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Health Promotion Perspectives, 2016, 6(2), 92-95
doi: 10.15171/hpp.2016.16
http://journals.tbzmed.ac.ir/HPP
Media coverage of the Ebola virus disease in four widely
circulated Nigerian newspapers: lessons from Nigeria
Sam Smith1, Stella Smith2*
1Mass Communication Department, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu, Nigeria
2Emergency Preparedness and Response Research Group, Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Lagos, Nigeria
© 2016 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited.
TU MS
Publishing
Group
Abstract
Background: The importance of the media in the coverage of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in Nigeria
and its implications (negative or positive) amongst the populace cannot be overemphasized.
This study was conducted to assess the role of media in the Ebola reportage and its implication
in creating awareness and stopping the spread amongst the populace.
Methods: The nature and extent of media coverage about Ebola in four major national newspapers
were examined. The four major national newspapers were The Sun, The Vanguard, The Nation
and The Punch newspapers. The period of study ranged from 20 July (when the index case came
to Nigeria) to 20 October 2014. Analysis of the newspaper article was according to content.
Results: A total of 1625 articles were published between July 2014 to October 2014 and these
were divided into news (1127; 69.4%), features (267; 16.4%), opinion (76; 4.7%), editorials
(149; 9.2%) and interviews (6; 0.4%). The most common topic was Ebola cases in Nigeria
(17.5%) followed by discrimination due to Ebola (10.8%) and least of all the use of salt and or
Kola for the cure of Ebola (5.2%).
Conclusion: Although the World Health Organization (WHO) declared Nigeria Ebola free
on the 20th October 2014, continual reportage of the Ebola disease for effective awareness,
prevention and control of the virus is recommended.
Article History:
Received: 14 Apr. 2016
Accepted: 2 May 2016
ePublished: 11 June 2016
Keywords:
Ebola, Epidemic, Nigerian
newspapers, Media
*Corresponding Author:
Smith Stella, PhD;
Tell: +234 803 70 58 989;
Email:
stellaismith@yahoo.com
ARTICLE INFO
Citation: Smith S, Smith S. Media coverage of the Ebola virus disease in four widely circulated Nigerian newspapers: lessons from Nigeria.
Health Promot Perspect. 2016;6(2):92-95. doi: 10.15171/hpp.2016.16.
Original Article
Introduction
Although the first reported case of Ebola was in 1976, very
little information was passed concerning the outbreak that
killed a total of 434 people in Zaire and Sudan.1 By 1979
there were three outbreaks of Ebola occurring as a result
of two different strains E. Sudan and E. Zaire. Fifteen years
after the E. Reston strain was discovered in monkeys but
there was no sign of disease in humans.1
The most protracted and complicated epidemic of Eb-
ola virus disease (EVD) to date and the first in Western
Africa started with 49 cases in Guinea on March 2014 and
this majorly and rapidly spread to two other west African
countries such as Sierra Leone and Liberia with a total of
28 601 and 11 300 deaths in these three countries alone
and accounting for 99.87% of all cases and deaths world-
wide as at 30 December 2015.2
In Nigeria, the first known case of Ebola came from a
Liberian traveler who was already exposed in Liberia
while under observation for possible Ebola in Monrovia
before coming to Nigeria against medical advice. He ar-
rived Nigeria on the 20th July 2014 acutely ill with symp-
toms of Ebola but was treated for malaria and when not
responsive his blood specimen was taken to LUTH where
it was confirmed positive for Ebola and by 25th July he
was dead. This triggered a series of events that led to the
death of 8 people and 20 cases.
The symptoms of the disease include fever (greater than
38.6°C), severe headache, muscle pain, weakness, di-
arrhoea, vomiting, abdominal pain, lack of appetite,
non-pruritic maculopapular rash. Conjunctival infection
and dark red discoloration of the soft palate, hiccups,
cough, sore throat, chest pain, difficulty in breathing, dif-
ficulty swallowing, progressive worsening of prostration,
stupor, hypotension, impaired kidney and liver infection
and external haemorrhages.
Media and Ebola
According to McQuail3 when looking at influence of mass
media ones focus should rather be on comparing media
reality and social reality in certain situations since the di-
atribe of influences stream from source of media content,
consumers of media contents to shape of media contents.4
For example according to Sampei and Aoyagi-Usui5 in-
creased awareness and concern of climate change amongst
H
P
P
Smith and Smith
Health Promot Perspect, 2016, Volume 6, Issue 2 93
the populace was as result of increased media coverage of
global warming from January 1998 to July 2007.
A sample of the four major newspapers sampled showed
that the stories on Ebola ranged from current information
as it pertains to Nigeria with follow up on the occurrences
in West Africa as well as outside Africa made the rounds
in the stories reported. A new dimension to the Ebola sto-
ry came from the belief by people that were told to bathe
at a certain time with lots of salt as well as drink warm
salt so as to prevent Ebola infection also was reported in
the newspapers i.e. 8th and 14th August 2014 in Vanguard
which started from a rumour spread on the first week of
August. This left two people dead and 20 people hospital-
ized. It is interesting to note that as at the time that two
people died from this salt intake, the death rate due to
Ebola virus was also two.6 The intervention of the govern-
ment as well as media helped in curbing the spread of this
false rumour.
The early reports on Ebola were on closure of schools and
late resumption of schools due to the Ebola outbreak na-
tionwide until some necessary measures were put in place
to adequately ensure that the outbreak does not spread in
schools.
The aim of the study was to assess the role of media in the
Ebola reportage and its implication in creating awareness
and stopping the spread amongst the populace.
Materials and Methods
Between 20 July 2014 (when the first index case came to
Nigeria) and October 2014 (when the World Health Or-
ganization [WHO] declared Nigeria Ebola free), articles
about Ebola were identified in The Punch, The Nation, The
Sun and The Vanguard newspapers of Nigeria. These four
newspapers are amongst the leading newspapers in Nige-
ria. Articles that had the word Ebola using some content
analysis for ease of analysis was done manually by a single
coder with experience in media analysis. In other words,
we gave the single coder the different contents to look out
for in the Ebola articles and all newspapers were checked
physically for these contents as it was difficult to get all the
information on the local newspapers on the Internet.
All topics having Ebola or related to Ebola (such as salt in-
take to help prevent Ebola virus) were also included in the
topics. Recorded contents involved news items (wheth-
er as breaking or not), editorials, features, opinion and
interviews.
Table 1 shows a summary of the newspaper publications
on Ebola while the specific content areas are listed in
Table 2.
Results
A total of 1625 articles were published between July 2014
and October 2014 on Ebola outbreak until WHO declared
Nigeria Ebola free on the 20th of October 2014. News
reportage was the most common (69.4%), followed by
features (16.4%), then editorials (9.2%), opinion (4.7%)
and least of all interviews (0.4%) (Table 1). The content
analysis showed that cases in Nigeria (for those who have
contacted Ebola or those being treated in Nigeria) re-
portage was (17.5%), followed by discrimination against
those having EVD (10.8%). The least reported case was
the salt/kolanut intake to prevent EVD (5.2%) (Table 2).
Other areas that were equally reported were risk of treat-
ing patients (10.2%) and preparedness (10.2%). Precau-
tions the public can take (9.9%) as well as measures to
reduce transmission in terms of quarantine also featured
amongst the reports (9.4%). Federal Government closure
of schools due to EVD was also prominent amongst the
report (9%) (Table 2).
Table 1. Summary of newspaper publications of Ebola in Nigeria (n=1625)
Newspaper News Feature Opinion Editorial Interviews
The Sun 207 58 3 32 2
The Vanguard 278 129 30 28 2
The Nation 497 64 11 42 1
The Punch 145 16 32 47 1
Total 1127 (69.4%) 267 (16.4%) 76 (4.7%) 149 (9.2%) 6 (0.4%)
Table 2. Content of the 1625 articles from the four widely read newspapers (July-October 2014)
n (%)
Cases in Nigeria (Those who have contacted EVD in Nigeria or those being treated) 285 (17.5)
Reported cases of Federal Government Closure of schools due to Ebola 146 (9.0)
Report cases of salt/kolanut intake to prevent EVD (panic, fear, anxiety) 84 (5.2)a
Death rates 107 (6.6)
Preparedness (how prepared were Nigerians in combating EVD) 166 (10.2)
Risk of treating patients 168 (10.3)
Funding/cost of fighting Ebola 86 (5.3)
Precautions the public can take 160 (9.9)
Helpers/volunteers 95 (5.9)
Discrimination(those facing discrimination because of having EVD) 176 (10.8)
Ethics (measures to reduce EVD transmission e.g. quarantine) 152 (9.4)
Abbreviations: EVD, Ebola virus disease.
a
Two deaths were reported from using salt to prevent EVD.
Smith and Smith
Health Promot Perspect, 2016, Volume 6, Issue 2
94
Discussion
The media plays a critical role in information dissem-
ination particularly in cases of infectious disease agents
occurring at epidemic proportions.7,8 The Nigerian media
has been lauded in its media coverage of EVD for play-
ing a role in checking its spread by informing the pub-
lic.9 Although the same study suggested that the media
should step up their role in interpretative and investiga-
tive reportage of disease outbreaks. In addition the stud-
ies by Nwanne7 and Belo-Osagie9 have also commended
the Federal Government for taking pro-active measures
against the EVD.
From our study, generally the newspapers published
mainly news stories followed by feature articles. In terms
of content reporting, the reportage from newspapers on
those who had contacted Ebola was the highest (17.5%),
while intervention by the Federal Government in the clo-
sure of schools due to EVD so as to prevent further spread
of EVD amongst children was also reported; the least re-
ported content was the issue of funding. This is mainly
because most of the government reports were on strate-
gies to improve capacity for planning, prevention and re-
sponse to EBV or similar crises such as those that came
up after EVD in Nigeria e.g. Lassa fever. The funding that
was reported were mainly those for combating the EVD
scourge in Nigeria as well as those for conducting clinical
trials with the aim of finding treatment against EVD and
the latter study was to be conducted outside Nigeria since
the EVD was quickly contained in Nigeria while other
countries such as Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone were
facing the epidemic in proportions then.
A study by Basch et al10 on Ebola coverage of the EVD
in three widely circulated newspapers in the United States
showed that large emphasis was placed on death tolls and
cases in the United States while admitting also that more
should be done to educate readers on the epidemic and its
transmission.
Of interest was the fact that some people in both rural and
urban areas resulted to using salt in combating EVD and
this shows the extent information on EVD had reached
rural areas in Nigeria and also the fact that even some of
the reports carried the fact that the elderly people from
the rural areas called on their children to inform them of
the ‘salt bath’ as a means to prevent EVD. This is also part
of the confusion and anxiety that resulted from EVD re-
porting. This on its own resulted in two deaths and 5.2%
of the reports on EVD carried this trend. This report was
eventually found out to be a tasteless joke which spread.6
Those who were willing to volunteer to help fight EVD
both in Nigeria and outside were also reported but in a
smaller proportion (5.9%).
A report by Belo-Osagie9 indicted the media in that prior
to the EVD in Nigeria, 0.1% of the Nigerian newspapers
were devoted to the reportage of the disease and adjudged
that it might have been the reason for haphazard response
of approach the government and entire populace reacted
to it.
A study by Obukoadara and Abuah11 on the role and effi-
ciency of the media in performing her surveillance func-
tion within the context of EVD came under scrutiny. The
authors concluded that the respondents agreed that the
media performed her surveillance function in helping to
mitigate the EVD scourge but noted however that the ra-
dio and TV messages were stronger compared to social,
print media etc.
In the month of October, the number of newspaper publi-
cations on Ebola reduced drastically, this was probably be-
cause there were no more new cases of Ebola outbreak in
Nigeria. The month of August recorded the highest num-
ber of EVD reportage than other months, while Belo-Osa-
gie9 corroborated this report when 50% of the 6-month
reportage on EVD was in August alone with two percent
reportage occurring in July the month the index case was
reported.
From October 2014 when Nigeria was declared Ebola
free till January 2016, there has been a total of 32 news re-
portage on Ebola (mainly November to December 2014)
amongst the newspapers studied, with two occurring in
January 2016 from The Vanguard, while The Sun news-
paper reported two in January 2016 with one out of the
two being an editorial. The current report of January 2016
was on the declaration of the world as Ebola free which
was declared by WHO on 14th January and reported
14th and 15th respectively in The Vanguard and The Sun
newspapers.
In a previous report by Belo-Osagie,9 11% of the news-
papers under study were on front and back pages and at-
tributed the low prominence to the fact that other issues
were contending for more attention such as insecurity and
politics. Our study however did not consider this but can
corroborate this view of Belo-Osagie9 with the low edito-
rials recorded during the Ebola crisis in Nigeria (9.2%).
Phua,12 attributed the recent outbreaks of EVD in West
Africa particularly, Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia to be
due to widespread ignorance by lay persons on its cause,
transmission and protective measures. The study also fur-
ther goes to state that consumption of ‘bush meat’, lack of
trust for health authorities and its inadequacy as well as
traditional funeral practise and inter-border trading may
have facilitated the spread.
Although our study compared to the study by Belo-Osagie9
looked at greater number of articles it is limited by the
limited time frame reviewed as well as the fact that four
newspapers were reviewed just like those of Belo-Osagie.9
Further limitation in this study could be due to the fact
that only a single coder with experience in media analysis
completed the content analysis and so the possibility of
human error could arise as one has to check each content
manually from the newspapers and for each day the article
on Ebola appears.
In conclusion, the media played a great role in curbing the
spread of the EVD but the media need to do continuous
and investigative reportage of disease outbreaks so as to
help inform, educate and prepare the populate about in-
fectious diseases and emerging urgent public health issues
such as those of Lassa fever that plagued the country much
of last year into early this year. There should be more in-
terviews of people knowledgeable in the area of infectious
diseases so as to better educate the general public about
infectious diseases and emerging urgent health issues.
Smith and Smith
Health Promot Perspect, 2016, Volume 6, Issue 2 95
Ethical approval
The study was deemed not human subjects research as only
articles in the newspapers were analyzed and so approval was
not required by the Institutional Review Board.
Competing interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests.
Authors contributions
S Sam contributed the newspaper articles that were used in
the analysis of the work while S Sam and S Stella drafted and
approved the final draft of the article.
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