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Wine in Anatolia
ALEXIA SMITH
The quest for the earliest evidence of viniculture has led
many scholars to Transcaucasia and Anatolia, the latter
of which spans the Asian portion of modern-day
Turkey and derives its name from the Greek for “Land
of the Rising Sun”. It is not known precisely when
viniculture (the cultivation of grapes for wine) or
viticulture (cultivation of the vine) was first practiced,
but both were well established in Southwest Asia by the
beginning of the third millennium BCE Several lines of
evidence have provided insight into early wine
production, including textual accounts, archaeological
data such as drinking vessels, chemical analyses of
residues within vessels, and ancient plant (archae-
obotanical) data, as well as modern biogeographical
observations.
The modern distribution of wild grapes is useful for
demarcating the area within which grape domestication
could have occurred in the past. Today, wild grape
(Vitis vinifera L. subsp. sylvestris [C.C. Gmelin]
Berger), is found as a forest climber along the coastal
regions of central and southern Europe, areas surround-
ing the Black Sea, and the southern reaches of the
Caspian Sea, with isolated patches growing in
Turkmenistan and Tadzhikistan. Anatolia clearly falls
within this natural range.
Archaeobotanical remains provide more detailed
information. (See Agriculture: Ancient Methods of
Agriculture by Alexia Smith in this volume for a more
detailed description of archaeobotanical remains and
their recovery.) In general, wild berries are smaller and
more acidic than their domesticated counterparts.
While entire grape berries can be found, archaeobota-
nists most typically encounter charred pips which tend
to become shorter and rounder following domestica-
tion. In practice, however, distinguishing between wild
and domesticated grape pips is challenging, since
considerable overlap in their shape and size exists.
Consequently, determining the precise point in time
when grapes became domesticated is difficult. What is
clear from the archaeobotanical record is that wild
grapes have been collected for millennia to be eaten
fresh or dried. Fermentation of the grapes into wine
requires fruit with a minimum sugar content of 10%
and the presence of the principal wine yeast, Saccha-
romyces cerevisiae, which naturally occurs on grape
skins. Experiments with wine making may have taken
place as early as the Neolithic period (ca. 10,500–5500
BCE), well before viticulture developed as a
specialized venture. Some of the earliest grape finds
come from öküzini Cave in southwest Anatolia, and
date to the Late Palaeolithic (16,000–10,500 BCE).
Grapes also appear consistently during the Neolithic
and Chalcolithic (5500–3000 BCE) periods at sites
such as Can Hasan III, Çayönü, and Korucutepe. From
the Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3000–
2000 BCE), a rapid increase in the presence of grapes at
sites such as Kurban Höyük in southern Anatolia
reflects the growth of viniculture.
Changes in the range of Early Bronze Age pottery
vessels are also linked with an intensification or
expansion of viniculture. At this time chalices and
other forms associated with drinking such as the depas
amphikypellon (a tall, narrow, two-handled tankard)
began to increase in number. Other drinking vessels
associated with wine include rhyta (sing. rhyton),
which were fashioned out of metal or ceramics in the
form of an animal’s head. Storage vessels include
amphora
1
and large pithoi
2
. At sites such as Boğazköy
and Alişar Höyük, containers fashioned after a cluster
of grapes have been found. The association of vessels
with wine can be affirmed using infrared spectroscopy
through the detection of tartaric acid, a compound that
occurs naturally in grapes and forms the primary acid
within wine. Tartaric acid was detected in a large
ceramic tub found in Early Bronze Age levels at Titriş
Höyük in southeastern Anatolia, linking it with
activities such as grape pressing.
1
An amphora is a jar, usually made of clay, with a narrow
neck and two handles, used by ancient Greeks and Romans
for holding oil or wine.
2
Pithoi were large ceramic storage jars, mainly used for
storing agricultural produce such as olive oil, wine, olives,
raisins or grain. Such large jars must have been made in
several sections and joined together before firing.
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Early texts written in Assyrian dating to the Old
Assyrian Colony Age (ca. 2000–1750 BCE,
corresponding with the Middle Bronze Age) and the
Hittite period (ca. 1600–1200 BCE, Late Bronze Age)
have been synthesized by Ronald Gorny and provide
additional insights into early wine production. Texts
from Cappadocian trading colonies refer to the months
of September and October as qitip karānim, the
“harvesting of grapes”season. Grape harvesting
festivals are also mentioned in Hittite texts (EZEN
GIŠ
GEŠTIN túh-šu-u-wa-aš). In Hittite, grapes or
grapevines were called wiyana (which features in the
etymology of the word “wine”) and are represented in
texts with the Sumerogram
GIŠ
GEŠTIN. The official
position of “GAL.GEŠTIN”is mentioned in the Palace
Chronicle, an Old Hittite text that documents the court
during the reigns of Hattušili I and Muršili I. The early
responsibilities of GAL.GEšTIN included supervision
of vineyards and their products, which underscores the
importance of vineyards as an elite enterprise. Since the
majority of the texts document political, economic, and
religious matters, bias in the records exists, and little is
known about grape production or wine consumption
among the general populace. It seems fair to link early
viniculture with the elite, however. Since grape vines
require a number of years to become established and
yield fruits, only people of means could make such a
commitment outside of a garden setting. Alexander
Joffe even argues that production of alcoholic beverages
may be linked to the rise of the state by allowing
emerging elites to increase their level of power through
surplus production and control over craft production.
A number of Hittite laws pertaining to viniculture
bear testimony to well established practices and likely
reflect concerns of earlier time periods. The laws
clearly outline relative worth of various commodities
and assign appropriate penalties for theft or damages to
property. Damage to a vineyard is covered by Law 113,
whereby the guilty party must take the damaged grapes
and provide grapes from their own vines. Penalties for
theft are discussed in Law 101 and combine monetary
compensation with corporal punishment involving a
spear. Over time corporal punishment was stricken
from the law and the fine increased from one shekel per
vine to six shekels for a free individual and three
shekels for a slave. One Hittite shekel is roughly
equivalent to 12.5g of silver and could purchase
2parīsu of wine, 3 parīsu of emmer wheat, 6 parīsu
of barley, or 160 shekels of copper. Each parīsu is
believed to correspond with 30 liters.
While wine was undoubtedly valued as a pleasing
beverage, its earliest uses were restricted to Hittite
rituals, festivals, and religious ceremonies, which in
general were conducted to gain favor of the gods with
respect to the particular issue or problem at hand.
Offerings of wine to the gods are mentioned in several
Hittite prayers, including the Prayer to Tešub of
Kummani, the Prayer to the Sungoddess of the
Underworld, and the Prayer of Muwatalli to the
Stormgod Pih
˘ašašši. A number of myths, such as
the Ašertu Myth and the Myth of the Serpent Illuyanka,
discuss the inebriating power of wine and the potential
dangers of becoming intoxicated. The cleansing nature
of wine is stressed in several medical rituals, and
similarly in rituals intended to purify land and prepare
ground for the founding of a new palace. Soldiers also
used wine as a metaphor for blood during an oath
pledging ritual intended to secure their loyalty.
The association of wine with ritual and religious
beliefs perpetuated for some time. During the Lydian
period (687–546 BCE) in western Anatolia, Bacchus
was celebrated as the god of wine. During Byzantine
times in the early part of the first millennium A.D.,
wine was believed to be blessed by the sky-god;
vineyards and stored wine afforded protection from evil
spirits. Wine production decreased significantly fol-
lowing the conversion of Anatolia to Islam, although
wine was continued to be drunk. Today wine
production is increasing again and grapes are widely
cultivated in many parts of Turkey, including the
Mediterranean coast and Central Anatolia.
References
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Gorny, Ronald L. Viticulture in Ancient Anatolia. The
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2 Wine in Anatolia
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