Sesame production manual

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Geremew Terefe
Adugna Wakjira
Muez Berhe
Hagos Tadesse
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands

Sesame
Production
Manual
© EIAR 2012
Copyediting and design
Abebe Kirub
ISBN: 978-99944-53-80-8

Contents
Introduction 1
Crop Description 2
Favorable Growing Conditions 8
Agronomic Practices 11
Pest Management 19
Maturity 37
Harvesting and Stacking 38
Thrashing 41
Cleaning, Transporting and Storing 42
Grading 44
Good Agricultural Practices 44
Acknowledgements 46

Sesame production manual
[1]
Introduction
Sesame (Sesamum indicum) is grown in areas with annual
rainfall of 625-1100mm and temperature of >270C. The
crop is tolerant to drought, but not to water logging and
excessive rainfall. Sesame is well adapted to a wide range
of soils, but requires deep, well-drained, fertile sandy
loams. In Ethiopia, sesame grows well in the semiarid
areas of Amhara, Tigray, Benshangul Gumuz, and Somali
Regions. Lowlands of Oromiya and Southern Nations
nationalities and Peoples Regions also grow a significant
amount.
Despite the increasing demand and price of sesame in the
world market, its productivity is declining from 8 to 3 q/ha
in most parts of the country. The major reasons are the
lack of knowledge and skill in land preparation and
agronomic practices, weather uncertainties and pest
outbreaks. It is thus, anticipated that availing information
on improved agronomic practices, weed and pest
management will undoubtedly increase sesame production
and productivity.
Therefore, this production manual is prepared to equip
growers with the state to art production techniques,
knowledge, skill, and information. It enables to provide
farmers with practical guides and alternatives to increase
production and productivity of sesame. The
recommendations are safer, more affordable, and easy to
follow. Most of the farm practices, the farmers can do by
themselves and the materials that are needed are found in

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backyards or in kitchens or could be purchased in the local
market. It is also intended to be used as a field guidebook
for development agents, agronomists of commercial
sesame farms, medium and small-scale farmers. It can also
be used as a teaching aid during various trainings, at field,
in farmers training centers (FTC) and Agricultural
Technical and Vocational Education Training Colleges.
Crop Description
Sesame is a broadleaf plant that grows to a height of 1.5 to
2 meters, depending on the variety and growing
conditions. It considerably differs in size, form/shape,
growth habit, color of flowers, seed size and color and
composition. It is erect, branched, mostly annual, or long
season plant with well-developed root system. It is a warm
season annual crop and is considered drought tolerant, but
needs good soil moisture for establishment and for high
yield. Soil type and moisture influence growth and
productivity of varieties. Sesame grown under irrigation
often becomes much greater and yield higher than rain-
grown crops.
Stem
The stem is erect and square in cross-section with definite
longitudinal furrows, in certain cases rectangular, and
rarely wide flat. The stem can be smooth, and hairy. Stem
color ranges from light green to purple, dominantly
darkish-green. The extent, type, and height of branching
determine varietal characteristics and branching is affected
by seed rate, rainfall, day length, and variety.

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Roots
Sesame has a deep thin taproot of about 1m long with a
well-distributed secondary root system for maximum
exploitation of soil moisture.
Growth Habit
Sesame has an indeterminate growth, development and
flowering continues for a long time if environmental
conditions are favorable. Nevertheless, most of the
currently cultivated varieties are determinate with uniform
and short flowering and capsule ripening periods.
Leaf Shape and Size
Lower leaves are broad and sometimes lobed,
margins/edges prominently with outward directed teethes.
Leaves are entire, lanceolate, and sometimes slightly
serrate. Upper leaves are narrower and lanceolate in order
to permit maximum sunlight penetration. Leaf
arrangement vary with variety, alternate or opposite or
opposite below and alternate above. Leaf size varies from
3 to 17.5 cm in length and 1 to1.7cm in width, and with
the petiole length of 1 to 5cm.
Leaf Color
Leaf color is mostly dull, darkish-green or light green with
a yellowish tint. Leaves are mucilaginous and hairy.
Abscission is early and complete at maturity.
Flowers
Sesame produces bell-shaped white to pale-rose flowers
that begin to develop in the leaf axils. Flowering starts 35

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to 45 days after planting and continues for 75 to 85 days
for early types and with some varieties lasting 150 days
even to mature. Multiple flowers arise 20 to 30cm from
the soil surface in the leaf axils of the upper portion of the
stem and branches while singly on the lower axils.
Flowers are born on very short peduncles with white, pale
pink to almost purple, five lobed corollas. The inner
surface of the corolla might have red or black spots with
purple or yellow blotches.
Pollination
Sesame is normally self-pollinated crop, although cross-
pollination by insects is common. Up to 50% out crossing
was reported due to insect pollination. Flowers open early
in the morning and shed in the evening. Anthers open and
release pollen shortly after flower opening, which remain
viable for 24 hours only. The stigma remains receptive
one day prior to flower opening to another one day after
flower opening.
Fruiting structure (capsule/pod)
The fruiting structure is a capsule or pod, starts forming
about 20 to 30cm above ground surface for most
commercial cultivars, rectangular and deeply grooved
with a short triangular beak. Capsule size is modified by
environmental factors and within the basic flat sided,
cylindrical shape or several forms may occur within the
same plant. Capsule lengths vary from 2.5 to 8 cm, with a
diameter of 0.5 to 2 cm. Depending on variety; it is
bicarllate and number of locules ranges from 4 to 12.

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Capsules are attached to the stem at upright angle, usually
hairy and contain about 50-90 small oleaginous seeds,
ovule abortion within the pod is uncommon. Number of
capsules per plant is directly related to number of flowers
but climatic conditions can affect the percentage of
fertilized flowers. Plant population also directly influences
the number of capsules per plant, high population or close
spacing in the row tends to reduce both the number of
capsules and number of seeds per capsule.
Capsule dehisces (open) by splitting along septa from top
to bottom. Lower capsules ripen first and those nearest the
tip last. Physiological maturity normally occurs 95-110
days after planting for early types and up to 150 days for
late types. Physiological maturity is when 75% of the
capsules on the main stem have mature seeds or when
three-fourth of the stem turns yellow. Sesame normally
dries down in about 150 days. Thus, do not allow matured
plants to stand in the field for long time as seeds may lose
through shattering.
Seed retention
There are two types of sesame with regard to pod opening
behavior, shattering and non-shattering (dehiscent).
Almost all sesame cultivars in Ethiopia are shattering
type, which open by cracking of pods from top to bottom
and releasing all seeds to fall on ground. The dehiscent
varieties have effective seed retention mechanisms, which
makes them suitable for machine harvesting or even for
traditional but late harvesting. These varieties possess
strong placental attachments, which retain the seed within

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the capsule until it could be harvested or threshed.
Nonetheless, varieties with such character do not exist in
Ethiopia.
Seed size and color
The economic part of the plant is the seed and is directly
related to number of branches and the total number of
capsules per plant. Sesame seeds are very small ovate,
slightly flattened and somewhat thinner at the hilum than
at the opposite end. Depending on variety, thousand seeds
could be large, medium, or small. On average 1000 seeds
weight is between 2 and 4 g. According to varietal
differences, the seed color varies—white, yellow, reddish
brown or grey, dark grey, olive green, very dark brown
and black. The seed coat is rough, but easily removed by
dry decortications.
Nutritional Value
The seed is consumed whole in bakeries or pressed for oil
extraction. Light colored seeds are considered to yield
better quality oil than dark. However, dark colored
varieties have high oil content than light colored seed.
White-seeded varieties are preferred when roasted and
eaten. They also command the market premium over the
dark seeds.
Nutritionally, whole seed and seed cake contain 22-25%
and 22-35% protein; 43-50% and 9% oil; 11 and 23%
carbohydrate; 3 and 4% mineral, respectively. Whole
sesame seed contains total fiber 6.3gm; ash 5.3gm; iron
10.5µg, sodium 60µg; potassium 725µg; calcium 1,160µg

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and phosphorous 616µg; vitamin A 10µg/100gm, thiamine
0.98 µg/100gm; riboflavin 0.24µg/100g; niacin 5µg/100g.
Sesame oil is yellow in color and used in shortenings,
salad oil, margarine, and similar food products. The oil
content of the seed varies between 40 and 60% depending
on verities and growing environments. It is rich source of
energy providing 582 and 884 kilo calories, and fat 53.4
and 49.1gm for whole and hulled seeds, respectively. The
oil from sesame seeds contain high amount of protein 15-
25% and has 103-116 iodine, 188-196 safonification and
<6% acid values. Its specific gravity is 0.916-0.921 @
250C, with solidification range of 20o to 25o and heavy
metals <0.001%.
Sesame seed is rich in calcium oxalate and fatty acids. The
oil is high in Vitamin A, Vitamin B, Vitamin E, calcium,
magnesium and phosphorous; but, low in total free fatty
acid content (<1.5%).
Sesame oil is a stable product because of a natural
antioxidants sesamol and sesamolinol that reduce the rate
of oxidation. This character makes it preferable vegetable
oil. The major fatty acids contained in the seed and oil,
chemical structure and carbon: bond ratio is described in
Table 1.

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Table 1. Fatty acid content of sesame oil
Common name
Chemical structure
C
arbon to
bond ratio
(C: D)
Content
(%)
Myristic acid
CH
3
(CH
2
)
12
COOH
C14:0
<0.5
Palmitic acid
CH
3
(CH
2
)
14
COOH
C 16:0
7
-
12
Palmitoleic acid
CH
3
(CH
2
)
14
CO
2
H
C16:1
<0.5
Stearic acid
CH
3
(CH
2
)
16
COOH
C 18:0
3.5
-
5.5
Oleic acid (
ώ
-
9)
CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
CH=CH(CH
2
)
7
COOH
C 18:1
3
2
-
54
Linoleic acid (ώ-6)
CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CH(CH
2
)
7
C
O2H C 18:2 35-59
Linolenic acid (ώ-3)
CH
3
CH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=C
H(CH2)7CO2H C 18:3 <1.0
Arachidic acid
CH
3
(CH
2
)
18
COOH
C 20:0
0.4
-
1.0
Eicosenoic acid
C 20:1
<0.5
Behenic
acid
CH
3
(CH
2
)
20
COOH
C 22:0
<0.5
T
otal
FFA
-
-
1.5
-
2
Favorable Growing Conditions
Agro-ecology
Sesame grows well in Hot to warm semi-arid plains (SA1-
1) of the western Tigray (mainly Humera) areas, ranging
from 500 to 1600 meters above sea level. These areas
have mean annual temperature ranging from 21 to 280C
and with 300-800mm mean annual rainfall. The second
major sesame growing agro-ecology is characterized as
Hot to warm sub-moist plains (SM1-1) that includes
northwestern part of the Amhara Region; particularly
around Metema. Altitude ranges from 400 to 1400 meters
above sea level; mean annual temperature is higher than
210C and mean annual rainfall varies from 200-1000mm.
The third major AEZ is Hot to warm sub-humid plains
(SH1-1) which includes Gambella and Benshangul Gumuz

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National Regional States; with altitude of 400-1000 m;
mean annual temperature 16-280C and rainfall varying
from 700 in the western part of the sub-zone to 1000mm
in the eastern part. Hot to warm arid plains (A1-1) of the
Afar National Regional State and the Ogaden area of the
Somalia National Regional State where mean annual
temperature is >270C and rainfall is <400mm is the forth
potential AEZ in which sesame can successfully be grown
under irrigation. Other minor sesame growing AEZs
include Hot to warm sub-humid gorges (SH1-4) of both
the Oromiya National Regional State (ONRS) and the
Southern Ethiopia Nations and Nationalities Peoples
Regional State (SENNPRS), specifically located in the
gorges of Gibe, Gojeb and Omo rivers and Hot to warm
sub-moist lakes and rift valleys (SM1-2) identified around
Humbo (SNNRS).
Altitude
Because of increased export value of this crop, its
production area has been extending to places previously
not known in sesame production. Therefore, nowadays
sesame is cultivated from lowland to mid altitudes (300-
1700m). Nevertheless, it grows and yields well in altitudes
ranging from 650 to 1250ml. For optimum growth, sesame
requires frost free and warm areas.
Temperature Requirement
Sesame requires hot conditions during growth to produce
maximum yields. For optimum development and yield,
sesame requires 25 to 37°C temperature throughout its
growth period. A temperature of 25 to 27oC encourages

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rapid germination, initial growth, and flower formation.
Temperature below 20oC for any length of time inhibits
germination or delay, and a temperature of less than 180C
after emergence will severely retard growth of seedlings.
The seeds will not germinate at all at temperature below
11°C. Low temperature at flowering can result in the
production of sterile pollen, or premature flower fall.
Conversely, period of high temperatures, 400C or over, at
flowering will seriously affect fertilization and the number
of capsule set will be low. Thus, do not plant sesame in
areas with frost history or low night temperatures.
Soil Requirement
Sesame is adaptable to many soil types but it thrives best
on well-drained and medium-textured fertile soil with 5 to
8 soil pH. The best soil for sesame growth in Ethiopia is
light alluvial and chromic Vertisols. It does not grow well
on heavy clay, salty and waterlogged soils. Do not plant
sesame on heavy clay soils especially on low spots where
water cannot be drained off, as the plant is extremely
susceptible to even short periods of water logging at any
stage of growth.
Water Requirement
Sesame is a drought-resistant crop, but this does not mean
that good growth and yields can be obtained on a very low
total rainfall. It does indicate that, once established,
sesame is capable of withstanding a higher degree of
water stress than any other cultivated plants. Nevertheless,
the seedling stage is extremely susceptible to moisture
shortage. Thus, it requires adequate moisture for

Sesame production manual
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germination and early growth and a precipitation of 300 to
800 mm per season is necessary for reasonable yields.
However, optimum yields are obtained in areas with 500-
650mm rainfall per annum well distributed over the 3-4
months growing period. Sesame needs water during the
seedling, flowering, and grain filling stages. Heavy rain at
flowering will drastically reduce yield, and if cloudy
weather persists for any period at this time, sever bacterial
blight infection will occur resulting in exiguous yield. In
irrigated lowlands where rainfall is erratic and does not
support crop growth, application of 75mm water every 15
days interval until 120 days is recommended, especially
for the middle and Lower Awash River basin.
Agronomic Practices
Land Preparation
Sesame requires a warm, moist, weed-free seedbed and a
high temperature for germination. During the land
preparation, choose the tillage practices that will ensure to
keep the soil in its best physical condition for a favorable
crop’s growth and development. First plow the soil to a
depth of 20 to 25cm which will physically support the
plant and allow the use of sufficient moisture and
nutrients; sufficient enough to control weeds; and then
harrow at planting to leave the soil surface roughly level.
Seed Requirement
Sesame seeds are very small and they are often mixed
with sand, soil, or ash to increase the volume handled and

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to assist even distribution. Use clean seeds for planting. In
broadcast sowing a 1:3 mixture of seed and dry sand or
earth is commonly used. However, as latest field
observations indicate 1kg seed to 5kg soil (1:5) was found
optimum and gives good stand establishment. Research
recommended seed rate is 5-7 kg for row and 7-10 kg for
broadcast planting depending on the efficiency of a person
to distribute uniformly. Nevertheless, the rate is mostly
determined by environmental conditions where the crop is
planted. Even under broadcast planting, in areas like
Metema, farmers prefer to sow 3-4 kg seed per hectare
because of the high rainfall (>650mm) that induce
bacterial blight infection and to avoid thinning. In
Humera, where rainfall is in the range of 450 to 600mm 4-
5kg seed is used. Generally, more emphasis has to be
given to distribute evenly seeds over the required area.
Increase seed rate if seeds are planted deep—covered by
oxen plow, highly termite infested, soil moisture is
limited, and the soil is compacted, cloddy, or trashy.
Decrease the planting rate if the soil is well prepared and
have adequate moisture. Maintain a population of more
than 250,000 plants per hectare.
Variety Selection
Because of environmental variations, there is great
diversity within varieties of sesame grown in Ethiopia.
The agroecological diversity required development of
varieties that fit to specific environments; hence, there is
no variety that grows well across locations. Therefore,
farmers must have to choose the one that fits to their
environment depending on the purpose of growing sesame

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(Table 2). If it is meant for oil purpose varieties with
darker seed color can be grown. Nevertheless, for export
market white seed color, medium to large seed size is
preferred. In Ethiopia, both the improved and local
cultivars are branching types. Nevertheless, this character
is most influenced by moisture regimes. Generally, for
drier areas where rainfall is low and erratic using early
maturing varieties is recommendable. Branched types are
recommended under irrigated or rainfall of more than
600mm.
Methods of Sowing
Sesame is sown or planted manually by hand or
mechanically by hand-operated seeder or animal-drown or
tractor-operated drills. In hand planting, seeds are either
broadcasted or drilled in row on ridges. In ridge planting,
two methods are practiced: in one known as broadcast,
seed is spread thinly over flat surface and subsequently
ridges are formed in recommended row spacing, usually
40cm. In the other, known as ridge sowing, seed is drilled
after ridges are developed in the desired row width by
hand. Nowadays sesame can be seeded with a row crop
planter mounted on tractors and equipped with vegetable
planter boxes. Planting less seed usually ends up in
missing plants. In most situations, sesame plant adjusts to
the population density in a given area. If the population is
too high, it will self-thin itself, wherein in a low
population, it will develop more branches to fill the
spaces.

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Table 2 Adaptation area and characteristics of registered sesame varieties in Ethiopia
Note: 1 quintal (qt) = 100kg; Source: MoARD, crop variety register book, 1990-2010, Ir = Irrigation
Name
Adaptation Area
Altitude
(m)
Rainfall
(mm)
Seed
c
olor
Yield (qt/ha)
Oil
content
(%)
Days to
maturity
Irrigation Rainfed
Adi
Irrigated v
alley (Awash
and
Shebelle
),
and
low rainfall areas 300-750 Ir White 16-20 5 42-48 85-90
Abasena
High rainfall (Wellega
and
Benshangul
Gumuz) 500-1200 >700 Gray 12-14 9 44-48 110-120
Kelafo
-
74
Irrigated valleys
<500
Ir
Blackish
10
-
12
6
42
-
46
110
-
120
Mehado
-
80
Irrigated valleys
300
-
750
Ir
Gray
15
-
22
6
41
-
44
100
-
110
Argene
Irrigated valleys
350
-
750
Ir
Deep gray
15
-
18
-
42
-
48
90
-
100
Serkamo
Irrigated valleys
360
-
750
Ir
White
-
brown
15
-
18
-
42
-
51
90
-
100
E
High RF (Like Dedesa areas)
300
-
750
>700
Dull white
12
-
14
7
42
-
47
90
-
100
S
High RF (Like Dedesa areas)
300
-
750
>700
Light brown
12
-
16
7
40
-
46
100
-
120
T
-
85
Humera
400
-
650
400
-
650
Dull white
8
-
10
7
42
-
45
100
-
115
Tate
Haraghe
and
Southern Region
600
-
1200
600
-
800
Dull white
15
-
18
7
47
-
49
110
-
120
Ahadu
Moisture stress areas of
Wello
1400
-
1600
750
-
950
Brown
-
7
-
10
49
-
51
105
-
115
Borkena
Moisture stress areas of
Wello
1400
-
1600
750
-
950
Brown
-
6
-
8
47
-
48
105
-
120
Obsa
East
and
West
Wellega
1250
-
1650
700
-
1100
White
-
tan
-
8
-
10
52
-
54
130
-
150
Dicho
West
Wellega
1250
-
1650
700
-
1100
white
-
8
-
10
51
-
52
120
-
140
Humera
-
1
West Tigray
600
-
1100
400
-
650
White
-
8
-
10
54
-
56
110
-
120
Setit
-
1
Kaft
a
-
Humera
600
-
800
400
-
650
White
-
7
-
10
52
-
54
100
-
110
Barsan
Somali
R
egion (Gode, Kelafo)
500
-
700
<450 + Ir
Brown
7
-
8
-
46
-
47
80
-
90
Lidan
Somali
R
egion (Gode, Kelafo)
500
-
700
<450 + Ir
Brown
7
-
8
-
45
-
46
80
-
90

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Row Spacing
The recommended planting distance for sesame in
Ethiopia is 10 cm between plants and 40 cm between rows
making 250,000 plant populations per hectare. In row
planting, the inter-row distance (40cm) can be maintained
at planting, while intra-row distance (10cm) is established
afterwards during thinning. The wider the row, the more
likely the farmer is able to cultivate for weed control.
Wider row spacing is used when planting earlier or in
drier areas. Narrower row spacing is used when irrigation
is possible, in higher rainfall areas and when planting
closer to the end of the planting window.
Sowing
For a successful establishment of sesame careful seedbed
preparation and close attention to soil moisture is required.
Sesame seedlings do not emerge from the soil that is
slightly crusted and it needs warm soil.
Sesame seed is small and has less push than many crops
like cotton, peanuts, sorghum, soybeans, or mung beans. It
needs less cover and compaction than most other field
crops. Thus, it is best to plant into moist soil and covers
the seed by light soil to avoid drying out before
emergence.
Sow the seeds after rain or irrigate soon after sowing. The
seeds require adequate moisture in the soil for around
three days to germinate. In rainfed areas never sow the
seeds on dry soil, always wait for rain. Sow recommended
rate of seeds in well-prepared soil with good moisture.

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Depth of planting varies with soil type and soil moisture
from 3 to 5 cm. Uniform depth and seed rate are essential
for good stand establishment resulting in maximum yield.
Minimize seed depth to reduce the amount of time
required for emergence. Irrigating the crop after planting
is often unsuccessful if the seeds are buried deep enough
because of the weakness of sesame seedlings in breaking
through even a thin soil crust.
Optimum time of sowing
Planting sesame is the most critical phase of its
management. Availability of moisture, length of the rainy
season and temperature are the three major factors
determining time of planting. In rain-grown sesame,
planting dates virtually depend on on-set of rainfall and
length of growing season. In dry areas with short rainy
months, it is advisable to sow immediately after the first
rains. Nevertheless, in areas with long growing seasons,

Sesame production manual
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time of planting should be adjusted with the time of
harvesting in such a way that the crop is matured when the
rain stops. Research recommended dates of planting for
rain-grown sesame is mostly between mid Junes to mid
July. When sesame is grown under irrigation, temperature,
instead of moisture, is a decisive factor to establish
planting date. Mid June for the main season and late
November for the off-season is optimum planting dates for
sesame production under irrigation.
Emergence and seedling development
Sesame should be planted in moist and warm soil for a
fast, vigorous germination and emergence. Cold wet
condition following planting will seriously reduce
seedling emergence. When grown in areas where there is a
short but intense rainy season, sesame is best planted after
the main rains have fallen and when soil has accumulated
enough moisture and temperature. When grown under
irrigation, substantial (75mm) after planting watering is
very essential to boost fast emergence of seedlings.
Sesame germinates moderately slowly, and the young
seedlings make slow initial growth. If the temperature is
favorable sesame fully germinate within 5-7 days time. At
early growth stages, it has a very rapid growth and
development to overcome weed competition and to give
good stand establishment. Sesame has an ability to
germinate and withstand lower temperatures; however,
extended cool weather severely affects crop development.

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Gapping/Filling in open spaces
The empty space between plants in a row can be filled in
by re-sowing seeds to replace the lost plants and maximize
yield. Nevertheless, this has to be done very soon and if
the empty space is too much otherwise, farmers seldom
practice gapping for sesame. Delayed gapping will result
in uneven maturity and may create harvesting difficulty.
Thinning
When the plants attain height of 10 to15 cm seedlings are
thinned to 10 cm distance between plants by removing the
weak or diseased plants. Crowding results in weak plants
and bears very few pods. It is important to achieve 22 to
25 plants per meter or to maintain plant population of 222,
000 to 250,000 plants/ha to attain the maximum yield.
Soil fertility management
Sesame, which has an extensively branched feeder root
system, appears to improve soil structure. Like most
alternative crops, sesame’s fertility needs are modest.
Mostly sesame’s nutrient requirements are not known
exactly, but fulfilled through organic sources, such as
weeds and crops remain. Nevertheless, due to the current
mono cropping practice fertility level is dwindling with
subsequent reduction in productivity.
Fertilizer studies on sesame, in Ethiopia, are highly
limited in scope covering a small proportion of the sesame
growing areas in the country. The result of these limited
research activities suggested that sesame did not respond
to fertilizer addition. But the very recent studies at Bako

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indicate 35% yield increment due to application of 38/29
kg/ha NP2O5 fertilizers at planting. At Humera application
of 120 kg/ha NPK (19:19:19) + K2SO4 50kg/ha + urea
50kg/ha at planting gave 32% yield increment over zero
fertilization. In any case before application of fertilizers
consider the growth stage of the plant; population; and
amount of soil moisture available.
Fertilizer applications should be based on soil test results.
Commercial inorganic fertilizer is not allowed in organic
farming. Ask assistance from the local agriculture office
for advice how to grow organically, maintain, and supply
the nutrient requirement of the plants.
Cropping system and rotation
Sesame is grown as intercrop with sorghum in Haraghe
and with tef in North Shewa. Sesame requires abundant
solar radiation for maximum photosynthesis. Hence, it is
recommended to consider short stemmed grain crop for
intercropping. Sesame fits well to crop rotation system. In
the lowlands, it is regularly planted after sorghum, cotton,
peanuts, soybeans, onions, and other vegetables without
any problems. It has been reported for yield increases in
cotton, sorghum, soybeans, and millet.
Pest Management
A wide range of weed species, insect pests, and diseases
attack sesame around the world. In Ethiopia, weeds
presume primary importance, followed by insect pests and
diseases. Among insects only the sesame webworm, seed

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bug, gall midge, green vegetable bug, grasshoppers,
African bollworm, and crickets have been recorded. They
become more serious as crop acreage expands and mono
cropping is practiced largely.
Weeds
Weeds are unwanted plants found in sesame fields. They
compete with sesame crops for nutrients, moisture, and
sunlight, which can decrease the crop quality, higher the
production costs due to increased cultivation and hand
weeding, and considerably reduce the crop yields. They
also serve as alternate hosts of insect/mite pests and
diseases.
Numerous species of weeds infest sesame, among which
grasses are the most abundant weeds in the northwest. For
example in Metekel Zone, graminaceae species are the
most dominant ones, 22%, followed by compositae (17%).
So far more than 98 weed species in 31 families causing
damage to sesame crop were identified only from major
sesame growing areas of the country. In sesame field
grasses, sedges, bind weeds and some broad leaf weeds
are most dominant.
Because of their slow early growth, sesame plants are poor
competitors against weeds. Thus, it is very important to
eliminate weeds from sesame fields as early as possible.
Weeds in sesame can be controlled using different
methods, mechanical/hand weeding, physical, and
chemical. However, before starting weeding sesame fields
it is very important to know how much yield/economic

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loss is encountered by weeds, and then be decided when,
how many times and how to weed sesame.
The critical weed competition period for sesame may
differ according to location; weed emergence pattern and
species composition of a particular environment.
However, studies made at Werer, Humera, Pawe, Metema,
and Bako recorded 1-2 and 4-6 weeks after sowing to be
very critical. Therefore, sesame seedlings have to be hand
weeded at least two times at 10-15 and 30-45 days after
emergence. However, in East Wollega weeding at 33 and
55 days after emergence is recommended. Nevertheless,
farmers should take account of their specific environments
for weeding.
Crop yields often depend on the amount, size, and
proximity of weeds present after crop emergence. Weed
vigor on the other hand is also influenced by crop
abundance, size, and proximity. Yield loss due to weeds
vary according to environment, weed species and
management options practiced. For example in Metekel
Zone, overall yield loss of 42% was recorded. At Humera
when weeds were allowed to grow uncontrolled
throughout the growing season, a yield loss of 83% was
reported. At Werer under irrigation, a yield loss of 92%
was observed in a weedy control and late weeded plots.
As a thumb rule, not weeding sesame may result in 100%
yield loss depending on soil type, weather conditions and
weed species.

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Pre-plant tillage
Sesame has fine and fibrous superficial roots, which are
easily damaged during cultivation particularly at early
stage. Hence, preparing a weed free field is crucial to
ensure maximum seed yield. Generally, twice plowing to a
depth of 25cm at 2-4 weeks interval is recommended to
suppress weed infestation and increase seed yield.
Post-emergence cultivation and hand weeding
The weeds in sesame fields can be removed through
hilling-up the furrows with a plow, hoeing, mowing, or
cutting. Make shallow cultivation/s of sesame fields close
to the rows taking care not to damage the fine, fibrous
roots that are easily damaged. Early (2-4 weeks)
hoeing/cultivation cause seedlings to grow faster, possibly
because of improved soil aeration and the lifted
competition for nutrients. In row planted sesame crop, it is
possible to hoe the space between rows and at the same
time to hand pick weeds between sesame plants. In
broadcast planted sesame, hoeing is not possible, in this
case hand removal of weeds is recommended. Do first
weeding 2 to 4 weeks after sowing, depending on weed
infestation. The second weeding should be done between
4 and 6 weeks after planting. In any case, do not let the
weeds to flower and remove them before they start to
flower and shed seeds.
Chemical control
No herbicide is currently registered for sesame weed
management in Ethiopia. However, herbicide screening
trials were conducted against broad-leaved and grass

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weeds at Werer. Out of which application of herbicide
Metholachlor 960 EC at 2.5 l ha-1 in combination with
hand weeding at 30-35 days after crop emergence reduced
weed infestation and significantly increased seed yield.
Nonetheless, crop injury was observed during early
growth stage though damaged plants or its parts recovered
easily. Therefore, integrating hand weeding, hoeing, and
herbicide application is important to contain the advent of
weeds.
Insect Pests
Sesame yields are seriously affected by pests. Out of
which sesame webworm (Antigastra catalaunalis), sesame
seed bug (Elasmolomus sordidus), gall midge
(Asphondilia sesami), termites, green vegetable bug
(Nezara viridula), African bollworm (Helicoverpa
armiger), grasshoppers, aphids, jassids, whitefly, field
crickets, warehouse moth and red flour beetle are some to
be mentioned.
Sesame seed bug
Sesame seed bug was reported long ago in Ethiopia,
however, its prevalence and damage was restricted to the
northwestern part of the country, and it is so important
only in years of outbreaks. Seed bug is considered as a
local pest that appears in large numbers at harvest time.
Currently, however, infestation of seed bug is increasing
from year to year depending on climatic conditions like
rainfall and humidity.

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In Humera, bugs were found feeding on many species of
weeds, trees, and vegetable crops. Sesame is usually
attacked in the field during drying and in warehouses by
nymphs and adults, which suck the entire seed contents.
The seed bug has three developmental stages, egg, nymph,
and adult. The development of egg to adult death ranges
between 39 and 54 days. Both nymphs and adults cause
damage to sesame by sucking the seed oil and its content,
causing two types of losses, qualitative and quantitative.
Weight loss of more than 50% was recorded after only 10
days of storage on open and bug infested ground, if left
long losses could be as high as 100%. The quality loss
resulting due to bug feeding is expressed in color and taste
change that makes the seed bitter and dark/unmarketable.
Seed bug control measures
Cultural: soon after harvest stalk removal, field clearing
and plowing under, alternate host destruction around

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fields, warehouse, and storage cleaning had a significant
impact on survival and fecundity of sesame seed bug.
Botanicals: Using 10% neem seed kernel extract and
formulated neem oil (Nimex 0.03%) controlled seed bugs
effectively in closed containers or in airtight warehouses.
Biological: Numerous species of bio-control agents
(predators and parasites) were found feeding on seed bugs.
Among the recorded predators, ants of different species,
termites, spiders, lizards were the major ones found
hunting for nymphs and adults. Around Humera, an
effective wasp, egg parasite Grionini sp. was known to
causes 40-80% egg parasitism. The wasp most likely
occurs in all places where seed bug egg is available under
sesame stalks. However, the number may vary from place
to place.
Chemical: even though there is no registered insecticide
for the control of sesame seed bug in Ethiopia, farmers in
Humera and Metema spray Malathion 50% EC or
Ethiosulfan 35% EC 1-3 times at the base of sesame stalks
in stack, locally known as Hilla. Dusting the base of stack
and the soil around them with Ethiolathion 5% Dust, and
carbaryl 85% WP was well practiced. Fenitrothion and
diazinone could also be used as foliar spray before
harvest. In warehouses and storage areas malathion 50%
EC, Carbosulfan 25% ULV, Ethiosulfan 25% ULV,
Lambda-cyhalothrin (Decis 0.5% ULV and Karate 0.8%
ULV) are very effective even at very low rates. For
effective control, spray applications should be made in

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breeding sites but not on feeding spots such as piled sack
and must be repeated every three days until nymph
emergence stops.
Integrated management of sesame seed bug: Combining
cultural and chemical control tactics to manage the seed
bug has proved effective. Sanitation measures both at field
and storages have either greatly eliminated or reduced bug
numbers.
Important IPM components to be considered for effective
seed bug management include
 early harvesting and thrashing;
 removal of the stalks soon after harvesting or thrashing;
 reducing seed loss during thrashing;
 winnowing and transporting;
 destruction of weeds and other alternate hosts that could harbor
the pest;
 storing in polyethylene bags with inner lining and in standard
warehouses; and
 keeping cleanness of stores and sealing off all openings around
the stores
Sesame webworm
Webworm, Antigastra catalaunalis, is a well-established
and widely distributed insect pest of sesame. It is a
sporadic pest that causes greatest damage during the
seedling and flowering stages, and may continue until
harvest, feeding on mature seeds hidden inside capsules.
The caterpillar does best in the dry conditions that follow
rains, so its development and spread is closely linked to
the developing climatic conditions.

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The larvae feed on leaves, flowers, pods, and growing
shoots. The young larvae mine young leaves and shoot
tips; they fasten together leaves and shoots and feed
inside. At later stages, the larvae infest the sesame
capsules, making an entrance hole on the lateral side (Fig.
2). Generally, webworm can cause yield losses of between
25 and 35% and critical period for control action is
flowering stage. Nevertheless, webworm damaged capsule
may inflict up to 100% seed loss. Most farmers do not
consider webworm as a pest; no action is taken in many
cases, especially 7-10 days after the end of flowering. The
larvae move from pod to pod and down to already matured
pods. Thus, late infestation should also be given due
attention.

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Webworm control measures
Due to sporadic nature of the pest there is no as such
effective pest management practice developed rather
than using pesticides. Insecticides such as endosulfan 35%
EC at 2 l/ha, cypermethrin 20% EC at 4.5 l/ha, lambda-
cyhalothrin 5% EC at 0.32 l/ha, pirimiphos-methyl 50%
EC at 2 l/ha, and Bacillus thuringiensis SC at 2 l ha-1
control the pest effectively. Nevertheless, pesticide
application should terminate before capsule opening. Do
Not Apply Any Pesticide On Open Capsules!
Termites
Termite is an important pest of sesame in the field and
storages in drier areas, especially in places with low and
poor rainfall distribution. Field attack may start from
seedling stage and continue to harvest and shocks. Mostly
termites attack weak plants in the field and cut and stacked
sesame on drying ground. Infesting stacked sesame causes
severe economic damage as termites build soil on shocks
and contaminates the seed during trashing. It is very
difficult to trash and clean termite soiled sesame.
Therefore, farmers’ prefer not to trash such hillas/shocks,
as the seed is not marketable. So far, yield loss from
termite damage is not quantified in sesame however;
farmers’ may bear up to 100% loss in severe cases.
Suggested termite control measures
 There is no single effective method of control for termites;
however, good agronomic practices increase crop tolerance
to termite infestation in the fields;

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 Carefully select shocking ground away from termite mounds
or tunnels;
 Make insecticide barriers by applying Chlorpyrifos,
endosulfan or malathion 5% dust away from the shocks/hilla;
 Thrash immediately, within 10-15 days time and move to
store with concrete floor; and
 Do not allow termites to multiply in or near your field.
Sesame gall midge
The sesame gall midge, Asphnodylia sesami belongs to
order Diptera, family Cecidomyidae. The gall midge was
minor pest of sesame in Humera area, but now days it
became key pest mainly due to mono cropping system of
sesame production.
Where it occurs, the sesame gall midge causes extensive
damage and the larvae are the damaging stage. Eggs are
laid in ovaries of flowers and the gall begins to develop
before the petals wither or become twisted and stunted and
do not develop into flower or capsules (Figure 4). Even

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though not yet quantified, estimated yield reduction could
reach more than 30% in heavy infestation years.
Gall midge control measures
Cultural: Early sowing reduces the damage as the crop
blooms before the fly number goes up. Destruction of wild
and volunteer sesame plants is recommended in many
countries for gall midge management. In Ethiopia, sesame
gall midge infestation increased with changes in cropping
system, especially mono cropping of sesame. Thus,
rotating sesame with cotton, sorghum, and other unrelated
species will undoubtedly decrease its severity.
Chemical: Applying dimethoate, diazinon, Malathion, or
phosphamidon as off the flowering period effectively
controlled gall midge in many countries. Bait sprays of
Malathion or Dipterex could also be used for midge
management. In India using 10% neem seed kernel or leaf,
extract with weekly application interval reduced fly
population. The commercial neem product, Neembicidine
(0.03%) and Neemgold were found more effective than
the home made neem extracts.

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Insect pests of minor economic importance
A number of insect pest species with minor
economic importance infest sesame. Among which
bugs (green stinkbug and other unidentified
species), jassid, aphid, whiteflies, grasshoppers, field
crickets, trips and African bollworm are some to
mention. Except the bollworm and field cricket all
others feed on the sap of sesame plants in the field
and retard growth and development.
Aphids and Whiteflies: Both insects develop similar damage
symptom on crops. Nymphs and adults of both species
pierce the plant tissues and feed on sap. Heavy feeding of
both species on leaves cause crinkling and cupping,
induce production of honeydews that serve as the
substrates for the growth of black sooty molds, and result
in stunted growth. The mold reduces photosynthesis
causing poor plant growth. These insects are also known
to transmit virus diseases of many crops. Heavily infested
sesame plants will turn yellow, eventually wilt because of
excessive sap removal, and finally die off.
Whiteflies and aphid control measures
Botanicals: Add 15 ml of neem oil into 1 liter of soapy
water. Constantly shake the container or stir the extract
while in the process of application to prevent oil from
separating.
Chemicals: Treat the seeds with 300-350 g Gaucho or
Cruiser before planting. At vegetative growth stages apply
carbosulfan 25% ULV 2 l/ha, Polo 500 SC 1 l/ha,

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Deltanate 200 EC/ULV 2 l/ha, Applaud 3 l/ha, Thiodan
35% EC 2.5 l/ha, Karate 2 l/ha or Decis 2 l/ha.
Post-harvest pest management
Among storage insect pests, seed bug, webworm, tropical
warehouse moth and red flour beetle are important.
Sesame and its oilcake is rich in proteins and fats and,
hence, is vulnerable to infestation of stored product insect
species resulting in weight loss, contamination and
deterioration in quality and flavor because of mould
growth and toxin elaborations.
Sesame seed bug is the major pest of sesame in storage
and field in the northwest, especially Humera and Metema
areas. It sacks all seed contents and causes shriveling and
increase in free fatty acid concentration. Bug sacked seeds
become unmarketable because of its bitter test, dark color,
and shriveled shape.
Storage pest management
Sesame seed bug that infest staked sesame and sack seeds
stored in bags is considered a major pest. Sanitation
around storages is the best method of control followed by
insecticide application. Chemicals such as Decis 5% EC 2
l/ha, malathion 50% EC at 2 l ha-1, Thionex and Thiodan
25% ULV at 2.5-3 l ha-1 should be applied on breeding
sites but not on feeding sites, such as piled sesame bugs
and concrete floored stores.

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Other storage insect pest of sesame could be controlled by
application of fenitrothion 3% dust at 30 g/100 kg,
Baythion at 100 g/100 kg, aluminum phosphide at 5
tablets, and pirimiphos-methyl at 300 ppm. However, this
recommendation works for seeds that are being stored for
planting only. Fumigation with phosphine and other
alternatives could also control insect pests in modern
storage facilities.
Diseases
Currently among sesame diseases bacterial blight in
humid and phyllody in drier areas are very important,
while powdery mildew and wilt are sporadic and minor
economically.
Bacterial blight
Bacterial blight and bacterial leaf spot of sesame are
caused by two pathogens Xanthomonas sesami and
Pseudomonasa sesami. Both pathogens may occur
together or separately and can cause complete crop failure
in years of favorable conditions for disease development.
Bacterial blight incidence and severity varies depending
on topography, altitude, and weather conditions. Disease
incidence may reach up to 100% in areas such as Wellega,
Pawe, and Gambella where high humidity persists for
longer time while it is about 10-50% in semi-arid areas
like Werer and Humera. Water logging encourages the
spread of the disease.

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Bacterial blight management options
Variety selection: Use tolerant varieties such as Obsa and
Dicho for Wollega, Abassena for Pawe and Tate for
southern areas.
Cultural: Use of clean seed, stable removal, burning, deep
plowing, and crop rotation controls blight incidence.
Physical method: Hot water treatment at 52oC for 12-14
minutes reduces initial blight infection but avoid field re-
infection.
Chemical: Streptomycin solutions of 750-1000 ppm were
found to reduce blight incidence, but field re-infection was
a problem that could not be managed.
Phyllody
Phyllody is most destructive disease of sesame in drier
areas like Werer, Babille, and Bisidimo and partly in the
north-west. The disease causes deformation of leaves and

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flowers, which remain green with the calyx and corolla,
sometimes stiff, forming a half-open hood (See figure
below). The deformed top parts have shorter internodes,
much brunched, and change to broom shape or become
bunchy. Phyllody infected plants do not bear capsule, if
does they are deformed and crack before maturity and
seeds are shriveled. Phyllody and other virus diseases are
transmitted by jassids and whiteflies, thus, managing these
pests reduce further spread of the disease.
Phyllody control measures
Cultural: Do not use seeds harvested from phyllody
infected fields. Destroy sesame plants with disease
symptom from field and burn them immediately. Alternate
host of jassids should also be destroyed from field edges.

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Chemical: There is no chemical that controls phyllody
disease, but insecticide application against its vector
(jassid = Orosius albicnatus) minimizes its spread.
Wilt
Wilt is caused by a fungus, Fusarium oxysporium f.
sesami. Infected terminal leaves turn yellowish, desiccate,
and droop, the symptom progressing down to the stem.
Mostly infection is patchy and when mature plants are
attacked, only one side of the plant shows symptoms.
When uprooted, roots will be wholly or partially rotten.
Wilt control: Seed selection, early plowing/cultivation and
exposing the fungus to desiccation, avoiding water
logging conditions in the field, field sanitation, and crop
rotation are highly recommended.

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Maturity
The length of growing season for sesame cultivars planted
in Ethiopia varies depending on the length of the rainy
seasons in each agro-ecology. In Humera and similar short
season areas, sesame is ready to be harvested within 100
days and varieties that can mature early are grown. In
Wellega, Benshangul Gumuz, Gambella and similar long
season areas, sesame usually matures within 150 days and
there late maturing varieties are grown. Apart from the
length of the rainy season, the nature of the crop i.e. its
indeterminate nature needs cautions to decide proper
planting time. Since flowering occurs in an indeterminate
fashion, seed capsules on the lower stem are ripening
while the upper stem is still flowering.
At maturity leaves and stems tend to change from green to
yellow, then to dark red in color and the leaves will begin
to fall off, and normally dries down in 2 to 3 weeks
depending on climatic condition. Depending on the
moisture and fertility, the currently grown varieties stop
flowering at about 72-90 days after planting. Self-
defoliation and seed maturity begin as the flowering stops.
The plants normally hold on to the top leaves until the
upper capsules mature.
Sesame plants physiologically mature when the seed in the
capsules ¾ up on the capsule zone have turned from milky
white to an off-white color. As the capsules dry, the tips
will open and expose the seeds. This opening of the

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capsule is critical to drying the seed faster and to allowing
the seed to be thrashed with a minimum of force. The
faster the seed dries down, the less exposure to pest attack
and wind damage.
Harvesting and Stacking
Sesame is ready for harvesting 90 to 120 days after
planting depending on variety. In general, non-branched
varieties mature earlier and harvesting starts when 75% of
the pod/capsules are ripened. Timely harvesting and
stacking is very essential for quality harvest and decrease
losses due to shattering in cases of labor limitations.
In harvesting sesame, the mature plants are cut, bundled,
and shocked to dry. In some areas, the shocks are left in
the field. In other areas the bundles are moved to a
shocking fence — as in, parts of Africa—or to a thrashing
floor—as in parts of India. As the plants dry, the capsules
open and some of the seed can fall out. If on a thrashing

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floor, the shocks can be moved every few days, and the
seed collected. If in the field, the fallen seed is lost. White
seeds are very visible on the ground, but to estimate the
amount of loss in kg/ha; on the ground, mark off an area
1m by 1m in a representative area and collect and weigh
the seeds/m2 and then convert to ha by multiplying in
1000.
Mechanical harvesting is more successful with varieties
that have minimal branching and a height from the soil
surface to the first capsule of about 30cm and above. The
harvester named SAHARA-3 was evaluated at Humera for
its efficiency and was found successful. The harvester cuts
one hectare of sesame in one hour and 25 minutes with
only one cutter, but it is possible to fix three cutting units
(blades) at the same time it can operate well without any
difficulties. Therefore, sesame harvester SAHARA can be
used to withstand the labor shortage observed during
sesame harvesting.
In the northwest, (Humera and Metema) freshly hand cut
sesame plants are usually swathed green in small hand full
bundles. About 400 small bundles make one shock locally
known as Hilla, which is placed upright. In other parts of
the country, cut sesame plants are bundled and stacked
upright in shocks of 6-8 bundles. Each shock has to be
pegged to protect wind damage by tightening strings
around it.
Under sunny conditions, sesame will be ready for
thrashing within 2 weeks. If cloudy days prevail longer,

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then wait for one more week. In areas with termite
infestation, do not allow longer drying in the field. Heavy
wind and rains during drying seriously damage seed. In
such cases monitor field frequently and thrash as early as
possible.

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Thrashing
Two weeks after harvesting, thrash and winnow the seeds.
However, caution is recommended to minimize seed loss
during taking to thrashing ground. Thrashing ground
should be concrete floor or use canvases to free from soil,
gravel, dust and other inert materials that reduce quality of
sesame seed.

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Cleaning, Transporting and Storing
Cleaning
On dry down the shocks are inverted over a
cloth/canvases/plastic sheets in the field.
Depending on the amount of shattering, the bundles may
be hit with a stick until all seeds fall-off. Clean by
repeated winnowing until the seeds are separated from the
chaff and other inert matters.
Transporting
Freshly thrashed seed above 7% moisture content should
not be left sitting on a truck for a long time to avoid
spoilage. Trucks with sesame on board should generally
not be trapped on a sunny day, since the cover can
increase heat build-up. Clean and dry in sun for about 7
days before bagging and transporting. For maximum
protection, sesame seeds have to be moved from the farm
to the storehouse in bags weighing approximately
weighing 98 ± 2 kg. The bags with or without seed should
not be loaded on pesticide or oil contaminated trucks or
put in a damp place or any place where it may be exposed
to contamination.
Storage
Due to small seed size and flat shape of sesame seeds, it is
difficult for ambient and fresh air to move through it in
storages. Therefore, it is recommended that the seed be
thrashed as dry as possible, and stored at moisture content

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of below 7%. If the seed is too moist, it can quickly heat
up and become rancid.
The warehouse/stores must be clean and sacks must be
free of live insects and their development stages.
Equipment as well as working and drying surfaces and
preparing and storage rooms, should be cleaned regularly
and all sweepings collected from time to time.
Bags must be stacked or piled up systematically to ease
counting and removing, inspection and management with
a minimum of 2 meter spacing between stacks. Stacked
sesame should be stored in a dark place at low
temperatures (below 18°C) and low relative humidity.
Under optimum storage conditions, sesame seeds can be
stored for up to one year. However, it is very important to
protect the seeds from loss of aroma and undesirable
smells and tastes from its surroundings. Therefore, storing
pesticides, fuel, oil, and other odorizing agents with
sesame in the same store is not allowed. Empty bags,
tarpaulins and other accessories not in use shall be stored
separately.
Each stack should be inspected at least once in two weeks
to check whether seeds are damaged by insect, rodents, or
dampness or moisture. If damage is observed, necessary
measures have to be taken. For damage by insects,
fumigate with Aluminum phosphate tablets (APT) at the
rate of 3 tablets per ton sesame seed. If rats are causing
damage, their points of entry should be checked up and
necessary measures be taken to prevent their ingress. If

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dampness is observed either due to seepage of water from
the floor or from the walls of the store or due to leakage of
rainwater, the source of dampness or rain shall be
removed. For safe and long storage, all cut bags in the
stacks should be either suitably repaired or replaced
through periodic inspections.
Grading
In Ethiopia, there have been three market classes for
sesame, which is based on seed color. These are the
Humera and Gondar types, which have bright white seed
color, and the Wollega type possessing dull white color.
The Humera and Gondar types command market premium
compared to the Wollega type.
Good Agricultural Practices
Throughout this manual, you will find suggestions for
stopping or lessening pest population before they have
control over the sesame field. To make a plan for you to
grow a healthy crop, the following tips are the steps you
ought to take:
 Select the proper variety that is well adapted to your local
conditions;
 Prepare the soil thoroughly by using appropriate tillage implements;
 Follow the recommended planting date and distances;
 Monitor your field for germination and crop stand;
 Observe proper field sanitation by removing infested plants, keeping
the area free of weeds;

Sesame production manual
[45]
 Learn to identify the insect/disease pests that cause damage to
sesame;
 Always select plants with good stand and free from disease and
insect pests;
 Practice crop rotation by planting on the next cropping season; and
 When in doubt, always ask for assistance from experts.
When controlling pests using the plant extracts and other
homemade solutions, the following are the standard
procedures for their preparation and application
 Select plants or plant parts that are pest-free;
 When storing the plants/plant parts for future usage, make sure that
they are properly dried and are stored in an airy container (never use
plastic container), away from direct sunlight and moisture;
 Make sure that they are free from molds before using them;
 Do not use cooking and drinking utensils for the extract preparation;
 Clean properly all the utensils every time after using them;
 Do not have a direct contact with the crude extract while in the process
of preparation and during application;
 Make sure that you place the plant extract out of reach of children and
house pets while leaving it overnight;
 Always test the plant extract formulation on a few infested plants first
before going into large scale spraying;
 Wear protective clothing while applying the extract; and
 Wash your hands after handling the plant extract.

Geremew
et. al
[46]
Acknowledgements
I would like to express our gratitude and sincere thanks to all
the individuals, groups and organizations that have generated
information and prepared the bases for the most agronomic
practices and pest control measures presented in this
production manual, may it have been by preserving traditional
experience, on field trials, on field research or in the
laboratories. The financial support obtained from the
Netherlands Embassy for publishing this manual through the
public private partnership project (PPPO) is dully
acknowledged.