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Textile Society of America Symposium
Proceedings Textile Society of America
2008
Identi4cation of Red Dyes in Textiles from the Andean Region Identi4cation of Red Dyes in Textiles from the Andean Region
Ana Roquero
anaroquero2@gmail.com
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Roquero, Ana, "Identi4cation of Red Dyes in Textiles from the Andean Region" (2008).
Textile Society of
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Identification of Red Dyes in Textiles from the Andean Region
Ana Roquero
anaroquero2@gmail.com
Introduction
The identification of dyes and pigments is nowadays very precise by means of different
systems of chromatographic analysis. Nevertheless, as the same dye component can be found
in different plants and animals, it is important when studying dyes in textiles to consider the
geographical and cultural context of both the textile and the possible dyestuffs used
historically in the area.
In the case of South American textiles, the major source of bibliographical information about
the subject can be found in the Spanish Chronicles from the Americas, produced during the
XVI–XVII centuries. Although European textile technology was introduced in the New
World soon after the arrival of the Spaniards, it can be easily accepted that the descriptions
about indigenous dyeing procedures gathered in the chronicles generally refer to genuinely
autochthonous practices. When the botanists of the Spanish scientific expeditions to South
America in the XVIII century, later reported about the plants used by local dyers of Peru and
Colombia, those happened to be the same as the ones mentioned in the previous centuries.
Furthermore, ethno-botanical data gathered by Francis MacBride in his Flora of Peru1,
during the first half of the twentieth century, again coincide with preceding information.
Finally, ethnographic field research conducted by the author between 1986-1992 with dyers
of Indian Communities of Ecuador and Peru for the study and register of dyeing techniques
and common names of the plants, gave similar results2
Red Dyes from the Andean Region
.
He wore his “llauto” red, and the feather of his parasol and his shirt red… and the
underwear was red, and his cape light red… (Guamán Poma de Ayala)
When the chronicler Guamán Poma de Ayala described in 1613 the clothing of nobleman
Cinchi Roga Inga3 he seemed to be remarking on the particular significance of red colour in
Inca society. In fact, red colour, in various shades, is profusely found in archaeological and
ancient textiles from South America.
Most of the crimson, scarlet and purple hues that we can observe in old Andean textiles came
from one single source: cochineal (Datylopius spp.). These parasitic insects grow wild or
domesticated, on several species of Opuntia cactus. The insect was named macnu or magno
in the Quechua language. Such was the importance of this commodity that Inca ruler’s
regulations considered its storage in the royal warehouse as a first necessity, comparable to
Dactylopius coccus Costa, Common Quechua name: macnu
1 MacBride, J. Francis (1946 – 1960)
2 Roquero, Ana: Tintes y Tintoreros de America - Catálogo de materias primas y registro etnográfico de
México, Centro América, Andes Centrales y Selva Amazónica, Instituto del patrimonio Histórico Español,
Ministerio de Cultura, Madrid 2006.
3 Guamán Poma de Ayala (1987:A82)
food: …we order that in the entire kingdom there must be food in abundance… and magno…
and other kinds of leaves to dye colours for cumbi…4.
Figure 1. Cochineal (Dactylopius coccus), Mexico. Photo: A. Roquero.
Up to 95% of the colouring components of cochineal dye correspond to carminic acid, of the
anthraquinone group. The average of the rest of its components, according to HPLC analysis
carried out by Wouters and Verhecken on extracts from dried insects is: 0.1% = kermesic
acid, 0.4% = flavokermesic acid, the rest belonging to four other colorants of unknown
structure. Nevertheless, analysis carried out on fibres dyed with cochineal previously
mordanted with alum, tin, iron and copper showed different proportions of the colouring
components due to the selective absorption of the colouring substances by the fibres5
An excellent example of the use of colour modifiers was found by the author among Salasaca
dyers from Tungurahua, in Ecuador. Women of the community wear a rectangular, hand-
woven, woollen garment over the shoulders. This garment receives in Spanish the name of
.
All these compounds are responsible for the characteristic crimson hue of the dye. But the
original crimson colour can be modified by combination with different metals or by changing
the pH of the dye bath. A bright scarlet can be obtained by adding tin salts or an acid product,
or a deep purple may be achieved by adding an alkaline product or an iron compound.
4 Guamán Poma de Ayala (1987:A184)
5 Cardon (2007:624)
vara y media in reference to the length of the cloth6. It was traditionally dyed with cochineal7
but each woman would choose a different shade of red.
Figure 2. Salasaca dyer showing red woollen cloths with modified cochineal red colours. Ecuador.
Photo: A. Roquero.
Salasaca dyers collect wild cochineal –probably Datylopius confussus– which they crush to
form cakes that are left to dry for future use. When they have to dye, they collect tiri leaves
(Miconia sp.) which, as Francisco Hernández observed in 1571, prepare and improve the
little worms (cochineal) that dye scarlet8. The leaves of Miconia spp. contain aluminium and
tannins and serve therefore as an excellent mordant. First the leaves are boiled, then the
cochineal cakes are dissolved in the bath and finally three wetted woollen lengths of cloth are
introduced. Once the dye is finished, the cloths, which present a crimson colour, are taken out
and set apart while the dyer puts the juice of 30 lemons9
Other Red Dyes Found in Andean textiles
in the pot and mixes it carefully. One
piece of cloth is returned into the dye pot and left for a short while. When this piece is taken
out it shows a bright scarlet hue. A second piece of dyed cloth, still wet, is thoroughly rubbed
with wood ashes until it takes a purple colour. The third one is left in its original crimson hue,
a process that is not difficult to imagine done by Pre-Columbian dyers.
In spite of the evident superiority and versatility of cochineal, other sources of red and purple
dyes were reported by the chroniclers in South America. The following have been used since
Pre-Columbian times as has been made evident by analysis in Andean textiles.
6 Vara: old Spanish measure = 83’5 cm. The Salasaca garment measures one vara and a half = approximately
125 cm.
7 Actually, some women wear garments of colours different to red, dyed with synthetic products.
8 Hernández (1959:II,118)
9 Probably in pre Columbian times, when lemons had not yet been introduced in the Continent, they used Oxalis
spp. leaves to acidify the dye bath. The plant is mentioned by Guamán Poma de Ayala among those kept in the
Inca warehouse for dyeing purposes.
Relbunium hypocarpium (L.) Hemsl. ssp. hypocarpium [=Galium hypocarpium (L.)
Endlicher ex Griesbach], Common Quechua name: chamiri
A strong red, slightly orange, is produced by the roots of several herbs of the Relbunium and
Galium genus from the Rubiaceae family. These grow in tropical forests of the Continent at
medium and high altitudes, between 900 and 3000 m. The colorants they contain belong to
the anthraquinone group and therefore provide very fast colours. Bernabé Cobo, in 1653,
described chapi-chapi, as a small plant which produces short slender stems that lie on the
ground; with many little leaves… and indicates that the natives use them to dye the red
woollen cloth
Relbunium croceum ssp. involucratum (H.B.K.) Ehrendf. (= R. ciliatum Hemsl. = R.
corymbosum R.&P.), Common Quechua names: antaco, chapi-chapi, ccallo-huacta
10.
Figure 3. “Relbunium” sp. Cotopaxi, Ecuador. Photo: A. Roquero.
Recent analysis of colorants on Relbunium species carried out by C. Duta Moresi11 indicate
as the most remarkable point the complete absence of alizarin in all the samples analyzed.
This characteristic makes the species distinct from other Rubiaceae. In the case of Relbunium
hypocarpium, the red dye is characterised by the predominance of purpurin, accompanied by
lucidin and/or xanthopurpurin, pseudopurpurin, munjistin, and an unknown anthraquinone12.
Arrabidaea chica (Humb. & Bonpl.) Verlot [= Bignonia chica H.&B.]
The sap from chica bark, stems, and leaves was popularly used in tropical America to paint
the face and body red. Archaeological evidence shows that it was also an important red dye
for textiles in the past. Arrabidaea chica is a climbing plant that grows in tropical forests of
the Continent, between sea level and 1500 m. and sometimes at higher levels, up to 2600 m in
Peru, near Cuzco
Common names: chica (Colombia), carajurú (Brazil), puca ponga (Peru)
13
10 Bernabé Cobo (1964:189)
11 Duta Moresi (1999)
12 Cardon (2007:263-64)
13 Cardon (2007:260)
.
Figure 4. “Arrabidaea chica.” Colombia. Photo: B. Devia.
Investigation and analysis by HPLC-PDA carried on by Devia14 et al. on textiles from the
tenth to the sixteenth centuries, belonging to Muisca, Guane and U’wa civilisations from
Colombia, revealed the recurrent presence of this red dye in textiles of the area. The main dye
constituent of Arrabidaea, carajurin, was established by Chapman et al. in 1927, for which
they proposed a 3-desoxyanthocyanidin structure. Recent research by Devia et al. has
confirmed the structure proposed by Chapman for carajurin, and have isolated and
determined the structure of two new 3-desoxyanthocyanidins from the leaves, all of which
produce fairly stable red dyes15
Other Red Dyes to Look for in Andean Textiles
.
Chronicles of Peru mention dyestuffs that can not be obtained in the highlands but might
have been used in cultural areas of the coast, or imported to the sierra from the eastern
lowlands.
Such is the case of brazilwood. Bernabé Cobo mentioned in 1653: The Indians from Cuzco
call yunca the lands that lie at the eastern part of the mountain chain… there grow infinite
trees of precious woods, such as brazil…
Haematoxylon brasiletto Karsten, Common name: Brazilwood
16
14 Devia (2002 and 2003)
15 Cardon (2007:261-62)
16 Cobo (1964:t. I, 67-69)
. The name of brazil is usually given to
Caesalpinia echinata and other Caesalpinia species as well as to Haematoxylon brasiletto,
but the wood of other trees belonging to different species, genus and even families, was
sometimes also named brazil just because it yielded a red dye. It is not possible, therefore, to
know exactly about which plant the chronicler is talking. Geographical distribution does not
indicate proximity of any of them to the main cultural centres in the Andean region although
Haematoxylon brasiletto can be found in South America in dry areas of Venezuela and
Colombia from sea level up to 1200 m, and its wood might have been object of trade. The
colorant obtained from brazilwood, brazilein, belongs to the group of homoisoflavonoids. It
is not remarkable for its fastness but imparts a bright red that can eventually be modified into
purple in an alkaline medium.
Figure 5. “Haematoxylon brasiletto.” Costa Rica. Photo: A. Roquero.
This small tree grows in tropical and sub tropical areas of the Continent. The pulp that covers
the seeds contains bixin, norbixin, and six other colorants of the carotenoid family, as well as
tannins
Bixa orellana L., Common Quechua name: huantura
17. The orange-red paste obtained from huantura seeds was used to paint face and
body, as well as for food flavouring. However, bibliographical information of its use as a dye
is very scarce. Only Bernabé Cobo, in 1653 makes an eloquent observation about its dyeing
properties: This colour is so firm, that even with soap and lye it is impossible to clean the
cloth dyed with it18. Cobo’s remark seems exaggerated, so perhaps he just refers to stained
cloth, not dyed on purpose. Anyhow it indicates its possible use as a dye in America, maybe
not for its fastness but because of its beauty. Such was the reason of its great success among
silk European dyers in the XVIII century19.
Figure 6. “Bixa orellana.” Peru. Photo: A. Roquero.
Tannins for Russet
A remark made in 1525 by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo leads us to consider that further
analysis in search of condensed tannins in pre Columbian textiles as a source of red would be
interesting. The chronicler said: Indians call this tree nanci. This tree is like the one of
brazilwood, but it is not the same brazil, as some think…20
17 Mayer (1950:84-92)
18 Cobo (1964:I, 254-255)
19 Roquero (2006:83-84)
20 Fernández de Oviedo (1992:I, 295), Soukup (no date.:94)
. He refers to Byrsonyma
crassifolia, known as indano in Peru. It belongs to the Malpighiaceae family and it is
impossible to mistake it with either Haematoxylon brasiletto or with any species of
Caesalpinia.
Byrsonyma crassifolia H.B.K., Indano, nanci, nanche
The bark of indano contains condensed tannins that are transformed by oxidation into strong
russet dyes of the phlobaphene type. The same kind of tannins and other pigments of the
anthracenic group, like emodin, are also present in the bark of alder trees (Alnus spp.)
Alnus jorullensis H.B.K., Lambrán
21. The
use of alder bark to obtain a rusty red colour is common in Central and South America. The
same type of bright orange-red, tannin dyes, developed by oxidation on cotton cloth, are still
achieved, by Shippibo dyers in the Peruvian Amazon using mahogany bark (Swietenia
macrophylla) and by dyers living near mangrove swamps with mangrove (Rhizophora
mangle) root barks22. Although this type of dyes is especially suitable for cotton, the author
has found dyers in Cuzco and in the Parobamba region in Peru using them for wool and
alpaca.
Figure 7. “Byrsonima crassifolia.” El Salvador. Photo: A. Roquero.
Purple Dyes to Look for in Andean Textiles
Purple hues often found in Peruvian textiles were not always obtained by modifying
cochineal crimson with alkaline products: some were dyed with true shellfish purple. Besides,
purple being universally considered the most precious of dyes, has been historically imitated
with cheaper dyestuffs, among which orchil producing lichens which yield luminous violet,
mauve and strong pink colours were the best alternative. Therefore, both molluscs and
lichens need to be contemplated when studying South American textiles. The difference
between both sources of purple is their fastness. Purple dye obtained from different marine
molluscs of the Muricidae family, is an indigoid of excellent fastness while orchil is
extremely fugitive.
The majority of references about purple in South American dyeing point to the Guayaquil
province in Ecuador. By the end of the XVIII century Antonio de Alcedo writes: … the
cotton thread spun in the Guayaquil province… they dye it in a bright purple permanent
colour, by no other means than wetting it in the juice that expels a sea snail that can be found
on those beaches23
21 Font Quer (1978:100) / (1985:72)
22 Roquero (1997:50-57)
23 Alcedo (1967:315)
.
Several species of purple-producing molluscs were available to pre-Columbian dyers in the
Pacific coasts of South America: Plicopurpura pansa (Gould, 1853), distributed from Baja
California to as far south as Ecuador; Thais kioskiforme (Duclos 1832), from Baja California
to North of Peru and Concholepas concholepas (Bruguière 1758) from Peru to Patagonia.
The use of purple dye in pre-Columbian times was confirmed for the first time by
chromatographic analysis in 1962. Analysis was carried out at Harmon Colours Laboratory,
National Aniline Division, Allied Chemical Corporation, from a selection of ancient Peruvian
textiles24. The main component of oxidised purple dye is 6,6’-dibromoindigotin, and may
include–depending on the species – 6,6’-dibromoindirubin, indirubin and, in some cases,
traces of isatin25.
There is no written record of the use of lichens for dyeing in ancient Peru. In contrast, the
trade of orchil-producing lichens is reported in the documents of British companies which, in
the XIX century, exported hundreds of tons of the so called “Lima weed” (lichens of the
Roccella genus) from Peru and Chile to England
Roccella portentosa (Mont.) Larb. and Roccella spp. Commercial name: “Lima weed”
26.
The author has found ethnographic examples of red lichen dyeing performed by dyers in
villages near Cuzco, and in the Parobamba district, in Peru. They use foliose lichens of
Parmelia species, which form dense clusters in Peruvian highlands. These lichens contain
orcinol, a red-purple pigment, and usneic acid, a yellow one. Dyers obtain a russet red from
them.
Parmelia spp. Common Quechua names: rumi-unku and llast’a llast’a
Popular Red and Purple Dyes
Many other red and purple dyestuffs can be obtained in the area for which there is no
historical record regarding use or trade. But we do have reliable ethnographic data. Most of
these dyes are extracted from fruits, and the colorants they contain belong to the
anthocyanidin type, so they are not very fast. Women use them, especially for small items
that are not meant to last. For example fruits of Monnina spp. and Coriaria thymifolia that
yield a luminous bluish purple are used for bag strings and hair ribbons. For a bright cherry
colour, the use of airampo fruits (Phytolacca spp.) is popular from Mexico to Peru. And red
figs of airambo, Opuntia soehrensii, are used to dye the underskirts of wedding dresses in a
bright scarlet.
Saving Cochineal?
It seems especially interesting the practice of mixing certain red or purplish dyestuffs, such as
purple corn grains or Miconia spp. fruits, with cochineal.
Zea mays L. Common Quechua names: muti, sara
Both stuffs are used nowadays by Cuzco dyers together with cochineal to obtain red and
purple. Perhaps, like nowadays, those cheap, not very fast dyes, were sometimes used to save
the expensive cochineal. Therefore, when analysing the colouring substances of an Andean
textile, it may also be worth considering these popular sources of red dyes.
Miconia spp. Common Quechua name: mutti mutti
24 Born in: Turok (1988:21)
25 Cardon (2007:556)
26 Investigator Isabella Whitworth (Devon, G.B.) studies the actual documents of a XIX century British firm
specialised in the import of “Lima weed” for the dye industry.
Figure 8 (left). Purple corn, “Zea mays.” Peru. Photo: A. Roquero.
Figure 9 (right). Reference samples of dyes mentioned in this paper. Photo: A. Roquero.
Essay of Analysis on Ethnographic Dyes
Various analyses on red Peruvian dyes were done previously to this presentation at the
Spanish Institute for Cultural Heritage (IPCE) laboratory27
Results and discussion
. As expected, the results obtained
for the fibres dyed with Dactylopius coccus and Relbunium species indicated that the main
components are carminic acid and purpurin, respectively. Therefore, the principal objective
was to characterise the main components present in red dyestuffs from the Andean Region
which had not yet been identified.
The sample chosen in this occasion was wool dyed in bright red with chile-chile (Geranium
filipes Killip) by a craftsman of Pitumarca, near Cuzco (Peru). Chile-chile is an endemic herb
from the Andean Region, growing at altitudes about 3000 – 4500 m. above sea level. The part
of the plant used was the root and alum was employed as mordant. Analysis was performed
using HPLC-DAD system.
Three compounds were detected as main components in the Geranium filipes sample. As
shown in Figure 10, the UV-visible absorption properties (λmax) are similar for the three and
typical for anthocyanin dyes.
3
2
1
Peak
anthocyanin514.357,2
anthocyanin515.546,1
anthocyanin513.144,9
Type of compound
λmax (nm)
Tr (min)
3
2
1
Peak
anthocyanin514.357,2
anthocyanin515.546,1
anthocyanin513.144,9
Type of compound
λmax (nm)
Tr (min)
1
23
1 2 3
1
23
1 2 3
1
23
1 2 3
Figure 10 (left). “Geranium filipes” sample. Photo: A. Roquero.
Figure 11 (right). Chromatogram at 510 nm of fiber sample dyed with “Geranium filipes”
obtained by HPLC-PDA.
27 All samples were obtained by the author from a reference collection belonging to the IPCE, in particular from
those included in the project “Dyes and Dyers from the Americas”.
Their absolute identification results difficult due to the unavailability of individual standards
of anthocyanins in the IPCE laboratory and the fact that UV-vis spectra of compounds with
related structures are relatively similar. Further investigation, based on the presented
preliminary study, will be focused on the individual identification of all components present
in this and other similar endemic dyestuffs from America.
Acknowledgments
Thank you to Beatriz Devia for the photographs of Arabidaea chica, Nathalie Boucherie for
providing Relbunium reference samples, Timoteo Ccarita Sacaca and David Pimentel for
providing some of the ethnographic dye samples, Elena Phipps and Amy Oakland for
encouraging me to participate, and to the Reed Foundation for their generous financial
support.
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