Arctium lappa, burdock

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THE WESTERN HERBAL TRADITION
91
CHAPTER 10
Arctium lappa, burdock
DESCRIPTION
Family: Asteraceae
Burdock is a name familiar to me since my childhood, not
that I was able to recognize the plant as I passed it, which
would be often, since in England burdock grows freely
in the wild almost everywhere today, and observed by
Culpeper; and with a preference for damp earth and waste
ground like ditches, by old buildings and roadsides and
about towns and villages; so common in fact, says Grieve,
that it was not often considered worth cultivating. No, for
me it was the strange but pleasant, bitter-sweet taste of a
dandelion and burdock drink that I remember. Only later
have I come to learn that both dandelion and burdock are
herbal alternatives, bitter and diuretic with a cooling effect
according to Galenic pharmacological classification. In
this regard they complement each other very well.
Burdock was once considered one of the best blood
purifiers, according to Grieve. The British Pharmaceutical
Codex (1934), however, states that burdock is rarely used
in medicine but was formerly employed as a diuretic and
diaphoretic (at a dose of 1–6 g, in a 1 : 20 decoction). In
its pharmacological index among the appendices there is
no listing of an ‘alterative’ action (although emmenogogue
and tonic actions are there), a term which herbalists still
use today, as Bartram notes, and interchangeable with
‘blood cleanser’ or ‘depurative’. But what do they mean?
What does an alterative alter? One definition is ‘those
medicines which in particular doses effect a gradual cure
by correcting the general diseased habit of body without
producing a very visible effect – such as purging, vomiting,
or sweating – are generally called alteratives, such as bitter
teas and aperient draughts’ (Simmonite & Culpeper 1957).
This statement is from the pen of WJ Simmonite, a Victo-
rian herbalist and astrologer, rather than from Culpeper
Part used: root, seed, leaf
Arctium lappa L. is a robust biennial, found throughout Europe on roadsides, verges and scrub land. The Flora of
Turkey (Davis 1975) gives three Arctium species, not including Arctium lappa but including Arctium minus.
Stout, downy, striated, branched stems (to 1 m) bear alternate, entire leaves which are large (to 50 cm long) and
wide with a heart-shaped base and white down underneath. The petioles (leaf-stalks) are solid. The spherical, purple
flowerheads are stalked and surrounded by dense clusters of scale-like hooked bracts. The egg-shaped seeds are achenes
and surrounded by a pappus of yellowish free hairs and characteristic stiff hooked scales derived from the bracts. The
ribbed seeds are dispersed by animals as the scales stick firmly to fur.
Lesser burdock Arctium minus Bernh. is very similar but smaller (to 50 cm). Basal leaves are smaller and narrower with
hollow leaf stalks (Stace 1991). The purple flowerheads occur in clusters and project beyond the surrounding spiny bracts.
The seed is not ribbed. Arctium minus has three subspecies and a fertile cross with Arctium lappa (Stace 1991) and there
are many variants (Keil 2006). The photographed specimen may be a cross as it as over 1 m tall but had hollow petioles.
Both species are used interchangeably (Bradley 1992). Greater burdock seeds are widely used in traditional Chinese
medicine (WHO 1989, Lü et al 2007). The root is cultivated in Japan and Taiwan as a vegetable cv. Gobo and sold in large
pieces, 80 cm long. Inulin content decreases with storage (Ishimaru et al 2004).
Quality
The root is harvested in autumn or spring, and should be sliced and dried quickly as it is prone to spoiling.
A third of commercial seed samples purchased in China were adulterated with fruits of four other Asteracea species,
e.g. Arctium tomentosum and one Leguminosae (Kang et al 1999). De Smet et al (1993) include Arctium tomentosum as
acceptable for medicinal use.
When collecting the seed, care should be taken to avoid contact with the eyes as tiny barbed needles in the burs can
injure the cornea (De Smet et al 1993).
Cases have occurred in the 1970s of contamination of burdock root with root of Atropa belladonna, which led to
anticholinergic poisoning (De Smet et al 1993).

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Figure 10.1 Arctium sp., burdock (Farnley reservoir, Yorkshire, July).

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since the word ‘alterative’ is not used by him. The thera-
peutic strategy of gradual resolution of the patient’s
condition through a cleansing action suggested by this
definition is often the mode of treatment offered today by
many professional herbalists: a gentler approach which
has replaced the vomits and cathartics of the Galenic tradi-
tion, and their more modern counterparts such as lobelia,
Lobelia inflata, and mountain flax, Linum catharticum,
which were used by some herbalists until as recently as 50
years ago.
An alterative medicine is elsewhere defined as a herb
which promotes the elimination of metabolic waste prod-
ucts, for example uric acid (Priest & Priest). Chevallier
writes of a depurative action found with herbs such as
burdock, which encourages removal of waste products.
Bartram in his entry for alteratives cites Blakiston’s Medical
Dictionary: ‘medicines that alter the process of nutrition,
restoring in some unknown way the normal functions of
an organ or system … re-establishing healthy nutritive
processes’. This definition seems to hark back to concepts
of tissue nourishment found in physiomedicalism.
Bartram continues ‘they are blood cleansers that favoura-
bly change the character of the blood and lymph to
detoxify and promote renewal of body tissue. The term
has been superseded by the word ’adaptogen’. Bartram
seems to recognize the problematic nature of claims of
detoxification of body fluids in a time when physiomedi-
cal or humoral concepts of disease are no longer current.
Elsewhere he defines adaptogen as ‘a substance that helps
the body to adapt to a new strain or stress by stimulating
the body’s own defensive mechanism. Natural substances
in the form of plant medicines offer a gentle alternative to
fast-acting synthetic chemical medicine in releasing the
body’s own source of energy to sustain the immune
system’. Can a herbal alterative be restyled an adaptogen?
Does a herb which works on elimination via the bile,
urine or sweat stimulate an immune response in so doing?
Mention of the immune system adds a modern gloss to a
much older therapeutic idea, but it is worth adding that
species of Echinacea now have an evidence base for manag-
ing the common cold and viral infections, but were once
classified as ‘stimulating alteratives’ before being restyled
‘immunomodulators’.
Hoffmann states that alterative herbs ‘gradually restore
proper function to the body and increase overall health
and vitality … alteratives seem to alter the body’s meta-
bolic processes to improve tissues’ ability to deal with a
range of body functions from nutrition to elimination’.
This action is not understood and appears unclear, he says,
citing the concept of blood cleansing as meaningless, but
is undeniably of value in the holistic approach to health.
Such herbs may work on elimination of wastes via kidneys,
liver, lungs or skin; by stimulating digestive function; or
as immunomodulators. ‘Others simply work!’ He lists a
number of alteratives for each system of the body, and
their secondary actions, which probably make more sense
to those sceptical of the concept of an alterative action.
Thus, whether or not burdock is a primary alterative herb
targeting the digestion and skin, it has bitter, hepatic and
diuretic actions.
In their chapter on skin diseases, Mills & Bone (2000)
prefer to list burdock as ‘one of the plant remedies tradi-
tionally used as alteratives’. Indications for such herbs are
dermatological: furunculosis, eczema, some cases of acne
and urticaria, and most other skin diseases, as part of a
wider prescription. The use of alterative herbs for joint
disease, connective tissue disease and detoxification
regimes constitute other ‘traditional indications’. Under
diuretics, Mills & Bone classify herbs which remove uric
acid from the body separately from those possessing a
purely diuretic action (although this term has been chal-
lenged by Tyler (1999) who prefers the term ‘aquaretic’
since research has not established the equivalence of these
herbal medicines to chemical diuretics) but may share the
indications of the latter, including dysuria and oliguria
linked to infections and stones, nocturnal enuresis and
other functional disturbances of urination, arthritis and
skin disorders. Burdock is specifically cited by Mills &
Bone as one of five herbs which research has shown to
produce, when given internally as infusions, a moderate
solvent action on stones formed from urates. An alkaliniz-
ing effect on the urine or a possible urinary antiseptic
action is proposed as the underlying cause of this benefit.
Burdock is also included in a herbal formula used in a
small-scale survey concerning the management of osteo-
arthritis (Hamblin et al 2004). The fact that alterative
herbs are used in the herbal treatment of skin and rheu-
matic problems implies a belief that this action promotes
improvement and healing by flushing out a range of meta-
bolic waste products from joint spaces and stimulating the
drainage of lymph and the removal of extracellular materi-
als from skin lesions. A positive statement to this effect is
made by Quincy, who affirms that all authors consider
burdock seeds to be extremely diuretic and that ‘some
reckon them effectual in carrying off by those discharges
what is very much the occasion of arthritic pains, when
‘tis once deposited upon the joints’. Miller from the same
period wants the root to be taken internally for pains in
the limbs and for gout, while the leaves boiled in milk are
applied topically as a cataplasm at the same time.
These 18th century statements provide a foundation for
the development of burdock as an alterative diuretic with
particular use in arthritic conditions among herbalists and
herbal physicians of the 19th century. Coffin writes of an
antiscorbutic rather than alterative action of burdock,
along with slight aperient and tonic effects. He advises
burdock seed as a diuretic and, given in an infusion with
the leaves of raspberry Rubus idaeus to children, it soothes
and tranquillizes the system. The leaves are used for rheu-
matism and gout, leprosy (presumably copied from older
texts – the word lepra in Greek means a scaly condition
of the skin), kidney obstructions (which may mean

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94
abate the nausea of lobelia. Fox equates burdock with
sarsaparilla in the treatment of rheumatism, skin condi-
tions and enlarged glands and lumps in the neck. The root
may be combined variously with dock Rumex crispus, slip-
pery elm Ulmus fulva, fumitory Fumaria officinalis, bitter-
sweet Solanum dulcamara, sanicle Sanicula europaea and
cleavers Galium aparine in the treatment of enlarged
glands, with marshmallow ointment applied topically. He
advises a strong decoction of the seed as a nervine for
convulsions, fits, spasms and epilepsy, and as a diuretic
for inflammations of the kidneys and bladder. Hool pro-
vides the measures for such a decoction: 1 oz burdock
seed in
1
1
2
pints of water reduced to 1 pint and given in
half-teacup doses before meals. He recommends this for
all affections of the kidneys and adds a laxative effect to
its diuretic and tonic actions. He affirms that burdock has
cured many cases of eczema and he recommends an excel-
lent mixture of 1 oz each of burdock and centaury Centau-
rium erythraea,
12
oz each of dock Rumex crispus and
fumitory Fumaria officinalis and 1 teaspoon of cayenne
oliguria rather than parenchymal disease) and to cleanse
the system after mercury treatment for venereal disease.
Externally, the leaves are applied to burns, scalds, and
scrofulous swellings – uses also mentioned in Quincy – or
wrapped about the feet to reduce a fever. Cook, on the
other hand, emphasizes the root, as a relaxant and demul-
cent alterative medicine producing a slow and mild effect
on the kidneys, skin and bowels especially where there is
irritability. A mixture of 2 oz of the root decocted in 2
pints of water boiled down to 1 pint and given freely but
in small doses, for ‘half a pint taken three times a day as
some advise would be ridiculous’, requires several weeks
to produce beneficial effects. A compound syrup of the
root is also used. The crushed seeds, Cook continues, are
more prompt but also more temporary in their diuretic
action, soothing dysuria accompanied by mucus and grey
sediment in the urine and irritation of the bladder. The
seed is also good for the skin, restoring its natural oils
where eruptions cause dryness. Cook relates his own use
of a warm infusion of the seeds in typhoid cases and to
Figure 10.2 Arctium sp., burdock.

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distinguishes this cleansing action from the effect of topical
discussive medicines which, by their heat when laid on,
attempt to thin and disperse an aggregation of matter such
as fluid or blood. Other cleansing medicines are designed
to remove damaged flesh to facilitate healing. Before the
application of cleansing medicines, internal cathartics are
prescribed in cases of plethora or cachexy, and generally
the need for remedies to reduce inflammation or ease pain
is assessed for concomitant administration.
Burdock, however, does not seem to be one of these
external cleansers. In his translation of the dispensatory of
the London College of Physicians, Culpeper has to append
the indications of root and leaf in different sections
according to the original layout of the list of medicines by
the college authors. Thus the root is temperately hot and
dry in the first degree and Culpeper cites Dioscorides and
Apuleius on its indications for internal administration: for
spitting blood, the bites of mad dogs and toothache, for
wind, leucorrhoea (the Myddfai physicians mention lesser
burdock for excessive menstruation) and incontinence,
and to strengthen the back. The leaves are cold and dry in
the first degree and are diuretic and help bladder and joint
pains. These indications appear unchanged in his herbal,
for Culpeper reproduces Parkinson’s list of uses for
Bardana or burdock in both texts, adding only the mention
of his special application of the leaf for the womb and its
associated astrological ruler, Venus.
Dioscorides (IV 106) calls burdock ‘arkion’, sometimes
‘prosopis or prosopion’ (from ‘prosopon’, meaning face).
He describes it as having leaves similar to those of the
round gourd but larger, tougher darker and rough. The
plant is without a stalk and the root is large and white.
The root may be taken internally at a dose of one drachm
(4 g) together with pine nuts for those who spit blood or
suffer from abscesses. Externally the ground root is plas-
tered onto twisted joints to ease pain, while the leaves are
used with benefit on old ulcers. The previous entry in
Dioscorides (IV 105) describes ‘arction’, which Beck iden-
tifies as bearwort (Inula candida, Celsia orientalis or Celsia
acaulis). It is described as having leaves like those of
mullein except rougher and rounder, a soft, white, sweet
root, a long, soft stem and seed like small cumin (thus
presumably ridged or ribbed). The root and fruit boiled in
wine eases toothache when held in the mouth, and heals
burns and chilblains when the part is washed with it. The
decoction is also drunk for hip disease and difficult
urination.
If Beck is right that these are quite different plants – and
the very bitter taste of burdock leaves should allow no
mistake, although the inulin-laden root may taste bitter-
sweet – then it appears that they have been confused in
the later interpretation of Dioscorides. Our Renaissance
version of Galen is clearly referring to bearwort when it is
stated that the root and seed of ‘arctium’ boiled in wine
mitigates toothache and heals burns and chilblains. This
arctium is also named Lappa minor, and a Lappa major,
pepper Capsicum annuum, the total to be simmered in 3
pints of water for 10 minutes. A wineglassful (60 mL) of
the cooled, strained liquid is taken three times daily. A
second formula for eczema is also included by Hool as a
change, in which 1 oz meadowsweet Filipendula ulmaria
replaces the centaury and 12 oz bogbean Menyanthes trifo-
liata substitutes for dock, using 1 oz burdock seed and no
cayenne.
Wren maintains burdock’s reputation as a great blood
cleanser, an alterative with diuretic and diaphoretic
actions, which can be used on its own or in combination,
as a decoction of root or seed in the measure provided by
Hool. The National Botanic Pharmacopoeia of the same
period omits the diaphoretic action, recommends an infu-
sion of the seeds instead, especially in cases of dropsy with
co-existing derangement of the nervous system, and
includes use of the leaves internally as a tonic for the
stomach and externally for inflammations of the skin.
Grieve presents a collection of these various indications
from her Victorian and Edwardian forebears but adds little
that is new. She cites Culpeper’s entry on burdock, and
Henslow on the mixing of burdock seed with saxifrage
(literally, ‘stone-breaker’ in Latin) and stony seeds or fruit
such as ivy berries, gromel seed or crushed date-stones as
a remedy for urinary stones seemingly based on the doc-
trine of signatures. Finally she draws on Gerard for the
suggestion of burdock for the table, as a delicate vegetable
composed of the stalks of the plant, cut before the flower
is open and with the rind stripped off, to be eaten raw in
salad or boiled like asparagus. It will have a slight laxative
effect, she tells us, while omitting Gerard’s observations
that it affords pleasant and good nourishment, stirs up lust
and increases seed. Fluid extracts of the root and seed are
available, she records, with dosage ranges of
12
–2 drachms
(2–7 mL) and 10–30 drops, respectively.
BURDOCK IN EARLIER TEXTS
These authors show that the concept of an alterative action
for greater burdock can be traced back as far as Quincy, but
the plant was known to the Ancients, so what does
Culpeper have to report on its medicinal virtues if the term
‘alterative’ was unknown to him? Actually, Culpeper does
write of cleansing medicines. In his Key to Galen and Hypoc-
rates, their Method of Physic (1669) he contrasts the more
gentle Greek ‘rhytics’ (actually misspelled from the Greek
‘rhyptikos’) for external use with the internally adminis-
tered cathartics. These topical cleansers are of an earthy
quality, although they may be hot or cold, and sweet, salty
or bitter to the taste. Taken orally, the cathartics purge
certain humours from the body as they themselves are
voided. Similarly, when applied topically, the rhyptics
cleanse foul ulcers by carrying away discharge or thick
matter as they themselves are removed. Culpeper

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96
included, he says, in the unguentum populeum for burns
and inflammations.
THE AUTHORITY OF APULEIUS
Is burdock’s place in the formula for this ointment based
on empirical knowledge of the plant’s action or on a mis-
reading of Dioscorides? For once, the authority of
Apuleius appears equal with that of the triumvirate of
Dioscorides, Pliny and Galen when we turn to the Renais-
sance writers on burdock. Fuchs, Dalechamps and Bauhin
cite him fully. Fuchs indeed avoids citing Pliny at all,
gives Dioscorides in full, and Galen on the quality and
actions of personatia or bardana. The plant is found eve-
rywhere, he tells us – thus providing, we may think,
ample opportunity for empirical experiment of reputed
uses such as burns – especially at the edges of meadows
and fields. Fuchs then cites Apuleius, whose entry is more
substantial in terms of uses, but his text has several altera-
tions and accretions too: the juice in honey is now diu-
retic and used for bladder pain, for burns the rubbed leaf
is applied with egg white, and, also among the indica-
tions of bearwort, the powdered seed in wine taken for
40 days ‘miraculously’ heals hip pains (see discussion
under ground ivy, Chapter 18). The treatment of snake
bites is made by scarification of the wound, then the
bruised leaves are applied while 2 denarii (8 g) in weight
of the roots are taken in wine, according to Fuch’s citing
of Columella, who also recommends an ointment of the
leaves topically, or the root, for scrofula (see the discus-
sion under figwort Chapter 28).
Meanwhile, Mattioli is more intent on establishing
correct species and confirms that the ‘personata’ of Pliny
(bk 25, ch 9), named arkion in Greek, is the Lappa major
available in the Italian pharmacies of his day. Pliny also
mentions a second large-leaved plant which he calls ‘per-
solata’, from the leaves of which, says Mattioli, ‘our
country people make hats with which they protect them-
selves from the rays of the sun, while they reap the corn
or thresh it in the heat of the dog days’. The same use is
conveyed in the Greek and Latin names for burdock,
namely prosopis and personata, meaning face, whose
‘leaves are the largest of all herbs and exceeding those of
the gourd by far’ in the opinion of Mattioli, with clear
reference back to Dioscorides. Fuchs also explains the
name ‘personatia’ with regard to the theatre and to the use
by actors of the large leaves to disguise their faces when
the drama requires it.
In Turner, burdock is the great bur, or arkion, personata,
or the lappa major of apothecaries, but not persolata. It is
found commonly about towns and villages, along ditches
and highways, dunghills and other vile places. He only
quotes Dioscorides on its uses, omitting any mention of
abscesses. The translator of Dodoens gives the plant the
‘the other Arctium’ or bardana, also called prosopis, is
then discussed in the same chapter, its leaves being used
to heal old ulcers because of a dry quality and mildly
astringent and digesting action. Thus an entirely different
plant, the bearwort of Beck, becomes the lesser burdock
or Lappa minor in an interpretation of Galen. Culpeper is
thus mistaken in listing toothache among the indications
of true burdock root. Even the Linnaean binomials Arctium
lappa and Arctium minus for the greater and lesser burdocks
seem to reflect a lack of clarity over the Dioscoridean state-
ments on burdock, although Grieve attempts to rational-
ize the binomial: Arctium lappa comes from Arktos, a bear
in Greek, which is a reference to the roughness of the
burrs, she says, while Lappa is from a Latin verb meaning
to seize, or else from the Celtic Llap meaning a hand. The
English name unites dock, meaning large-leaved, with
burr (Latin burra, a lock of wool), for sheep wool can
often be found tangled in the hooked burrs, and this is
how the seed is dispersed, by hitching a ride on animals
or humans.
Apuleius discusses the uses of ‘prosepis’ or ‘personatia’
(from the Latin persona meaning face): the juice in wine
drunk counters snake bites and the leaves rubbed into the
skin of a febrile patient drives away the fever; the leaves
steeped in warm water then rubbed with salt and fat, a
little pitch and vinegar is applied on a cloth to a suppurat-
ing or cancerous wound. The root with salt is rubbed into
a mad dog bite to speedily heal it, or roots and stems from
a plant growing in a dry place treats an old wound full of
humours when applied. For burns to the skin and for
internal pains 1 cyathos (45 mL) of the juice with 2 cyathi
of honey is drunk. Finally, an elaboration on Dioscorides,
a drachm (4 g) mixed with pine nuts and a head of mul-
berries is mixed with wine to form pastilles used for
healing those who bring up blood. It is clear that Apuleius
is relating the indications of the arkion of Dioscorides and
in so doing he extends the indications for the herb. Treat-
ing burns, as we have seen, is an indication of bearwort
but the instruction of Apuleius is to drink the juice with
honey rather than apply it, although the latter makes more
sense. Moreover, when these recommendations pass into
the Old English Herbarium, there is no mention there of
treating burns, and the juice of ‘personacia’ or burdock
with honey is indicated for pain in the abdomen only. The
wound full of humours is now described as a wound ‘still
wet’ and treatment is with the root only, mixed with haw-
thorn leaves Crataegus monogyna and applied. Finally,
there is no mention of the use from Dioscorides in those
who bring up blood.
From these sources is obtained the use of burdock in
fevers that appears in Coffin and later texts as a diaphoretic
action. Miller recounts that the common people apply the
leaves to the feet and wrists in fevers, while physicians and
apothecaries specify the root as sudorific and alexipharmic
(protecting the heart from poison) and make it an ingredi-
ent of the official ‘aqua theriacalis’. Burdock leaf is also

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in the medieval period than from a blind copying of
ancient texts.
When we turn to Gerard, we find additional uses not
mentioned by the preceding authors. Admittedly, he ini-
tially sticks close to the latest of the citations above,
namely Dalechamps, copying the indications of Diosco-
rides and Columella, which go back to Fuchs, and taking
the confusion of arkion with arction one step further by
repeating the indication for bearwort from Dioscorides,
which have increased to include strangury. He affirms,
however, that it is the stems of the Clot Burre, peeled and
boiled in meat broth or eaten raw with salt and pepper,
which ‘increaseth seed and stirreth up lust’, as well as
providing good nourishment, especially if the kernel of a
pineapple is added! The root pounded and added to ale
is good for a windy or cold stomach, while the large leaves
can carry a mixture of equal parts of the treacle of Androm-
achus (the famous plague remedy of the ancients called
Theriac and in Gerard’s time Venice treacle) and egg whites
beaten in a mortar then wrapped around a gouty joint to
assuage the exquisite pain of the attack. The root pounded
and strained with malmsey treats incontinence, leucor-
rhoea in women and strengthens the back if egg yolks,
powdered acorns and nutmeg are mixed with it and the
draught is taken morning and night.
Bauhin too brings something new in his entry for per-
sonata or Lappa major. Having cited Apuleius, Diosco-
rides, Pliny and Galen, and stated a diuretic action which
helps kidney stones, he cites Holerius on an emulsion
made from the root or 2 drachms (8 g) of the dried flowers
of burdock painted onto the chest in cases of pleuritis, and
Virtemberg on the use of the leaves applied to the head to
ease its pains. This treatment also has an effect on the
womb, for it will draw the womb towards the head, or if
the leaves are applied to the feet, the womb will be drawn
down. This is a special remedy for prolapse of the womb
or its suffocation (causing changes in breathing and other
emotional and physical responses accredited to the dis-
placement upwards of the womb, which Hippocratic phy-
sicians thought could ‘wander’ around the body, interfering
with normal functioning of the parts) and is the use of
burdock leaf for the womb that Culpeper acknowledges
from Mizaldus in the Pharmacopoeia Londinensis (1669): ‘if
a wise man have but the using of it’. In The English Physi-
tian, Culpeper suggests that the leaves can be applied to
the belly also, to keep the womb in place and so prevent
miscarriage, while in his Directory for Midwives (1651), in
a chapter on ‘the falling out [prolapse] of the womb’ he
gives instructions for ‘my own magnetick cure’:
Take a common Bur-leaf (you may keep them
dry all the year, if you please) and apply to her
head, and that will draw the womb upward. In
the fits of the mother (i.e. suffocation above)
put it under the soles of her feet and it will
name Clote Burre. Dodoens describes the greater and
lesser burdocks, stating that the latter is dealt with by
Dioscorides in a separate place, and called ‘xanthion’ in
Greek and ditch burre or louse burre in English. Beck
identifies the xanthion of Dioscorides (IV 136) as Xan-
thium strumarium L., the broad-leaved burweed. Ignoring
this mistaken identity, we find that Dodoens records the
majority of uses of greater burdock from Dioscorides and
Apuleius as transmitted by Fuchs above. However, it is to
the lesser burdock that he credits a healing action on
scrofula, specifying the seeds crushed and applied not only
to these strumas but to disperse any oedema due to cold
humours, for he reckons the lesser burdock hotter in
quality than the greater. Furthermore, the juice of lesser
burdock, he says, drunk with wine also treats poisonous
bites and urinary gravel and stones. The same mistaken
link between lesser burdock and the xanthium of Diosco-
rides is made even in the early 18th century, by Miller and
by Quincy, who say, however, that the plant is not used,
although it appears in the new catalogue of the Royal
College of Physicians.
If Dodoens adds another level of confusion over iden-
tity of species in the case of lesser burdock, then Dale-
champs becomes another contributor by pointing out that
burdock is the arkion of Dioscorides and the personata of
Pliny, which all authors recognize, but it is the ‘arction’ of
Galen also, because the prickly heads resemble the heads
of shaggy, hairy bears (‘arctos’ in Greek). Dalechamps’
actions for burdock match those of Fuchs, including the
citing of Columella, but with the addition of a confection
of the root for stones and dysentery. However, the seed is
more effective for stones, he notes, and both preparations
stir up lust. It may be that what Dodoens attributed to
lesser burdock in the Low Countries regarding the treat-
ment of kidney or urinary stones, Dalechamps attributes
to the seed or confection of the root of greater burdock in
Southern France.
Burdock as a diuretic, one of its modern actions, can
thus be dated back to Fuchs, and even before him because
the Salernitan herbal proposes that a drink made from the
stems of the plant makes a person urinate frequently. This
appears in the Salernitan text alongside only two of the
uses recorded by Apuleius and does not seem to be derived
from the Arabic writers since we find no entry for burdock
in Ibn Sina nor Serapio, nor any reference to these authors
in relation to burdock in the later herbals. Macer does not
describe burdock. An anti-lithic action, evidenced by some
modern research, is recorded for the juice of lesser burdock
by Dodoens, but this too has a medieval precedent. Hilde-
gard considers that burdock contains some injurious heat
and is harmful except to those suffering from the stone.
In this case the leaves, for the root is useless she says,
should be cooked in the finest wine and the liquid once
strained should be taken warm before or after a meal. We
may conclude, therefore, that the diuretic and anti-lithic
actions of burdock come from empirical medical practice

THE WESTERN HERBAL TRADITION
98
Owing to the bitterness of the plant burdock is credited
by Williamson with laxative and appetite-stimulating
effects. For the same reason Menzies-Trull adds central
nervous system stimulation, and lists also circulatory and
lymphatic stimulant and anti-fungal actions. Hoffmann
sees an enhanced indication in rheumatic complaints
associated with psoriasis, presumably psoriatic arthropa-
thy. Priest & Priest want the root to be prescribed with
ginger Zingiber officinale for rheumatism and gout, and
with golden seal Hydrastis candensis for a tonic effect in
vaginal laxity, a use which recalls the old indications of
leucorrhoea and menorrhagia. The British Herbal Pharma-
copoeia suggests combinations of burdock root and curled
dock root Rumex crispus or red clover flowers Trifolium
pratense in skin disease, and while the herb has a separate
entry from the root, its actions are noted as similar to
lappa root, with specific indications as use as poultice for
boils and abscesses.
Burdock is the main herb in Essiac tea which is amongst
the many products used in the hope of treating and pre-
venting reoccurrence of cancers (Kulp et al 2006, Boon et
al 2007). Herbalists customarily use alteratives in the care
of patients with cancer (Yance & Valentine 1999), and
burdock is considered the alterative par excellence. Essiac
was developed in Canada by Rene Caisse after her aunt
became ill with cancer (History of Essiac 2007). Rene
Caisse was a nurse and treated patients with cancer at the
clinic in Ontario which she set up and ran from 1934 until
1942. The preparation was recommended by a miner’s
wife who had been treated for a breast tumour by a Native
American in the early 20th century.
The four original herbs in Essiac are burdock root
Arctium lappa, small pieces (32 parts by weight), sheep
sorrel Rumex acetosella, powder, (16 parts), slippery elm
bark Ulmus fulva, powder (4 parts) and turkey rhubarb
root Rheum palmatum, powder (1 part). The dried herbs
are mixed together and batches can be made using 1 cup
(8 fl oz) of dried herb in 2 gallons of distilled water. (The
US fluid ounce is slightly larger than the imperial fluid
ounce). The recipe is made up taking one part as 5 g,
making a total of 265 g in 1800 mL of water. The water is
brought to a rolling boil in a pan with the lid on, and then
the dried herbs are added, the water is brought back to the
boil and boiled for 10 minutes. The mixture should be
stirred and the pan left undisturbed overnight. After
reheating to steaming hot, the mixture is allowed to cool
slightly before it is strained through a cloth. Portions of
30 mL, the quantity of one dose, may be frozen for taking
when required in 60 mL of hot water, once daily at bed
time on an empty stomach. Food should not be eaten
within an hour either before or after taking the tea. The
yield from 1800 mL was in one experiment 1600 mL,
which gave a dose of just over 3 g of dried burdock in 30
mL. There has been debate concerning the herbs employed
and their proportions in the Essiac mixture. An affidavit
given by Mary McPherson, who worked with Rene Caisse,
draw it downwards. Bur-seed beaten into
powder will do the like, they command the
womb which way you please, and by orderly
usage of it will cure any disease of it. ‘Tis a
plant of venus and is best gathered when she is
angular and strong in her hour, and the moon
applying to her. [If] it will not readily go up, by
reason of carelessness in not using the remedy
time enough, you may bathe it as you were
told’.
One of our students has related to us a similar treatment
which she witnessed in the North of Scotland. During
lambing, a ewe suffered prolapse of the womb. The farmer
added burdock leaves to her feed and the womb was
restored to its proper place. If this is evidence of an empiri-
cal use of burdock, then it is in keeping with the medieval
rather than Galenic origins or the main modern uses of
the plant, namely as a diuretic and anti-lithic. Its alterative
action in the internal treatment of arthritic and skin condi-
tions such as eczema, psoriasis and other chronic condi-
tions is also recorded only after the demise of Galenism.
MODERN USES AND ESSIAC
When we turn to modern sources, we may imagine that
the internal use of burdock for boils echoes the old topical
use. However, an antimicrobial action would be desirable
to support this action, and this has been linked to poly-
acetylenes found in fresh burdock root, whereas the clas-
sical authors wanted the leaves to be applied topically.
Weiss considers the root the most important part of the
plant for medicinal use but does not consider its action to
be very great and recommends its use only in combination
with other herbs. This could include cystitis, as listed by
other authors. An oil made from the root can be used, says
Weiss, to stimulate hair growth in alopecia and for dry
seborrhoea. Mills and Bone also discuss only the root.
Wood and Menzies-Trull include the seeds as well, perhaps
following the recommendation by Priest & Priest of the
seeds, especially in skin conditions. Pelikan highlights the
fact that it is only the flower heads of burdock, and its fruit
or seed, which display the thistle aspect of the plant. The
leaves and root, on the other hand, are rich in mucilage,
which he regards as evidence of their ‘struggle against
spiny hardness’. Here we have an image to link with the
several recommendations for the use of burdock in dry
skin conditions. Wood notes that burdock root is bitter,
sweet and oily, so well suited to dry and atrophic states
with constipation and poor emulsification of dietary fats
and oils, and in general it helps those persons suffering
from long, chronic illness. Pelikan states that burdock
shows great vitality in overcoming poor soil conditions.

Chapter
Arctium lappa, burdock | 10 |
THE WESTERN HERBAL TRADITION
99
(Fenton reaction) and superoxide radicals (xanthine/
xanthine oxidase assay), and prevent hydroxyl radical-
induced lipid peroxidation (Leonard et al 2006). A criti-
cism of this study is the high concentration of Essiac used
as the preparation was a 1 : 2 Essiac tea. Essiac showed
significant antioxidant activity (ABTS assay) (Seely et al
2007). In the third study, Essiac showed both antioxidant
(TEAC assay) and proinflammatory actions such as
induction of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha),
interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) and cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) (Cheung et al 2005).
Essiac uses burdock root. However, let us turn to the in
vitro studies on the lignan arctigenin (aglycone of arctiin),
which is found in burdock seed, as these studies are men-
tioned in reviews of Essiac. They are only relevant to use
of the seed as arctigenin is found only at very low concen-
tration in the root. To illustrate the complexity of in vitro
methods, the following examples are given. Some studies
can be compared as they use one model to measure anti-
inflammatory activity. Inhibition of lipopolysaccharide
(LPS) induced nitric oxide production by a murine mac-
rophage RAW 264.7 cell line is used as a measure of
inflammatory activity. Excess nitric oxide production by
nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) occurs in macrophages in
response to proinflammatory stimulation such as IL-1
beta, TNF-alpha and LPS (Park et al 2007). Lignans, in
particular diarctigenin and lappaol-F, were shown to
inhibit this process (Park et al 2007). In a study using this
model, arctigenin inhibited nitric oxide production and
secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha
and IL-6 in a dose-dependent manner. Arctigenin was
found to inhibit expression and activity of iNOS, but not
to inhibit COX-2 expression and activity (Zhao et al
2009).
Another team also found inhibition of induction of
iNOS using the same mechanism and associated this
with the concentration of arctigenin in the seed. They
found this inhibition was caused by inhibition of
nuclear factor kappa B, which is activated in inflamma-
tory responses to viral and bacterial infection and is
involved in the production of iNOS and TNF-alpha. The
same team also found that arctigenin inhibited mitogen-
activated protein kinase and argue that this shows that
arctigenin inhibits cellular responses to extracellular
signals such as gene transcription. This results in inhibi-
tion of activator protein-1, which is associated with cell
proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Inhibition of
activator protein-1 is thought to result in reduction in
production of TNF-alpha m-RNA in cells exposed to LPS
and thus reduction in TNF-alpha production by macro-
phages (Cho et al 2004). The detail is given here to
demonstrate the complexity of in vitro methods and
thus the risk in making claims based on any one study.
To conclude, antioxidant activity in burdock is associ-
ated with overall concentration of polyphenols and is
highest in the seeds, but also found in leaves and root.
proposes slightly different proportions (Essiac Info 2009).
Turkey rhubarb does not grow in North America and the
original herbs are said to have grown wild, which has led
to the suggestion it might have replaced a species of Poly-
gonum (Essiac Info 2009). The formula given by Bartram
suggests continuing the mixture for 32 days, then every
third day. Bartram’s formulation differs very slightly in the
quantities and he intends the formula for cancers of the
stomach and intestines only.
Essiac and similar formulations such as Flor-essence are
now widely available (Cancer Research UK 2008, Medline
Plus 2008). Flor-essence has the same four ingredients
plus four more, including red clover, and, for the sake of
clarity, this review does not refer to any studies on Flor-
essence although there has been substantial investigation
of its use in Russia in gastrointestinal disease (Tamayo et
al 2000). There have been some unpublished studies on
Essiac (Kaegi 1998) but the only randomized controlled
trial investigated quality of life (Zick et al 2006). This is
not relevant as Essiac is generally taken with the intention
of influencing the progression of the disease.
Natural compounds have been shown in vitro to inhibit
various stages in cancer (Boik 2001) and, given the wide-
spread usage of Essiac, it is worth discussing whether it
could promote remission in cancer and whether it is safe.
A useful review of the herbs in Essiac was undertaken by
Tamayo et al (2000), although we can find no evidence to
support their statement that there are isoflavonoids in
burdock root. In vitro investigations on burdock and
Essiac are now reviewed to see whether they provide any
support for the use of Essiac. Conflicting points of view
are expressed and an array of in vitro studies are used in
the literature to support the use of Essiac, but the discus-
sion illustrates the problems in relying on in vitro evi-
dence to support claims for efficacy (Houghton et al
2007).
Studies on burdock have shown antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory activity and it is argued that this is associ-
ated with anticancer activity (Leonard et al 2006). A recent
study found a strong correlation between total polyphenol
concentration in burdock root, seed and leaf and antioxi-
dant activity (Trolox assay) (Ferracane et al 2010). The
seeds showed greatest antioxidant activity whereas the
root had hardly any activity. This study is useful as all three
parts were assayed using the same methodology at the
same time. In contrast, an in vitro study on burdock root
found antioxidant actions: scavenging of free radicals
(DPPH assay) and inhibition of oxidation of linoleic acid
(Duh 1998). Comparison of aqueous extracts from peeled
and unpeeled root showed that antioxidant activity (DPPH
assay) was greater in unpeeled roots, and this appeared to
be associated with the concentration of chlorogenic acid,
which is a phenolic acid found in many herbs and foods
and is not particular to burdock (Chen et al 2004).
Three further studies investigated the antioxidant activ-
ity of Essiac. It was found to scavenge effectively hydroxyl

THE WESTERN HERBAL TRADITION
100
this study, the breakdown of arctiin was gradual and
it could be argued that it supports the usage in Russia
for gastrointestinal conditions referred to by Tamayo
et al (2000) as the metabolites may have local effects in
the gut.
The above studies seem neither to support nor oppose
the use of burdock or Essiac in cancer. The study on breast
cancer cells (Kulp et al 2006) could be important but one
can conclude that this finding is not associated with
lignans, which are considered to be phytoestrogens as the
lignan level is low in burdock root. In addition, it is
thought that lignans in the diet may reduce oestrogen
levels in postmenopausal women (Sturgeon et al 2008)
and be protective against hormone-dependent cancers
(Wang 2002). The absorption of lignan metabolites has
been studied extensively and the concentration in the
blood depends on the diet, bacterial metabolism and con-
jugation in the intestinal wall and liver but none of these
factors explain interindividual variation in blood concen-
tration of enterolactone (Lampe et al 2006). If lignans
are sought in the diet then oilseeds especially linseed
and sesame seeds and wholegrain cereals are important
sources. Arctigenin may have unique actions but otherwise
dietary recommendations are more important in this
regard than the use of burdock as a herbal medicine.
We found no adverse drug reports on Essiac and,
although some reviews make exaggerated claims for the
possible effectiveness of Essiac based on in vitro studies,
maybe the main conclusion is that appraisal of the tradi-
tional evidence for use of burdock as an alterative is of
equal value in supporting the use of Essiac.
RECOMMENDATIONS
• As herbal alterative (however viable that term may
be considered) for chronic skin conditions such as
eczema, dermatitis, psoriasis and furunculosis. (A
specific picture of a chronic skin condition combined
with impaired nutrition and weak circulation, as
stated by Bone (2003), is not unreasonable.)
• As a component of treatment for arthritic or
rheumatic complaints.
• As a bitter tonic for poor appetite and dyspeptic
symptoms including mild colic, flatulence and
irregular bowel habit (infectious diarrhoea or
constipation).
• As a diuretic and anti-lithic for cystitis, urinary gravel
and stones and resulting oliguria, and functional
problems of urination such as enuresis.
• As an astringent for cases of leucorrhoea and laxity
of the womb, and possibly for haemoptysis, where
the diagnosis is established and the cause
understood.
If this finding is linked with the concentration of lignans,
then the seeds are the most useful part.
Another line of enquiry has been to investigate the
effects of burdock and Essiac on cancer processes. For
example, an in vitro study using the LNCaP prostate cancer
cell line found that proliferation was inhibited by Essiac
(Ottenweller et al 2004). Another study using LNCaP cells
found that growth was inhibited by the lignans lappaol A,
C and F isolated from burdock seeds and the authors argue
that this could support the use of Essiac (Ming et al 2004).
However, it would actually support the use of burdock
seed not of the root. A further study found no antiprolif-
erative activity for Essiac in prostate cancer (Eberding et al
2007), whereas dose-dependent inhibition of seven cancer
cell lines was shown by Seely et al (2007).
In contrast, Essiac at a range of concentrations was
shown to actually stimulate cell proliferation relative to
untreated controls in four breast cancer cell lines, both
oestrogen receptor positive and oestrogen receptor nega-
tive (Kulp et al 2006). The authors discuss their methodol-
ogy to consider why these results differ from other studies.
For example, they note the high levels of Essiac extract
used in another study which found an antiproliferative
activity in breast cancer cells (MCF-7) (Tai et al 2004). In
a further study, a metabolite of arctiin formed in the gut
showed a proliferative effect on the growth of MCF-7
breast cancer cells, but inhibited estradiol-mediated pro-
liferation of the same cells to a similar degree as tamoxifen
(Xie et al 2003). In this study, the metabolite of arctiin
appears to have had opposing actions depending on the
presence of oestradiol. This interesting research again
demonstrates the complexity of in vitro research and the
danger of extrapolating the results of any one study to the
living body in order to support the use of any medicinal
plant.
As the lignans are found in the seeds, studies on arcti-
genin are not applicable to the use of Essiac, and most
studies on the antiproliferative activity of burdock seeds
are on the activity of arctigenin (Awale et al 2006, Mat-
sumoto et al 2006). This raises the question of which part
of burdock should be used but it also asks whether any in
vitro study supports the oral use of burdock. In many
cases, we do not know about the absorption of the con-
stituents of herbs. However, in the case of arctigenin there
is evidence from pharmacokinetic studies on the uptake
and absorption of lignans to show that it is not absorbed
into the body. The lignan content and activity of linseed
Linum usissitatum has been investigated (Mills 2003) and
is relevant to burdock. The main lignan in linseed is secoi-
solariciresinol, which has been found to be transformed
by bacteria in the proximal colon to enterodiol and enter-
olactone, which are then absorbed into the body. The
same team found that incubation of arctiin with a human
faecal suspension for 9 days led to the formation of
six metabolites, and the enterolactones formed were enan-
tiomers of those produced by linseed (Xie et al 2003). In

Chapter
Arctium lappa, burdock | 10 |
THE WESTERN HERBAL TRADITION
101
human trials to establish real effects, although the
seed was traditionally used alongside root and leaf,
and the availability of Arctium lappa semen from
suppliers to the profession.
Dosage: strong decoction: 500 mL per day of the 1 : 20
decoction of the root.
For non-acute conditions, the smaller dose recom-
mended in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia of 2–6 g three
times a day of dred root, in decoction or as equivalent
liquid preparations, can be advised, although the habit of
many practitioners is to give much smaller amounts for
fear of a healing crisis through excessive ‘detoxification’.
• For topical use, especially of the leaf. The fresh leaf
itself, or an ointment made from it, could be used
on sprained or painful joints, wounds, ulcers and
boils.
• More research is required before prolapse or
threatened miscarriage could be added to the list,
but since the former is considered to need surgical
intervention and the latter a preposterous suggestion,
it is unlikely that further evidence will be
forthcoming.
• Pharmacological and in vitro evidence for preferred
use of the seed in cancers would need both further
CONSTITUENTS
Reviews: root, leaf, Barnes et al (2007), Bardanae root, Bisset & Wichtl (2001), Bradley (2006), Mills & Bone (2005),
Williamson (2003).
Polysaccharides
Root, total 5.2%: mainly inulin-type fructofuranan (cv Herkules, commercial, Slovakia) (Kardošová et al 2003).
Inulin is a storage polysaccharide mainly composed of fructose and extracted commercially from tubers of Jerusalem
artichoke, Helianthus tuberosus (Tófano et al 2007). It is not absorbed and would be insignificant in dried root as
concentration falls with storage (Ishimaru et al 2004).
Leaf, neutral polysaccharide 0.9% (Kardošová & Machová 2006).
Volatile oil
Total 0.1%: sesquiterpenes and sesquiterpene lactones (root, leaf) (Bradley 1992).
Phenolic acids
Root, total 2.9%: caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid (caffeoylquinic acid), cynarin; Leaf, total 15.3%; Seeds, total 45.8%
(organic cultivation, Italy) (Ferracane et al 2010).
Root, total 0.2 to 0.8%: chlorogenic acid and two caffeoylquinic acid derivatives (13 cultivars and fresh roots, Japan)
(Wang et al 2001).
Root, hydroxycinnamoylquinic acids; dicaffeoylquinic acid; three dicaffeoylsuccinoylquinic acids; tricaffeoylsuccinoylquinic
acid derivatives (fresh cv Gobo, market, Japan) (Maruta et al 1995).
Root, 24 hydroxycinnamoylquinic acids; four monocaffeoylchlorogenic acids; six dicaffeoylquinic acids; two tricaffeoylquinic
acids; di- and trisuccinoylquinic acids (fresh, market, USA) (Lin & Harnly 2008).
Peeling the root reduces the content of phenolic compounds, in particular chlorogenic acid (Chen et al 2004).
Flavonoids
Root, flavone: luteolin; flavonol: quercetin and glycoside: quercitrin (organic cultivation, Italy) (Ferracane et al 2009).
Leaf, flavone: luteolin; flavonol: quercetin and glycosides: quercitrin, rutin (organic cultivation, Italy) (Ferracane et al 2009).
Lignans
Fruits (seeds), arctiin 49% (aglycone: arctigenin) (glucoside arctiin): (commercial, China) (Wang et al 2005) (note that this
concentration is 10 times higher than those given below).
Seeds: arctiin, arctigenin, lappaol A & C & F, matareisinol, arctignan E (organic cultivation, Italy) (Ferracane et al 2009).
Seeds, arctiin 5.5%, arctigenin 2.6% (Lü et al 2007).
Seeds, diarctigenin, lappaol C & D & F, isolappaol C (commercial, Korea) (Park et al 2007).
Seeds, arctigenin, nordihydroguariaretic acid, secoisolariciresinol, sesamin (commercial, Japan) (Awale et al 2006).
Root, leaf: very little arctigenin (organic cultivation, Italy) (Ferracane et al 2009).
Leaf, very little lignans (cultivated, China) (Liu et al 2005).
Polyacetylenes
Root, two polyacetylenes (fresh, cv Shirohada-sakigake, Japan) (Takasugi et al 1987).

THE WESTERN HERBAL TRADITION
102
MAP kinases and AP-1 activation via potent MKK
inhibition: the role in TNF-alpha inhibition.
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Culpeper N 1651 A directory for midwives Peter Cole,
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Davis PH (ed) 1975 Flora of Turkey, vol 5. Edinburgh
University Press, Edinburgh.
De Smet PAGM, Keller K, Hänsel R et al 1993 Adverse
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Duh PD 1998 Antioxidant activity of burdock (Arctium lappa
Linné): its scavenging effect on free-radical and active
oxygen. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society
75:455–461.
Eberding A, Madera C, Xie S, et al 2007 Evaluation of the
antiproliferative effects of Essiac on in vitro and in vivo
models of prostate cancer compared to paclitaxel.
Nutrition and Cancer 58:188–196.
Essiac Info 2009. Online. Available: http://www.
healthfreedom.info/essiac_info.htm 22 June 2009.
Ferracane R, Graziani G, Gallo M, et al 2010 Metabolic
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and Biomedical Analysis, 51:399–404.
Hamblin L, Laird A, Parkes E, et al 2004 Herbs used by
well-established medical herbalists in the UK in the
management of osteoarthritis: a small-scale survey.
European Journal of Herbal Medicine 6:5–13.
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Houghton PJ, Howes MJ, Lee CC, et al 2007 Uses and
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110:391–400.
Ishimaru M, Kagoroku K, Chachin K 2004 Effects of the
storage conditions of burdock (Arctium lappa L.) root on
the quality of heat-processed burdock sticks. Scientia
Horticulturae 101:1–10.
Kaegi E 1998 Unconventional therapies for cancer: 1. Essiac.
The task force on alternative therapies of the Canadian
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Kang TG, Kawamura T, Noro Y, et al 1999
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Kardošová A, Ebringerová A, Alfőldi J, et al 2003 A
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RECOMMENDATIONS ON SAFETY
1. Do not use burdock externally if the patient has a
history of allergic contact dermatitis or allergy to
Asteraceae (Compositae). (See Chapter 20
elecampane, Inula helenium.)
A report from Spain found that three people
developed red exudative dermatitis after using
burdock root plasters (Rodriguez et al 1995).
2. The use of Essiac in patients with cancer has not
been shown to pose any risks (see above).
3. There is no evidence against the use of burdock in
pregnancy and it is considered compatible with
breastfeeding (Mills & Bone 2005).
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