more likely to report aberrant eating behaviors [F(2, 80) = 3.39, P <0.05] and higher training intensity levels [F(2, 80) = 3.91, P <0.02] than were average males and the low- or moderate-exercise identifying females.
This comprehensive, up-to-date book presents the latest research and applied practice to address all of the key issues relating to sport and eating disorders. The book begins by looking at the underlying factors behind the development of disordered eating. It goes on to consider evaluation, diagnosis and treatment across a wide range of sports and assesses the various types of treatment available and the practicalities of implementing treatment programmes. A whole chapter is devoted to the role of the internet, both as a source of information and possible treatment, for athletes with these disorders. The final chapter provides four practical examples and case studies of disordered eating in high-risk sports.
There is a considerable overlap between behavioral medicine and the closely related field of sport and exercise psychology. Both deal with the human body, its interactions with the physical and social environment, and have as their goals to help that body function as effectively as possible, whether achieving and maintaining health or, at the other end of the continuum, performing at a world class level in an athletic event. The emphasis of this chapter, however, will be on sport and exercise applications of psychological principles, rather than on the more clearly medical applications. The point of view taken will be primarily from a behaviorological perspective.
The significant role which sport and exercise continues to play in our daily lives cannot be denied. The huge sport and leisure industries, not to mention massive individual investments of time, effort, money, energy and emotion, each bear witness to this fact. However, sport and exercise, like gender itself, is rarely presented as a topic of study within general psychology courses or accorded a great deal of attention in psychology textbooks. By synthesising the diverse literature on gender issues in sport and exercise, we provide an overview of current research and offer suggestions for future directions. Initially, the study of gender issues in sport and exercise psychology is placed in historical context. A second section outlines major theoretical perspectives adopted by sport psychologists in addition to highlighting contemporary research within the field. The final section explores possible future directions which are largely based in the rapidly expanding field of exercise psychology.
The authors compared college women with various levels of dietary restraint (42 nondieters, 23 medium-restraint, 36 chronic dieters) on measures of body image, personality and psychopathology, family environment, and eating- and weight-related concerns. Chronic dieters displayed significantly higher scores on body distortion, drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction, feelings of ineffectiveness, and depression and schizophrenia on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI). There were no differences in locus of control or reported family environment. Drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction increased linearly with degree of dietary restraint. By contrast, greater body distortion, ineffectiveness, and some psychological maladjustment (as measured by the MMPI) qualitatively differentiated the chronic-dieting group. These variables may point to continuities between chronic dieting and the development of eating disorders.
Due to the equivocal research examining body image between athletes and nonathletes and the serious negative effects of body image disturbance a meta-analytic review of the literature was undertaken (N = 78 studies, 294 effect sizes). A small effect was found which indicated that athletes had a more positive body image compared to the nonathletes. Examination of the moderator variables revealed that the magnitude of the effect size: (a) for unpublished research was larger compared to published research; (b) for comparison groups which were included within the study was smaller than for comparison groups based on normative data; (c) did not differ between the female athletes compared to the male athletes; (d) did not vary among the aesthetic, endurance, and ball game sport athletes; and (e) did not differ by age or body mass index. Possible explanations for the more positive body image of the athletes than the nonathletes are discussed.
Research indicates that certain athletes, particularly those in sports that emphasize leanness to enhance performance or appearance (e.g., gymnastics, wrestling, figure skating, diving, and ballet), are at risk for eating disorders. Little is known about the risk for eating disorder symptoms in weight and strength training. It is concluded that, even when mild variants of eating disorders are observed in athletes, they should be given immediate attention because they may severely compromise health and performance. Practical recommendations are made for coaches and trainers to identify the physical, psychological, and behavioral symptoms of eating disorders. Finally, suggestions are made for addressing eating disorders in athletes.
Over the last two decades an increasing amount of research has begun to examine the issue of eating disorders in athletes. While a number of studies in this area have been published, the results have not been able to clarify the nature of the relationship between athletic involvement and eating problems. This review critically evaluates existing studies of eating disorders in athletes, highlighting various methodological limitations. Studies are grouped under three main headings: uncontrolled studies; controlled studies; and studies comparing athletes with different body type requirements. A fourth section of the paper evaluates studies which have addressed the issue of gender differences in eating disorders among athletes. Suggestions are made for guidelines that will improve future research in this area.
This study represented the first attempt to examine the prevalence of eating disorders in a large sample of both male and female elite athletes compared to a matched control group of non-athletes. The subjects were 263 Australian elite athletes representing a variety of sports, and 263 non-athletes. All subjects were interviewed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview and completed a number of self-report questionnaires. Both male and female athletes competing in sports that emphasise a lean body shape or a low body weight evidenced a significantly higher prevalence of eating disorders and eating disorder symptoms than other athletes and non-athletes. The results suggest that athletes do, in fact, have a higher prevalence of eating disorders than non-athletes. However, it is not so much being an athlete that places an individual at increased risk for developing an eating disorder; rather it is athletes competing in sports which emphasise the importance of a thin body shape or a low body weight who appear to be particularly vulnerable.
To examine the relationships between disordered eating, menstrual irregularity, and low bone mineral density (BMD) in young female runners.
Subjects were 91 competitive female distance runners aged 18-26 yr. Disordered eating was measured by the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI). Menstrual irregularity was defined as oligo/amenorrhea (0-9 menses per year). BMD was measured by dual x-ray absorptiometry.
An elevated score on the EDI (highest quartile) was associated with oligo/amenorrhea, after adjusting for percent body fat, age, miles run per week, age at menarche, and dietary fat, (OR [95% CI]: 4.6 [1.1-18.6]). Oligo/amenorrheic runners had lower BMD than eumenorrheic runners at the spine (-5%), hip (-6%), and whole body (-3%), even after accounting for weight, percent body fat, EDI score, and age at menarche. Eumenorrheic runners with elevated EDI scores had lower BMD than eumenorrheic runners with normal EDI scores at the spine (-11%), with trends at the hip (-5%), and whole body (-5%), after adjusting for differences in weight and percent body fat. Runners with both an elevated EDI score and oligo/amenorrhea had no further reduction in BMD than runners with only one of these risk factors.
In young competitive female distance runners, (i) disordered eating is strongly related to menstrual irregularity, (ii) menstrual irregularity is associated with low BMD, and (iii) disordered eating is associated with low BMD in the absence of menstrual irregularity.
Female athletes may be at greater risk for disordered eating than their nonathletic peers, but the psychological antecedents of this dysfunctional behavior in athletes have yet to be elucidated. The objective of this study was to develop an athletics-oriented measure of psychological predictors of disordered eating and to test its initial reliability and validity. Female athletes from 3 National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) Division I universities completed the ATHLETE, a written questionnaire designed to assess psychosocial factors associated with disordered eating in athletes. Five distinct and internally consistent factors (Drive for Thinness and Performance, Social Pressure on Eating, Performance Perfectionism, Social Pressure on Body Shape, and Team Trust) were positively associated with and predictive of disordered eating behaviors in female athletes. The ATHLETE is a reliable and valid measure of psychological predictors of disordered eating in athletics and will be useful in studying the etiology of disordered eating in female athletes.
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between indicators of risk of disordered eating, body image and varied menstrual cycle lengths. Altogether, 151 female athletes were invited from 16 sports and 70 female non-athletic controls were recruited from a university lecture class. The participants completed several surveys, including demographics, menstrual cycle history, physical activity, Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) and the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ). Selected EDI subscales were summed to reflect eating disorder risk and body image. Menstrual cyclicity was based on self-reported cycle length for the last 6 months (normal cycles = 26-32 days, irregular cycles < or =26 or >32 days). Athletes overall had more irregular cycles (29.1%) than the non-athletes (15.7%) (P < 0.05). There were significant differences in scores for eating disorder risk, body dissatisfaction, drive for thinness, cognitive restraint (TFEQ) and disinhibition (TFEQ), only when athletes were divided based on menstrual cyclicity (i.e. irregularly cycling athletes had higher scores than athletes with normal menstrual cycle lengths). No differences in these scores were found between non-athletes with normal or irregular menstrual cycle lengths. In conclusion, irregularly short or long menstrual cycle length is associated with subtle indications of higher risk of disordered eating in female athletes.
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