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Effects of Alternative Goal Structures within Curriculum-Based Measurement
Abstract
This study assessed the effects of alternative goal structures within curriculum-based measurement (CBM) in the area of math. Subjects were 30 special education teachers, assigned randomly to a dynamic goal CBM, static goal CBM, or control group for 15 weeks. Each teacher selected two mildly or moderately handicapped pupils for participation. Analyses of variance conducted on fidelity of treatment measures indicated that dynamic goal teachers increased goals more frequently and, by the study's completion, employed more ambitious goals. Multivariate analyses of covariance indicated that students in the dynamic goal group had better content mastery than did control students, whereas students in the static goal group did not. Content coverage for the three groups was comparable. Implications for special education goal-setting practice are discussed.
... On the other hand, if her rate of progress suggests that she will not meet the goal, the 50 WPM goal would be retained and an instructional change would be made. Teachers who utilize a dynamic aim approach have been shown to raise goals more frequently, employ more ambitious goals, and obtain greater student achievement outcomes, as compared to teachers using an approach in which goals are not raised if rate of progress exceeds the goal (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989b). ...
... Goal-based data evaluation is the most common evaluation approach (see Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989b). In the goal-based evaluation framework, the annual IEP goal is translated into the aimline of expected rate of progress. ...
... Varying computer feedback using different CBM goal structures also has been explored. Fuchs, Fuchs, and Hamlett ( 1989b) compared a dynamic goal structure approach to a static goal structure approach. The computerized feedback was the same for both groups, but the dynamic goal structure group received computerized feedback that required teachers to raise the goal when estimated student progress exceeded the aimline. ...
... This creates the necessary data for testing the effectiveness of different treatments for a given student. Research also suggests that, when combined with prescriptive decision rules, these time-series analytic methods result in better instruction and learning: Teachers raise goals more often and develop higher expectations (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989a), introduce more revisions to their instructional programs (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989b ), and effect better achievement (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Stecker, 1991). ...
... Studies have examined the specific effects of alternative data-utilization strategies, as well as CBM' s overall contribution to instructional planning and student achievement. In addition to identifying instructional level, as discussed earlier in this article, CBM has been shown to enhance teacher planning and student outcomes in three ways: (a) by helping teachers maintain appropriately ambitious student goals (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989a), (b) by assisting teachers in determining when revisions to their instructional programs are necessary to prompt better student growth (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989b;Stecker, 1994;Wesson, Skiba, Sevcik, King, & Deno, 1984), and (c) providing ideas for potentially effective instructional adjustments (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Allinder, 1991;Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989c;Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Stecker, 1991). ...
... Of the 32 articles identified in the previous review (Foegen et al., 2007), authors identified just seven studies at Stage 3. These studies were largely specific to the use of the MBSP computation measures with special education populations, and all these studies were conducted by Fuchs and colleagues (Allinder et al., 2000;Allinder & BeckBest, 1995;Fuchs et al., 1989Fuchs et al., , 1990Fuchs et al., , 1991Stecker & Fuchs, 2000). These studies provided evidence that using data from the MBSP computation measures improved student achievement in mathematics. ...
The purpose of this literature review on curriculum-based measurement in mathematics (CBM-M) was to update and extend the Foegen et al. (2007) progress monitoring in mathematics review. We included 99 studies focused on at least one of the three stages of CBM research (i.e., one point in time [screening], repeatedly over time [progress monitoring], and instructional utility) in mathematics for students in preschool through Grade 12. The results of this review indicated that researchers have increased the amount of research conducted at the early mathematics and secondary levels; however, many studies focused on the stages of CBM research are still conducted at the elementary level. The results also demonstrated that most studies (k = 85; 85.9%) were focused on Stage 1, with fewer studies reporting results related to Stage 2 (k = 40; 40.4%) and Stage 3 (k = 5; 5.1%). The results of this literature review also underscore that although considerable growth has been achieved in the past 15 years in CBM-M development and reporting, next steps in research include a focus on investigating the uses of CBM-M for progress monitoring and instructional decision making.
... This early work began with CBM training that involved administering assessments and evaluating data by hand (e.g., Fuchs et al., 1984) and via software that automatically collected, scored, graphed, and evaluated the data using decision rules (e.g., Fuchs, Fuchs, & Stecker, 1989). In some studies, computer-generated reports included dynamic goals (e.g., Fuchs et al., 1989b) and guided questions to improve teachers' interpretation and data evaluation (e.g., Fuchs et al., 1989a). ...
The purpose of this review was to synthesize research on the effect of professional development (PD) targeting data-based decision-making processes on teachers’ knowledge, skills, and self-efficacy related to curriculum-based measurement (CBM) and data-based decision-making (DBDM). To be eligible for this review, studies had to (a) be published in English, (b) include in-service or pre-service K–12 teachers as participants, (c) use an empirical group design, and (d) include sufficient data to calculate an effect size for teacher outcome variables. The mean effect of DBDM PD on teacher outcomes was g = 0.57 ( p < .001). This effect was not moderated by study quality. These results must be viewed through the lens of significant heterogeneity in effects across included studies, which could not be explained by follow-up sensitivity analyses. In addition, the experimental studies included in this review occurred under ideal, researcher-supported conditions, which impacts the generalizability of the effects of DBDM PD in practice. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
... It can be conceptualized in two overarching objectives or approaches: determination of specific student skill deficits or monitoring progress in one specific construct or group of skills over time in response to instruction. The latter instance, progress monitoring (e.g., Deno, 2016), has a long history of use to enhance the effectiveness of interventions in student academic domains such as reading (e.g., Fuchs, Deno, & Mirkin, 1984;Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989;Tindal, 2013) or mathematics (Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, & Whinnery, 1991;Stecker & Fuchs, 2000). ...
Despite growing interest in formative assessment of teacher practices, research on rates of change in teachers’ practices is sparse. This is the first study to examine the characteristics of observed change in classroom practices using the Classroom Strategies Assessment System (CSAS) across alternative schedules of data collection during instructional coaching. Our primary objectives included examining: (1) the magnitude, variability, and precision of estimates of average rates of change in teacher practices, and (2) the impact of data collection duration (i.e.. number of weeks of data collection) and density (i.e., the number of classroom observations per week) on the precision of estimates of rates of change over time. A sample of teachers (N = 63) participating in instructional coaching were observed 14 times during coaching using the CSAS. Findings revealed a significant gradual improvement in strategy use, with significant between-teacher variation in rates of change. The frequency of observations was associated with the precision of estimates for average rates of change across teachers and for individual teachers, providing initial guidance on minimum number of observations required to monitor change in practice over time.
Impact and Implications: This study offers a first look at teacher formative assessment using an observational instrument designed to monitor progress in teaching strategies during the process of instructional coaching. The results suggest a minimum frequency of data collection that might be necessary to gather useful information about rates of change in teachers’ use of strategies.
... RTI includes an effective core curriculum, increasingly intense tiers of instruction for underperforming students, integrated assessment including universal screening, benchmarking, mastery tests, and progress monitoring, and use of assessment results to guide instruction. RTI can be implemented by teachers and when done so improves student outcomes (Fuchs et al., 1984(Fuchs et al., , 1989Graney and Shinn, 2005;Heritage, 2007;VanDerHeyden et al., 2007) and is satisfying for teachers (Hayward and Hedge, 2005). A meta-analysis reported impressive mean effect sizes of 1.02 for field-based studies and 1.54 for university-based studies evaluating RTI implementations (Burns et al., 2005). ...
The framework and tools used for classroom assessment can have significant impacts on teacher practices and student achievement. Getting assessment right is an important component in creating positive learning experiences and academic success. Recent government reports (e.g., United States, Australia) call for the development of systems that use new technologies to make educational assessment more efficient and useful. The present review discusses factors relevant to assessment in the digital age from the perspectives of assessment for learning (AfL) and assessment of learning (AoL) in the early childhood classroom. Technology offers significant avenues to enhance test administration, test scoring, test reporting and interpretation, and link with curriculum to individualize learning. We highlight unique challenges around issues of developmental appropriateness, item development, psychometric validation, and teacher implementation in the use of future assessment systems. However, success will depend upon close collaboration between educators, students, and policy makers in the design, development, and utilization of technology-based assessments.
... At posttest, teachers in all three instructional groups -but not the control group -mentioned raising the goal, with the largest percentage found for the interpretation and interpretation + linking groups. Fuchs et al. (1989b) found that setting ambitious goals was related to greater improvements in student achievement. Our results suggest that CBM video instruction, perhaps in particular additional instruction that is interactive and provides opportunities for practice (as was the case for the interpretation and interpretation + linking conditions), served to raise teachers' awareness of the importance of raising the goal. ...
The authors examined three instructional approaches for improving teachers’ curriculum-based measurement (CBM) graph comprehension, each differing in the extent to which reading the data, interpreting the data, and linking the data to instruction were emphasized. Participants were 164 elementary school teachers who were randomly assigned to one of three CBM instructional approaches or a control condition. Instruction was delivered via videos. Prior to and after receiving instruction, teachers completed a CBM graph-comprehension task. They also evaluated the instructional videos. Teachers in the three instructional groups improved more in CBM graph comprehension than control teachers. Improvements were seen primarily in interpreting and linking the data to instruction, two important but difficult aspects of CBM graph comprehension. Differences between the instructional groups were found for interpreting the data. Teachers evaluated the videos positively. Results indicate that teachers’ CBM graph comprehension can be improved via video instruction. Implications for teaching teachers to implement CBM are discussed.
... The ORF growth of the other two students during the intervention exceeded the baseline level. All three participants exceeded the normative ambitious ORF growth rate (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989). In addition, all three students answered more comprehension questions correctly during the intervention than the baseline. ...
Many students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) enrolled in postsecondary education do not derive full benefits of attending college because of their limited academic skills. This review summarizes a series of experimental studies that investigated the effects of interventions that targeted reading and writing skills for young adults with IDD enrolled in an authentic postsecondary education setting. Results of the review suggest that young adults with IDD can benefit from explicit instruction and cognitive strategy instruction. Effective academic intervention should be adaptive to the diverse learning needs of the students while providing a scaffold that supports their motivation and their persistence.
... The intervention literacy lessons were taught for only 20 minutes per session three times a week and for only 2-4 weeks per student. Research has shown that, for supplemental reading interventions to be effective, they should last at least 30 minutes a day for at least 6 weeks (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989). In addition, the intervention occurred toward the end of the school year. ...
For decades, Latino English language learners (ELLs) have been identified as a high-risk population for both reading and behavioral problems. A comprehensive approach that provides academic and behavioral support in both home and school settings has been suggested by researchers as a viable option for improving outcomes of students who exhibit problems in both areas. Research has also suggested that cultural adaptations need to be implemented when working with culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) populations to ensure cultural fit between the target population and the implemented interventions. This paper presents the results of a pilot study that examined the effects of a comprehensive, culturally adapted intervention on Latino ELLs behavior and reading skills. A multiple-baseline, single-subject research design was employed in this study. The results suggest that implementing a comprehensive and culturally adapted intervention has promising effects among Latino students and families. Participating students demonstrated decreases in problem behaviors and low–moderate increases in reading skills. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
... The intervention literacy lessons were taught for only 20 minutes per session three times a week and for only 2-4 weeks per student. Research has shown that, for supplemental reading interventions to be effective, they should last at least 30 minutes a day for at least 6 weeks (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989). In addition, the intervention occurred toward the end of the school year. ...
... The intervention literacy lessons were taught for only 20 minutes per session three times a week and for only 2-4 weeks per student. Research has shown that, for supplemental reading interventions to be effective, they should last at least 30 minutes a day for at least 6 weeks (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989). In addition, the intervention occurred toward the end of the school year. ...
The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of a social emotional learning curriculum, Brothers of Ujima, for children at risk for being referred for placement in emotional and behavioral support classrooms. The Brothers of Ujima is a strength-based culturally relevant intervention for African American boys aged 10–14. The purpose of the 14-week program is to strengthen positive self-esteem, ethnic identity, and prosocial behaviors while reducing negative behaviors among boys. The curriculum objectives are for boys to critically assess myths and stereotypes of African Americans presented in the media, to help boys develop creative thinking and leadership skills, to increase appreciation of African and African American culture, and to learn adaptive coping skills when faced with discrimination. This study is the first to evaluate this curriculum in a school-based setting. Fourteen 6th- and 7th-grade students participated in the intervention. Results show that males demonstrated an increase in Afrocentric values, but not in racial identity or resiliency. Teacher interviews showed that the intervention was feasible for a school setting; however, modifications to format and lessons content should be undertaken for future studies.
... The review identified 59 published documents that described decision rules; data point and trend line rules were the most common (Ardoin et al., 2013). The most frequently cited source for data point decision rules was a non-empirical book chapter (White & Haring, 1980) and a published study that evaluated student outcomes, not the reliability or validity of decisions (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989). White later informed the second author of this study that Katherine Liberty developed the data point decision rule in 1972 for her dissertation, but very little research was done to validate its use (O. ...
Despite their widespread use, there is little research to support the accuracy of curriculum-based measurement of reading progress monitoring decision rules. The purpose of this study was to investigate the accuracy of a common data point decision rule. This study used a three-point rule with a goal line of 1.50 words read correctly per minute (WRCM) across six levels of true growth (range = 0-3 WRCM), two levels of dataset quality or residual (5 and 10 WRCM), and 13 levels of data collection (range = 3-15 weeks). We estimated the probability of a correct decision as well as the probability of each outcome (change instruction, increase the goal, maintain instruction) across each condition with probability theory and a spreadsheet program. In general, results indicate that recommendations are often inaccurate. Further, the probability of a correct recommendation is below chance in most situations. Results of multiple regression analyses indicate that residual, duration, and true growth interacted to influence decision accuracy. Results are discussed along with implications for future research and practice.
... The ability to proactively monitor the effects of an intervention and make instructional changes when a student is showing inadequate growth is a cornerstone of data-based decision making (Ysseldyke et al., 2006). Yet when educators are left to interpret progress monitoring data on their own, instructional changes are rare (Fuchs, Wesson, Tindal, Mirkin, & Deno, 1982;Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989). When teachers are provided with structured guidelines for when to change their instructional programming, and given guidance for what those changes may look like, program modifications are more common and more meaningful, and improve academic achievement (Stecker, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005). ...
Educators use curriculum-based measurement of oral reading (CBM-R) to measure student response to instruction. Current decision-making frameworks assume students demonstrate linear growth across a school year. However, growth appears nonlinear for at least a subgroup of students. We assessed the degree to which grade two (n = 800) and grade three (n = 800) students receiving intensive interventions experienced discontinuous growth. We also explored when discontinuous growth tended to occur, and whether students improved or regressed afterward. Results indicate linear patterns were adequate for most students (80 percent). Students who showed discontinuous growth early tended to improve afterward. Conversely, students who showed discontinuous growth later tended to plateau. Findings suggest multilevel models may obscure variability in growth patterns. Practice and research implications are discussed. © 2016 The Division for Learning Disabilities of the Council for Exceptional Children.
... These results were compared to an effect size of 0.26 standard deviations for teachers in classrooms who used formative assessments, but did not systematically organize or act on the resulting data. In subsequent studies, Fuchs and Fuchs found that using a technologybased expert system to generate graphs of student progress and instructional recommendations enables students to improve more quickly and achieve higher outcomes than their peers in control conditions (Fuchs et al., 1994;Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989a, 1989b. In brief, progress monitoring used in conjunction with data-based decision making can produce gains in student achievement. ...
The present study examined the technical adequacy of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) measure of early numeracy for kindergarten through third grade students. Our CBM measures were developed to reflect broad and theoretically derived categories of mathematical thinking: quick retrieval, written computation, and number sense. The mastery of these three categories comprises the larger construct of numeracy proficiency for the early elementary grades. Approximately 300 students in each grade (Kindergarten to Grade 3) were administered a standardized measure, WJ-III, and the following timed measures: kindergarten—counting, missing number, number identification, quantity discrimination; Grade 1—counting, missing number, next number, number facts, number identification, quantity discrimination; Grades 2 and 3—computation, concepts, missing number, number facts, quantity discrimination. Alpha and test–retest reliabilities were assessed, and construct validity and criterion validity were examined for the CBM measures developed in the study. Overall, the results indicated that the measures were reliable and showed evidence to support both construct and concurrent validity. Methods to improve the measures are discussed.
... For students with and without disabilities at grade 6, ORF weekly growth rates are incremental with 0.3 considered a realistic growth rate and 0.65 considered ambitious. 39,40 At these growth rates, visual analysis becomes less reliable because single-case research design is intended to focus on interventions that produce large effects. 41 Additionally, the highly variable reading performance of adult learners may cause single-case researchers to make experimental decisions that lead to increased Type I error. ...
Objective:
Reread-Adapt and Answer-Comprehend (RAAC) + Goal Setting intervention is a reading intervention that addresses both oral reading fluency (ORF) and reading comprehension while supporting persistence and motivation for learners who struggle with reading.
Method:
We delivered the RAAC + Goal Setting intervention to five young adult learners with intellectual disabilities (ID) in a postsecondary education setting. In the study, we investigated the effects of the intervention on generalization of reading skills to novel passages.
Results:
Utilizing a response-guided and randomized multiple-baseline across the participants' design, we failed to reject the null hypothesis of no treatment effects based on the computed p-value. Traditional visual analysis of the data also reached a similar conclusion, however, we found that two participants' decoding skills improved during the intervention.
Conclusions:
We did not find a functional relation between the intervention and student reading performance.
... In addition, the current findings continue to support the intraindividual decision-making abilities of CBM oral reading fluency measures. As such, the use of CBM for developing and monitoring Individualized Education Plan (IEP) goals and objectives (Fuchs, 1993;Fuchs et al., 1993;Fuchs & Deno, 1991;Fuchs, Fuchs, & Deno, 1985), and the monitoring of individual progress over time (Fuchs, 1986(Fuchs, ,1989(Fuchs, , 1993Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986;Fuchs, Fuchs, & Hamlett, 1989a, 1989b, 1989c appears to be psychometrically defensible. Interestingly, the current study lends support to the notion that the difficulty level of the material chosen for progress monitoring can have a substantial effect on resultant CBM outcomes (Hintze et al., 1998). ...
The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the use of Generalizability (G) theory as an alternative method of validating direct behavioral measures. Reliability and validity from a classic test score theory are explored and rephrased in terms of G theory. Two studies that used oral reading fluency measures within a curriculum-based measurement (CBM) approach are examined with G theory. Results indicate that CBM oral reading fluency measures are highly dependable and can be reliably used to make both between individual (nomothetic) and within individual (idiographic) decisions.
... Although teachers did not always implement PALS in the manner in which it was intended, there was a relatively high degree of treatment integrity observed by the experimenters that in turn may have directly improved the math skills of the kindergarten students in the PALS classrooms. Fuchs, Fuchs, and Hamlett (1989) contrasted the academic outcomes of a conventional curriculum-based measurement process (CBM) in the area of math with a nontraditional CBM model. For the traditional CBM, or the static CBM model, the teachers measured student progress as it related to a fixed annual goal. ...
Despite decades of research efforts, data-based instruction (DBI) for students with intensive intervention needs are not being widely used in practice as anticipated, and many educators have difficulties in implementing it. This systematic review aimed to examine what kinds of implementation drivers and strategies have been used to support educators implementing DBI and what kinds of implementation outcomes researchers have measured. Eighteen studies were synthesized using the Implementation Drivers framework and Implementation Outcomes taxonomy and were quality appraised. We found that the majority of studies primarily used competency drivers to increase teachers’ DBI expertise, while a limited number of studies focused on organizational and leadership drivers. Acceptability and fidelity were frequently assessed as implementation outcomes. We discussed the implications of the findings, including the need for researchers to incorporate implementation drivers and outcomes at diverse levels to best support educators’ implementation of DBI, as well as the limitations of this review, such as the limited generalizability of the findings.
The purpose of this narrative synthesis of the curriculum-based measure (CBM) instructional utility literature is to deepen insight into the supports required to enrich teachers’ instructional decision-making within curriculum-based measure –data-based individualization (CBM-DBI) in ways that enhance the learning outcomes of students with intensive intervention needs, including students with learning disabilities. We begin by summarizing a recent meta-analysis of CBM-DBI studies focused on academic outcomes. We then reconsider studies from that meta-analysis to further explore the supports required to enrich teachers’ instructional decision-making within CBM-DBI and improve student learning. We next draw conclusions and propose a renewed program of instructional utility CBM-DBI research for capitalizing on technology’s potential to enhance productive instructional decision-making for students who require intensive intervention, fulfill DBI’s potential, and bring CBM-DBI to scale.
The purpose of this study was to examine the amount of attention devoted to data-based decision-making in Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) professional development materials. Sixty-nine CBM instructional sources were reviewed, including 45 presentations, 22 manuals, and two books. The content of the presentations and manuals/books was coded into one of four categories: (a) general CBM information, (b) conducting CBM, (c) data-based decision-making, and (d) other. Results revealed that only a small proportion of information in the CBM instructional materials was devoted to data-based decision-making (12% for presentations and 14% for manuals/books), and that this proportion was significantly smaller than (a) that devoted to other instructional topics, (b) that expected were information to be equally distributed across major instructional topics, and (c) that recommended by experienced CBM trainers. Results suggest a need for increased attention to data-based decision-making in CBM professional development.
This study assessed the efficiency of and teacher satisfaction with curriculum-based measurement (CBM) when student performance data are collected by teachers or by computers. Participants were 20 special education teachers, randomly assigned to teacher and computer administration groups. Each practitioner selected two mildly handicapped pupils for participation. For 15 weeks, teachers employed CBM in reading, spelling, and math, with data collected by teachers or by computers. Ten weeks into the study, teachers and students were observed during measurement and evaluation activities, and durations of time allocated to CBM procedures were recorded. Teacher satisfaction was indexed with a questionnaire at the study's completion. Observational data indicated that teachers spent less time in measurement and evaluation when data were collected by computers; further, satisfaction data revealed that computer-data-collection teachers were more satisfied with the procedures. However, students spent more time in measurement with computer data collection. Implications for special education practice are discussed.
This article focuses on Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) and the use of computer-managed CBM. CBM is defined as a type of curriculum-based assessment, and key distinguishing features between CBM and other forms of curriculum-based assessment are identified. Then, CBM procedures to enhance instructional decision making and student achievement are presented through a case study. Finally, the research on computer applications to CBM is reviewed, and salient findings are highlighted with implications for practice.
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) be developed utilizing a team-based model. This study examined how speech-language pathologists (SLPs) make service delivery decisions for students with language disorders. Four hundred thirty-nine SLPs participated in a national online survey regarding how they determined the place and intensity of services for students with language disorders. SLPs most often made service delivery decisions after receiving input from the team, but slightly more than one third made decisions independently. The school teaming model and SLP experiences during graduate school affected how SLPs made service delivery decisions. The results indicate that service delivery decisions in the schools are made primarily by the SLP with varying levels of input from others on the student’s IEP team. The need for changes in practice as well as preprofessional training and professional development to prepare practitioners for interprofessional practice is discussed.
Secondary students with persistent mathematics difficulties need the most intensive intervention in order to improve their mathematics outcomes. One approach to intensifying and individualizing intervention is through data‐based individualization (DBI). The present study used a single‐subject, multiple‐baseline‐across‐participants, replicated‐across‐skills design to investigate the effectiveness of DBI process on mathematics computation and mathematics concept and application performance of high school students who had intense needs in mathematics. Results suggest the interventions guided by the DBI process improved mathematics computation and mathematics concept and application performance of the participants. Implications of these findings and indications for future research are discussed.
The present study explored research trends regarding Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM), with the aim of recommending adoption of a standardized system of Curriculum-Based Measurement in Japan. In the United States, Curriculum-Based Measurement is a useful way to monitor the progress of students' learning in response to an intervention (RTI). For the present study, articles on Curriculum-Based Measurement were reviewed, and research trends extracted. The following themes in Curriculum-Based Measurement research were noted: (a) a theme relating to the technical adequacy of and utility of Curriculum-Based Measurement, and (b) a theme having to do with expansion and limitations of Curriculum-Based Measurement. Research has confirmed the validity and reliability of Curriculum-Based Measurement for reading, spelling, writing, and mathematics. The utility of Curriculum-Based Measurement was classified based on the following: (a) the best way to give feedback on results, (b) data evaluation decision rules, (c) comparative investigation of treatment in educational placement, and (d) Curriculum-Based Measurement in regular classrooms. Articles on the expansion of Curriculum-Based Measurement were classified based on Curriculum-Based Measurement as a new method for the identification of children who have learning disabilities and for monitoring class-wide progress. Limitations of Curriculum-Based Measurement are discussed in terms of difficulties in identifying skill contents, the sensitivity of Curriculum-Based Measurement, and cost. On the basis of the research trends identified, the significance of Curriculum-Based Measurement and some challenges facing the adoption of a standardized system of Curriculum-Based Measurement in Japan are discussed. In Japan, because students, including those with special educational needs such as learning disabilities, are included in regular classrooms, a new educational system such as response to intervention is needed. Taken together, the results of the present review and the Japanese situation suggest that Curriculum-Based Measurement is needed in Japan. A process of standardization should be adopted, and computer applications and consultation services developed.
Cambridge Core - Psychiatry - Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy - edited by Stephen Hupp
Purpose Progress monitoring is a process of gathering and interpreting data about a student's communication growth during intervention. The purpose of this article is to outline recommendations for clinicians to consider providing language progress monitoring for children with language impairment in kindergarten through 5th grade. Conclusion When developing and selecting progress monitoring tools, the extant research urges clinicians to incorporate a variety of measures beyond the standardized, norm-referenced tests of language. The infusion of a variety of quantitative and qualitative progress monitoring tools bolsters the fidelity and effectiveness of our efforts to gauge the progress of children's language change in the elementary grades.
We examined the mean effect of teachers’ use of data‐based individualization (DBI) on the performance of students with intensive learning needs across academic areas and factors influencing the effects of DBI on student achievement. A total of 57 effect sizes from 14 studies were categorized into two comparisons: DBI Only (comparisons between DBI and a business‐as‐usual control) and DBI Plus (comparisons in which DBI implementers had access to additional information on student performance while they implemented DBI, compared to a control). The mean effect of DBI Only on student performance was g = 0.37; the mean effect of DBI Plus was g = 0.38. Differential effects of DBI were found depending on the nature of CBM tasks, frequency of CBM administration, and type and frequency of supports provided to teachers. Findings support the use of DBI to enhance student outcomes across academic areas.
This chapter discusses mathematics assessment of students with disabilities: summative, formative, and diagnostic assessments, and how and when these assessment types are appropriate for school-age students with disabilities from pre-kindergarten through high school. The chapter also presents a case study, which utilizes all three types of mathematics assessment. Educators use summative assessments to “sum-up” a child's mathematics performance. Often, educators describe summative assessments as assessment of learning, whereas educators describe formative assessments as assessments for learning. Formative assessment is important for all students, but it is particularly critical for at-risk learners, including students with disabilities. It is a particularly critical element of special education, because it encompasses progress monitoring. Educators can use diagnostic assessments to determine areas of mathematical strength and areas that require additional mathematics instruction. Diagnostic assessments are often administered individually, and the assessment includes a variety of mathematics items from a variety of mathematics domains.
We developed a teacher Professional Development (PD) program targeting Dutch second and third grade teachers (student age: 7 to 9 years old), aiming to improve the early reading performance of students following recent concerns in this domain (e.g., Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap [Ministry of Education], 2009, 2010) and in acknowledgement of the widely established importance of early acquired literacy skills (Bodovski & Youn, 2011; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998).
The relation between teacher-set performance goals for 361 individual students and these students’ mathematics achievement was investigated. High performance goals were found to strongly relate to student performance, with an effect size of d = 0.80. The performance goals were set by the teachers at the end of a step-by-step procedure, consisting of initial teacher expectations, the use of data, and team input. This procedure was expected to decrease negative expectancy bias. Higher teacher performance goals than teachers’ initial expectations, so-called positive changes, were positively associated with the performance of initially low achievers. Initially high achievers, for whom the teachers made a positive change, performed worse than comparable students for whom initial expectation and final goal were the same.
The purpose of this study was to assess the contribution of ongoing skills analysis to Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM). Thirty special educators were assigned randomly to treatment groups, including a control condition and different levels of CBM analysis, one of which included graphed performance indicators with skills analysis; one, graphed performance indicators only; and another, graphed performance indicators with ordered lists of student spellings. Teachers who used skills analysis effected, better achievement than controls and than CBM teachers who had no additional analysis. Although the mean achievement of students whose teachers had skills analysis was greater than that of teachers who inspected ordered lists of errors, the difference in achievement was not reliable, and the teachers who inspected errors effected greater growth than controls. Implications for CBM practice are discussed.
This study assessed the effects of expert system instructional consultation within curriculum-based measurement (CBM). Thirty-three special educators and 63 students with mild to moderate disabilities were assigned randomly to three groups: CBM with expert system instructional consultation (CBM-ES). CBM with no consultation (CBM-NES), and control (i.e., no CBM). CBM teachers implemented a CBM system for 17 weeks. Analyses indicated that students in both CBM groups achieved better than the control group on several key reading outcome measures, assessing fluency and comprehension. However, the CBM-ES teachers planned more diverse instructional programs than did the CBM-NES teachers, and their students achieved better than the CBM-NES and control students on an outcome measure requiring written recalls.
Because learning is one of the major goals of education, we frequently find measures of amount learned, or achievement, used in educational research. (Borg & Gall, 1989). When research addresses the problems of individuals with learning disabilities, for whom poor achievement in relation to intellectual potential represents the key identifying variable, we certainly expect to find research focusing on achievement and investigating ways to effect better achievement outcomes. In fact, among primary, data-based studies published over the past 3 to 5 years in three major research journals dedicated to learning disabilities, that is, Learning Disabilities: Research and Practice (formerly Learning Disabilities Research), Learning Disability Quarterly, and the Journal of Learning Disabilities, approximately 60% (as an average across the three journals) incorporated academic achievement among the variables investigated (this does not include studies that used academic measures only for demographics). Approximately 25% of the primary, data-based studies investigated strategies to effect better academic growth.
Selecting student performance aims (proficiency levels stated in terms of rate of correct and incorrect responding) is an integral feature of the precision teaching and learning process. Descriptive and developmental research on appropriate aims is summarized, and methods for determining appropriate aims for students are described. (JDD)
Assessment has been defined broadly as the process of collecting information (Salvia & Ysseldyke, 1988). In the educational delivery system, assessment information can be used for three related, but somewhat different, purposes: (a) referral and screening, (b) diagnosis and placement, and (c) instructional planning and evaluation of student progress. This chapter examines assessment methods and procedures as regards the three purposes stated above. First, assessment from a referral and screening standpoint is discussed. Assessment from a diagnostic/placement concern follows. Once an individual is diagnosed as learning disabled and placed in the continuum of special education services, instructional and behavioral programming needs have to be determined. Assessment from this perspective, both in terms of instructional and behavioral deficits, is also addressed.
This study contrasts the validity of 2 early reading curriculum-based measurement (CBM) measures: word identification fluency and nonsense word fluency. At-risk children (n = 151) were assessed (a) on criterion reading measures in the fall and spring of first grade and (b) on the 2 CBM measures each week for 7 weeks and twice weekly for an additional 13 weeks. Concurrent and predictive validity for CBM performance level and predictive validity for CBM slopes demonstrated the superiority of word identification fluency over nonsense word fluency. Findings are discussed in terms of the measures' utility for identifying children in need of intensive instruction and for monitoring children's progress through first grade.
This study investigated the validity of three curriculum-based measures for predicting the performance of secondary students on content-area tasks. It was hypothesized that oral reading, maze, and vocabulary measures would predict students' performance on comprehension, acquisition, and retention of content-area material. Participants were 184 urban middle school students, including 13 with mild disabilities. Reliable correlations were found between each of the three general outcome measures and performance on the content tasks. Results of regression analyses supported the vocabulary measure as the most efficient and effective measure for predicting student performance on the three content-area tasks.
Four simple line-fitting procedures are presented for practitioners to quickly summarize student time series performance data. Two are in common use — Koenig's “quarter-intersect” and White's “split-middle” adjustment, while two — Tukey I and Tukey II — are less known. Each of the four can be performed on a medium-size classroom dataset in less than 3 minutes. The four procedures were assayed against three criteria: (a) matching line slopes to an ordinary least squares (OLS) standard; (b) “best fit” to the data (minimizing residuals); and (c) prediction of a future reading score at Week 16. Weekly oral reading fluency data were collected on 45 Grade 4 and 5 students with reading disabilities, over a period of 12 weeks. Tukey I and II techniques generally outperformed the Koenig and White line-fitting methods, especially White's “split-middle” adjustment. Performance differences were generally large enough to be educationally meaningful. Given the small database supporting the popular White and Koenig procedures, the authors recommend that practitioners cautiously try out Tukey I and II procedures, comparing results with Koenig's and White's procedures. Of course, further psychometric studies of all four procedures are needed also. The authors discuss three notable study limitations: limited generalizability, use of the future score prediction criterion, and no instructional use of the best-fit lines.
This chapter provides an overview of definitions, assessment procedures, and instructional treatments for children with learning disabilities. A focus is placed on assessment issues related to reading and math disabilities. Also reviewed are potential causes of learning disabilities, as well as some of the controversies (e.g., role of IQ testing, discrepancy models, RTI) related to assessment practices. An operational definition of LD is discussed that focuses on using cutoff scores from standardized measures related to IQ and specific academic domains (e.g., reading, math).
Based on a decade of research, oral reading fluency has been identified as the standard task for monitoring reading progress within Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM). Although a technically sound and useful measure for monitoring growth, collecting reading fluency on a routine basis can be time-consuming for teachers. Moreover, its acceptability as an index of comprehension has been questioned. Consequently, we have conducted a research program investigating alternative reading monitoring measures. The measures share two features: They are suitable for automatic data collection and scoring using computers, and they appear acceptable as measures of reading comprehension. In this research program, the criterion validity of four reading measures was assessed. Based on results, a subset of measures was identified and their usefulness and technical features were studied as ongoing measures of reading progress over a series of years. In this article, this research program is summarized and recommendations are offered for alternative CBM reading monitoring systems and future investigation.
The purpose of this article is to illustrate how one well-developed, technically strong measurement system, curriculum-based measurement (CBM), can be used to establish academic growth standards for students with learning disabilities in the area of reading. An introduction to CBM and to the basic concepts underlying the use of CBM in establishing growth standards is provided. Using an existing database accumulated over various localities under typical instructional conditions, the use of CBM to provide growth standards is illustrated. Next, normative growth rates under typical instructional conditions are contrasted with CBM growth rates derived from studies of effective practices. Finally, based on these two data sets, issues and conclusions about appropriate methods for establishing academic growth rates using CBM are discussed.
The combined repeated reading and question generation procedure is a reading intervention designed to target both fluency and comprehension for students with disabilities. Previous research has demonstrated the effectiveness of the intervention for school age children with learning disabilities. This study extended the research by utilizing the program with three postsecondary learners with severe learning disability and mild mental retardation. In the context of a multiple baseline across participants design, the results indicate that the program may be an effective intervention to improve fluency and comprehension for young adults with cognitive disabilities.
In this paper, we investigated whether student reading comprehension could be improved with help of a teacher Professional Development (PD) program targeting goals, data use, and instruction. The effect of this PD program on 2nd- and 3rd-grade student achievement was examined using a pretest-posttest control group design. Applying propensity score matching, 35 groups in the experimental condition were matched to 35 control groups. Students in the experimental condition (n = 420) scored significantly higher on a standardized assessment than the control condition (n = 399), the effect size being d = .37. No differential effects of the PD program were found in relation to initial reading performance or grade. Different model specifications yielded similar albeit smaller effect sizes (d = .29 and d = .30). At the end of the program, students in the experimental condition were more than half a year ahead of students in the control condition.
The purpose of this study was to compare two types of teacher feedback, using an ongoing measurement system that involved students’ performance on a reading recall task. Twenty-two teachers were assigned randomly to two treatment groups. In the performance indicator feedback group, teachers received graphs that displayed students’ total number of content words retold over time; in the performance indicator with qualitative feedback group, teachers received graphs along with a structured analysis of the story components students included in their recalls. Teachers used the monitoring systems for 15 weeks, with 41 students with reading problems. Multivariate analyses of covariance indicated that teachers in the performance indicator with qualitative feedback group wrote more specific instructional plans and effected better growth with their pupils. Achievement differences were larger as the outcome measures related more directly to the recall task embedded within the ongoing measurement system. Implications for assessment, instructional planning, and research design are discussed.
Presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from 4 principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Factors influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arise from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. (21/2 p ref)
Results from a review of laboratory and field studies on the effects of goal setting on performance show that in 90% of the studies, specific and challenging goals led to higher performance than easy goals, "do your best" goals, or no goals. Goals affect performance by directing attention, mobilizing effort, increasing persistence, and motivating strategy development. Goal setting is most likely to improve task performance when the goals are specific and sufficiently challenging, Ss have sufficient ability (and ability differences are controlled), feedback is provided to show progress in relation to the goal, rewards such as money are given for goal attainment, the experimenter or manager is supportive, and assigned goals are accepted by the individual. No reliable individual differences have emerged in goal-setting studies, probably because the goals were typically assigned rather than self-set. Need for achievement and self-esteem may be the most promising individual difference variables. (3½ p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Developed an instrument to measure teacher efficacy and examined the relationship between teacher efficacy and observable teacher behaviors. Factor analysis of responses from 208 elementary school teachers to a 30-item Teacher Efficacy Scale yielded 2 substantial factors that corresponded to A. Bandura's (see record
1977-25733-001) 2-factor theoretical model of self-efficacy. A multitrait–multimethod analysis that supported both convergent and discriminant validity analyzed data from 55 teachers on 3 traits (teacher efficacy, verbal ability, and flexibility) across 2 methods of measurement. Finally, classroom observations related to academic focus and teacher feedback behaviors indicated differences between 8 high- and low-efficacy teachers in time spent in whole class and small group instruction, teacher use of criticism, and teacher persistence in failure situations. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Addresses the centrality of the self-efficacy mechanism (SEM) in human agency. SEM precepts influence thought patterns, actions, and emotional arousal. In causal tests, the higher the level of induced self-efficacy, the higher the performance accomplishments and the lower the emotional arousal. The different lines of research reviewed show that the SEM may have wide explanatory power. Perceived self-efficacy helps to account for such diverse phenomena as changes in coping behavior produced by different modes of influence, level of physiological stress reactions, self-regulation of refractory behavior, resignation and despondency to failure experiences, self-debilitating effects of proxy control and illusory inefficaciousness, achievement strivings, growth of intrinsic interest, and career pursuits. The influential role of perceived collective efficacy in social change and the social conditions conducive to development of collective inefficacy are analyzed. (21/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved). © 1982 American Psychological Association.
Curriculum-based assessment (CBA) is a new term for a teaching practice that is as old as education itself: using the material to be learned as the basis for assessing the degree to which it has been learned. In this article, the concept of curriculum-based assessment is introduced, and the stage is set for the articles which follow to present the details of its theory and practice. Curriculum-based assessment is compared to traditional forms of assessment, and the practical application of CBA to special education is briefly discussed.
This study assessed the efficiency of and teacher satisfaction with curriculum-based measurement (CBM) when student performance data are collected by teachers or by computers. Participants were 20 special education teachers, randomly assigned to teacher and computer administration groups. Each practitioner selected two mildly handicapped pupils for participation. For 15 weeks, teachers employed CBM in reading, spelling, and math, with data collected by teachers or by computers. Ten weeks into the study, teachers and students were observed during measurement and evaluation activities, and durations of time allocated to CBM procedures were recorded. Teacher satisfaction was indexed with a questionnaire at the study's completion. Observational data indicated that teachers spent less time in measurement and evaluation when data were collected by computers; further, satisfaction data revealed that computer-data-collection teachers were more satisfied with the procedures. However, students spent more time in measurement with computer data collection. Implications for special education practice are discussed.
Several recent reviews and meta-analyses have claimed extraordinarily positive effects of mastery learning on student achievement, and Bloom (1984a, 1984b) has hypothesized that mastery-based treatments will soon be able to produce “2-sigma” (i.e., 2 standard deviation) increases in achievement. This article examines the literature on achievement effects of practical applications of group-based mastery learning in elementary and secondary schools over periods of at least 4 weeks, using a review technique, “best-evidence synthesis,” which combines features of meta-analytic and traditional narrative reviews. The review found essentially no evidence to support the effectiveness of group-based mastery learning on standardized achievement measures. On experimenter-made measures, effects were generally positive but moderate in magnitude, with little evidence that effects maintained over time. These results are discussed in light of the coverage versus mastery dilemma posed by group-based mastery learning.
The purpose of this paper is to review research on the use of formative evaluation with mildly handicapped pupils. First, the importance of formative evaluation to special education is described. Then, four critical issues in formative evaluation methodology are discussed: focus of measurement, frequency of measurement, data display, and data-utilization methods. Finally, a proposal for additional related research is advanced.
This study examined the educational effects of repeated curriculum-based measurement and evaluation. Thirty-nine special educators, each having three to four pupils in the study, were assigned randomly to a repeated curriculum-based measurement/evaluation (experimental) treatment or a conventional special education evaluation (contrast) treatment. Over the 18-week implementation, pedagogical decisions were surveyed twice; instructional structure was observed and measured three times; students' knowledge about their learning was assessed during a final interview; reading achievement was tested before and after treatment. Analyses of covariance revealed that experimental teachers effected greater student achievement. Additional analyses indicated that (a) experimental teachers' decisions reflected greater realism about and responsiveness to student progress, (b) their instructional structure demonstrated greater increases, and (c) their students were more aware of goals and progress.
Teacher-student interaction patterns in 12 third-grade mainstreamed classrooms were observed with four groups of students: (1) nonhandicapped high achievers, (2) nonhandicapped low achievers, (3) learning disabled, and (4) behaviorally handicapped. Teacher-student interaction was defined using 16 dependent measures derived from the Brophy-Good Teacher-Child Dyadic Interaction System. Multivariate and Univariate Analysis of Variance procedures demonstrated that statistically the groups were significantly different on 8 of the 16 dependent measures. Although the behaviorally handicapped students were treated differently by their regular classroom teachers more frequently than students in the other three groups, no group was given consistent preferential treatment. Most student initiations were nonacademic, and almost one-half of teachers' feedback and initiations were nonacademic. Furthermore, teachers used more disapproving than positive feedback. The results indicate a need for teachers in mainstreamed classrooms to devote more time to academic tasks and to use better classroom management techniques.
The present investigation was designed to document the nature of programs provided to learning disabled students and to determine the educational bases for these programs. A national sample of 128 teachers of learning disabled (LD) students completed a survey about the program of one of their students. Responses varied widely in terms of the amount of time service was provided; the academic areas covered; the materials, methods, motivational strategies, and evaluation procedures used; and the major influences on decisions reported by teachers. There was no consensus among those who actually teach LD students as to an instructional approach or group of approaches most useful in instruction. Teachers, however, reported satisfaction with their programs and the progress of the student. Educational researchers should recognize this satisfaction and attend to what teachers perceive to be effective practice when asking them to alter instructional approaches. (Author/DB)
Identifies problems associated with the school psychologist's traditional assessment functions and methodology. Foremost among these problems is the fact that the effectiveness of school psychologists' assessments and interventions is often unclear. This problem is contrasted with the need for assessment information that can contribute meaningfully to the formulation and evaluation of educational interventions. It is suggested that designers of individual student program modifications must provide data to document the effectiveness of those modifications. Several assessment procedures are compared including group vs single S measurement, the diagnostic-prescriptive vs formative approach, and pre–post vs repeated testing methodology. Curriculum-based formative evaluation (CBFE) is presented as an alternative methodology that can enhance the school psychologist's importance and effectiveness in the intervention process. Benefits of CBFE include documentation of intervention effectiveness, formation of an empirical basis of comparison, and increased teacher cooperation. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Despite general agreement that we should routinely assess the student performance outcomes of instruction, general agreement regarding how this should be done does not exist. Commercially distributed achievement tests are not always congruent with curriculum objectives and teachers tend not to value the information obtained from them. Informal observation of performance is the approach used and preferred by teachers. Unfortunately, the reliability and validity of teachers' informal observation of student academic performance is unknown. An emerging alternative to commercial standardized tests and to informal observations is curriculum-based measurement (CBM) that combines the advantages of both. Through standardizing observation of performance in the curriculum, CBM generates reliable data that is valid with respect to widely used indicators of achievement such as achievement test scores, age, program placement, and teachers' judgments of competence. These data are now being used to make screening, referral, IEP planning, pupil progress, and program outcome decisions. This article provides background on and illustrations of the use of CBM in special education.
The purpose of this study was to explore how student achievement relates to ambitiousness of goal setting and to goal mastery. The subjects were 58 special education students for whom teachers assessed baseline performance and set reading goals employing a standard format. On the basis of the relation between baseline and the anticipated goal performance, students were assigned to goal ambitiousness groups. For 18 weeks, teachers implemented students' goals, end-of-treatment goal mastery was determined, and pretest and posttest achievement scores were entered into multivariate and univariate analyses of covariance, with pretest reading scores as the covariate. Analyses revealed that ambitiousness of goals was associated positively with achievement; goal mastery was not. Implications for goal setting and IEP evaluation procedures are discussed.
Stanford achievement test
- E F Gardner
- H C Rudman
- B Karlsen
- J C Merwin
The forgotten learner
- E E Gickling
Instructional planning with curriculum-based measurement. Unpublished manuscript
- L S Fuchs
Monitoring the performance of mildy handicapped students: Review of current practice and research
- L S Fuchs
Use of goals with handicapped learners
- L S Fuchs
Improving data-based instruction through computer technology: Contimuation application
- L S Fuchs
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Institute for Research on Learning Disabilities
- L S Fuchs
- D Fuchs
- L M Warren