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Ephemeroptera of the Fiji Islands
Abstract
Two families and four genera of mayflies have been collected from the Fiji islands: Baetidae with three genera and Caenidae with one. The baetid genera consist of Baetis with 3 species in the molawinensis group, a new genus resembling Pseudocloeon s.s. of Müller-Liebenau with 6 species, and a new genus similar to the Cloeodes complex of Waltz and McCafferty with 3 species. Caenidae are represented by a species of Caenis. The “Cloeodes”-like genus is apparently endemic to Fiji but the “Pseudocloeon”-like genus has apomorphic sister species in eastern New Guinea. Neither of the new genera of Baetidae show close relationships to members of the dominant baetid groups of Indonesia or continental Southeast Asia. Conventional sweepstakes dispersal hypotheses do not adequately explain the southwest Pacific Basin mayfly fauna as it is presently known.
... puisque des spécimens ont été recensés à Belau (Bright, 1982), au Vanuatu (Kimmins, 1936), aux Iles Guam (Ellis-Neill, 1987), ainsi qu'aux Iles Fidji (Flowers, 1990) (Tableau 3.1). Hawking & Smith, 1997;Winterbourn & Gregson, 1989;Flowers, 1990;Yule, 1995;Yule, 1996 Les Leptophlebiidae sont également bien représentées dans les cours d'eau australiens, néo-zélandais et d'Amérique du Sud. ...
... puisque des spécimens ont été recensés à Belau (Bright, 1982), au Vanuatu (Kimmins, 1936), aux Iles Guam (Ellis-Neill, 1987), ainsi qu'aux Iles Fidji (Flowers, 1990) (Tableau 3.1). Hawking & Smith, 1997;Winterbourn & Gregson, 1989;Flowers, 1990;Yule, 1995;Yule, 1996 Les Leptophlebiidae sont également bien représentées dans les cours d'eau australiens, néo-zélandais et d'Amérique du Sud. D'après Peters (1981), "phylogenetic studies indicate that these Leptophlebiidae in New Caledonia are most closely related to modern representatives in New Zealand. ...
... En effet, "les meilleurs candidats à la colonisation sont les petites espèces parce que leur petite taille leur permet de construire des populations numériquement abondantes donc moins vulnérables à l'extinction". (Flowers, 1990). ...
Forty-one stations located on 14 rivers spread over the whole of New Caledonia were periodically sampled from October 1996 to October 1997. Benthic invertebrate samples were taken at each of the stations, then identified and counted in the laboratory. . At the same time, water samples were analyzed at each study station. The physico-chemical nature of the waters of the rivers of the mainland is strongly influenced by the drained geological substrates. Organic pollution is generally not very significant in the territory, the highest concentrations of nitrates, ammonium and organic matter are measured in the rivers located near certain villages, tribes or towns, in the agglomeration of noumea and level of the lower courses of the rivers of the west coast. A physico-chemical typology of the study stations based on their geographic location, land use and the geological nature of the rocks was highlighted using multivariate analyzes. The benthic macrofauna of rivers is dominated by insects. The environments most conducive to the development of benthic macrofauna and which present the maximum specific diversity are forest streams. In contrast, the watercourses draining altered peridotites and far from any human occupation are characterized by less diversified and less abundant benthic populations due to their low organic matter content. In addition, some taxa show a generic and specific endemism linked to the peridotitic substrate like terrestrial insects. A biotypology of the study stations has been defined, based on the same criteria as those of the physico-chemical typology. Land use, riverine vegetation and the geological nature of watersheds represent the main factors explaining the distribution and distribution of benthic macrofauna in rivers. An original biotic index specific to the rivers of New Caledonia is proposed in this work. The biotic index of new caledonia (ibnc) makes it possible to detect organic pollution in current environments. It refers to 62 frequent and easily identifiable taxa which have been assigned a score according to their sensitivity to organic matter.
... Caenis ungulata and C. vanuatensis are known only from adult females and nymphs, C. marwakensis from nymphs and subimaginal features of the pharate male, C. novaeguineae and C. insularis from adult males. Flowers (1990) recorded a Caenis sp from Fiji with Type 4 forceps but only illustrated the genitalia. This species has not been formally described and named. ...
... In a subsequent paper Malzacher (2022), on the basis of the morphology of the genitalia, referred to this species as Caenis novaeguineae. An undescribed species from Fiji (Flowers 1990) also has Type 4 forceps. ...
Two species of Caenis with straight forceps with a terminal tuft of spines are described from northern Australia. Male imagoes and nymphs of C. hanleyi n. sp. are described from reared material from the Alligator Rivers Region in the Northern Territory and C. binda n. sp. is described only from male imagoes collected from streams in the Wet Tropics of Queensland. C. hanleyi differs from C. binda by the structure of the forceps with C. binda being longer and narrower with longer apical spines. These are the first records of the genus Caenis in Australia.
... It has also been accidentally introduced to Hawaii (Zimmerman 1957; Smith 2000). The Fijian caenid fauna is represented by a single undescribed species of Caenis (Flowers 1990; Evenhuis 2006). Likewise, there has been only a single species of Baetidae described from Vanuatu (Cloeon erromangense Kimmins, 1936), but no species of Caenidae has ever been reported from this group of Pacific islands (Kimmins 1936). ...
... The larval pronotum strongly diverges anteriorly, its anterior lateral margins protruding into broadly rounded tips. More undescribed Caenidae are reported from Indonesia (Sartori et al. 2003), Papua New Guinea (Dudgeon 1999), and Fiji (Flowers 1990; Evenhuis 2006). It cannot be decided with certainty if the origin of C. vanuatensis can be traced back to Australia, New Guinea, or even to the Oriental region, as the taxonomically important males are lacking in C. vanuatensis, and DNA comparisons are not available at present. ...
The first species of Caenidae from Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu, is described based on the larva and the female imago. Caenis vanuatensis sp. n. is most likely a parthenogenetic species, as only females have been found so far out of numerous specimens collected. The phylogenetic relationships of the new species thus remain enigmatic, as the distribution of Caenis throughout the Australian region is largely unknown and the taxonomically important males are missing.
... 1,2 and 3 are all undescribed baetids. The Baetidae are widespread and diverse in the western Pacific (Flowers 1990). 'Pseudocloeon' spp. 1 and 2 are baetids in a new genus described from the Fiji Islands by Flowers (1990) but as yet unnamed. ...
... 'Pseudocloeon' spp. 1 and 2 are baetids in a new genus described from the Fiji Islands by Flowers (1990) but as yet unnamed. Mayfly adults are short-lived and fragile, hence unable to fly great distances, and so are likely to disperse in steps along closely spaced islands (Flowers 1990). Thus, it is likely that Bougainville Island was important in the dispersal of mayflies from Asia and Papua New Guinea towards the outer Pacific islands. ...
The benthic invertebrate fauna of Konaiano Creek, a small aseasonal mountain rainforest stream on Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, was studied over a period of 22 months. Konaiano Creek supported a diverse, mostly undescribed, fauna dominated by two closely related species of Simuliidae (55% of the total specimens collected) and two species of Hydropsychidae. Over 182 taxa were recorded, more than half of which were Diptera. Species richness in Konaiano Creek was quite high in comparison with that of similar streams in both tropical and temperate regions. There were 31 species of Trichoptera, but there were no Plecoptera, Mollusca, Psephenidae, or Megaloptera. Although many groups of marine origin such as Gastropoda, Atyidae, Palaemonidae and fish inhabited nearby coastal rivers, these animals were apparently unable to colonize high mountain streams because of the torrential, barren nature of the mid-mountain streams that, sharply divide the headwater streams from the lowland rivers on Bougainville Island.
... nov.), which do not seem to have all arisen from a common ancestor, is thus complicated. It has already been noticed that some dispa rate taxa without strong dispersal abilities are present in Fiji, and the proposed explanation is that the supposed presence of an Indo-Pacific Island arc in the past could have allowed different taxa to reach Fiji (Flowers 1990, Aggerbeck et al. 2014, Bank et al. 2021. ...
Fiji is an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean from which only four species in four genera of Tetrigidae had previously been reported. We report the results of our examination of the Fijian Tetrigidae from the Queensland Museum, Brisbane, and additionally the Nederlands Centrum voor Biodiversiteit (Naturalis Biodiversity Center, formerly Nationaal Natuurhistorisch Museum Naturalis), Leiden. The Fijian fauna is found to be similar to, and therefore likely derived from, the New Guinean fauna. The validity of Asian Metrodorinae is called into question. The following new taxa are described: tribe Exanimini trib. nov. including genera Exanimus gen. nov. (including E. somniator sp. nov. and E. torviscriba sp. nov.) and Fijixistra gen. nov. (including F. abbreviata (Bolívar, 1887) comb. nov. of Amphinotus abbreviatus, F. drobnaki sp. nov., F. teo sp. nov., and F. tvrtkovici sp. nov.); tribe Fijitettigini trib. nov. including genera Fijitettix gen. nov. (including F. godeffroyi (Günther, 1939), comb. nov. of Salomonotettix godeffroyi) and Salomonotettix Günther, 1939 (including S. vincekae sp. nov.); genus Gammonotus gen. nov. including Gammonotus draudrau sp. nov. Exanimini trib. nov. and Fijitettigini trib. nov. are of uncertain taxonomic placement, Gammonotus gen. nov. is assigned to Cladonotini Bolívar, 1887, and Thyrsus tiaratus Bolívar, 1887 is transferred from Cleostratini Bolívar, 1887 to Clinophaestini Storozhenko, 2013.
... Labiobaetis species mainly live in running waters, but there are a few exceptions. However, their dispersal ability seems to be high enough to have reached remote islands like Vanuatu (Gattolliat and Staniczek 2011) and Fiji (Flowers 1990) in the past and bidirectional transoceanic dispersal between Madagascar and Africa has been shown as well (Monaghan et al. 2005). Additionally, parthenogenesis has been assumed in the genus, which may favour successful dispersal events (Sivaramakrishnan et al. 1991, Gattolliat andStaniczek 2011). ...
Material collected between 2010 and 2014 on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Bali, Sumba, Sumbawa, Sulawesi, and Seram unveiled the enormous diversity of Labiobaetis Novikova & Kluge in this country. Five species were reported from Indonesia previously (L. fulmeki (Ulmer), L. obscurum (Ulmer), L. ne-copinatum (Müller-Liebenau), L. ulmeri (Müller-Liebenau), and L. boettgeri (Ulmer)); all were described from adults only and no species were previously known at larval stage. We identified 18 new species by integrative taxonomy using genetic distance (COI, Kimura-2-parameter) and morphology, and they are described and illustrated based on their larvae. Another species, L. multus (Müller-Liebenau) from Malay-sia, was also found in Indonesia, increasing the total number of species in Indonesia to 24. Seven morpho-groups of species are proposed based on morphological characters and a key to the larvae of all species from Indonesia and adjacent countries is provided. The total number of Labiobaetis species worldwide is augmented to 123. The examination of the new species allowed us to slightly modify the generic attributes of the larvae. The interspecific K2P distances are usually between 11% and 24%, the intraspecific distances are usually between 0% and 3%. The remarkable richness of the genus in Indonesia is discussed.
... Labiobaetis species mainly live in running waters, but there are a few exceptions. However, their dispersal ability seems to be high enough to have reached remote islands like Vanuatu (Gattolliat and Staniczek 2011) and Fiji (Flowers 1990) in the past and bidirectional transoceanic dispersal between Madagascar and Africa has been shown as well (Monaghan et al. 2005). Additionally, parthenogenesis has been assumed in the genus, which may favour successful dispersal events (Sivaramakrishnan et al. 1991, Gattolliat andStaniczek 2011). ...
Material collected between 2010 and 2014 on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra, Bali, Sumba, Sumbawa, Sulawesi, and Seram unveiled the enormous diversity of Labiobaetis Novikova & Kluge in this country. Five species were reported from Indonesia previously ( L. fulmeki (Ulmer), L. obscurum (Ulmer), L. necopinatum (Müller-Liebenau), L. ulmeri (Müller-Liebenau), and L. boettgeri (Ulmer)); all were described from adults only and no species were previously known at larval stage. We identified 18 new species by integrative taxonomy using genetic distance (COI, Kimura-2-parameter) and morphology, and they are described and illustrated based on their larvae. Another species, L. multus (Müller-Liebenau) from Malaysia, was also found in Indonesia, increasing the total number of species in Indonesia to 24. Seven morpho-groups of species are proposed based on morphological characters and a key to the larvae of all species from Indonesia and adjacent countries is provided. The total number of Labiobaetis species worldwide is augmented to 123. The examination of the new species allowed us to slightly modify the generic attributes of the larvae. The interspecific K2P distances are usually between 11% and 24%, the intraspecific distances are usually between 0% and 3%. The remarkable richness of the genus in Indonesia is discussed.
... Mayflies are merolimnic with strictly freshwater dependent larval stages, while subimaginal and imaginal stages are aerial; imagos only live from a few hours to a few days (bArber-JAMes et al. 2008). The family Baetidae is widely distributed and is, with around 1000 known species, one of the most diversified families in both tropical and temperate regions, including remote volcanic islands such as La Réunion, Vanuatu, Guam and the Fiji islands (FloWers 1990;gAttolliAt 2004;gAt-tolliAt & stAniczeK 2011). In the Palaearctic the genus Baetis Leach, 1815 colonizes a wide range of habitats and diversified to 84 species. ...
Baetis (Rhodobaetis) canariensis s.l. was considered to be the most common species of mayfly (Ephemeroptera) in running waters of the Canary Islands. Recent studies using mitochondrial genetic markers suggested that what was considered a single species was in fact composed of four closely related, but distinct species. Here we present the results of comprehensive morphological analysis of specimens from Tenerife, Gran Canaria, La Palma, and La Gomera that confirms the validity of the four species based on small but consistent differences in some characters. Three of these are new species and are described herein at the larval stage. Each of the four species appears to be restricted to a single island. The loss of freshwater habitats on the islands has led to a drastically diminished distribution and these species are largely restricted to protected areas in national parks. All four species must be considered endangered and are very sensitive sentinels of the state of conservation of running waters.
... Mayflies are merolimnic with strictly freshwater dependent larval stages, while subimaginal and imaginal stages are aerial; imagos only live from a few hours to a few days (bArber-JAMes et al. 2008). The family Baetidae is widely distributed and is, with around 1000 known species, one of the most diversified families in both tropical and temperate regions, including remote volcanic islands such as La Réunion, Vanuatu, Guam and the Fiji islands (FloWers 1990;gAttolliAt 2004;gAt-tolliAt & stAniczeK 2011). In the Palaearctic the genus Baetis Leach, 1815 colonizes a wide range of habitats and diversified to 84 species. ...
Baetis (Rhodobaetis) canariensis s.l. was considered to be the most common species of mayfly (Ephemeroptera) in running waters of the Canary Islands. Recent studies using mitochondrial genetic markers suggested that what was considered a single species was in fact composed of four closely related, but distinct species. Here we present the results of comprehensive morphological analysis of specimens from Tenerife, Gran Canaria, La Palma, and La Gomera that confirms the validity of the four species based on small but consistent differences in some characters. Three of these are new species and are described herein at the larval stage. Each of the four species appears to be restricted to a single island. The loss of freshwater habitats on the islands has led to a drastically diminished distribution and these species are largely restricted to protected areas in national parks. All four species must be considered endangered and are very sensitive sentinels of the state of conservation of running waters.
... Labiobaetis species mainly live in running waters, but there are a few exceptions. On the other hand, their dispersal ability seems to be high enough to have reached remote islands like Vanuatu (Gattolliat and Staniczek 2011) and Fiji (Flowers 1990) in the past and bidirectional transoceanic dispersal between Madagascar and Africa has been shown as well (Monaghan et al. 2005). Additionally, parthenogenesis has been demonstrated in the genus, which may favor successful dispersal events as well (Sivaramakrishnan et al. 1991, Gattolliat andStaniczek 2011). ...
Material collected between 1999 and 2011 in Papua New Guinea and the Papua Province of Indonesia unveiled the enormous diversity of Labiobaetis on this island. Twenty-six new species were identified and delimited by integrative taxonomy using genetic distance (COI, Kimura-2-parameter) and morphology. These new species are described and illustrated based on larvae, augmenting the total number of Labiobaetis species on the island of New Guinea to 32. Seven morpho-groups of species are proposed based on morphological characters and a key to all New Guinea species is provided. The generic attributes of the larvae are summarised and slightly modified based on the examinations of the new species. Results on the genetics of most species (COI) are also provided. The interspecific K2P distances are between 13% and 32%, the intraspecific distances usually between 0% and 2%. Possible reasons for the remarkable richness of this genus in New Guinea are discussed.
... Freshwater arthropods (including Ephemeroptera) in Fiji have been the subject of some previous research (Flower, 1990;Haynes, 1994;1999) but, in general, the ecology, distribution and behaviour of the insects occupying Fijian freshwater systems are still poorly understood. ...
Keywords: fresh water, insects, bio-monitoring, rivers.
... They also described several new taxa from New Guinea (Ortiz and McCafferty 1999c, Lugo-Ortiz et al. 1999). Baetidae were one of the two families of mayflies reported from the Fiji Islands; although it was only a preliminary study, the diversity was relatively high with 12 species and three genera (Flowers 1990). Although the predaceous habit is very unusual in Baetidae, two of the 12 genera of this region are carnivorous: Echinobaetis from Sulawesi (Mol, 1989) and Mystaxyops from New Guinea (McCafferty and Sun 2005). ...
The systematics of the Baetidae has been the subject of much attention during the last three decades, with descriptions of new species and genera as well as several generic revisions. The family now encompasses about 100 genera and 900 species which constitute one-quarter of the world's mayfly diversity. It is thus an opportune time to evaluate the pertinence of these works. The diversity of the Baetidae of the different realms is discussed with emphasis on the rate of endemism and biogeographic affinities. We have also tried to identify the geographical areas where we need more data. The Afrotropics and Neotropics possess the most diversified fauna with the highest degree of endemism. The faunas of the Palaearctic and Nearctic realms are better known but are less diversified especially at a generic level. Oriental and Australasian faunas are still poorly known but are expected to be diversified especially in the tropical regions.
The new Caenidae genus Liebenauis (Type species L. tenuipes) is described from larval material collected in Sumatra and attributed to the subfamily Caeninae. It is closely related to the tribe Caenini and defined by long and very thin legs and modified, finger- or pine needle-shaped chloride cells on the ventral side of the operculate gill. Such types of chloride cells are not known in any other Caeninae. Two new species of Caenis from Papua New Guinea are also described.
During the Global Biodiversity Survey “Santo 2006” conducted in Espiritu Santo, Vanuatu, mayfl y larvae were
collected in several streams of the island. This contribution deals with the larvae of Baetidae (Insecta: Ephemeroptera)
that are represented by two species: Labiobaetis paradisus n. sp. and Cloeon sp. The presence of these two
genera is not surprising as they both possess almost a worldwide distribution and constitute a great part of Australasian
Baetidae diversity. Diagnoses of these two species are provided and their affi nities are discussed.
Cladistic analysis of mayflies suggests that dispersal was very asymmetrical after the new land connection between North and South America. Twenty-one genera apparently moved from South to North and Central America, but only one North American genus moved into the south. Testable predictions are possible once the boreal (Laurasian) or austral (Gondwanian) designations are made. For example, Paracloeodes, a genus of austral origin, was predicted to be found in South America, and in North America in warm rivers north and east of its known distribution. These predictions have been confirmed. Other characteristics of tropical mayflies, such as length of larval period and emergence and mating patterns, may be used to predict habitats and characteristics of present North American genera. - from Author
The abbreviated adult life of Ephemeroptera is an adaptation to minimize exposure time to predators. In eight to ten independent specialized lineages adult life is reduced to two hours or less. Predation by Odonata and birds is intensive in the lowland tropics and most unspecialized longer-lived forms emerge as sub-imagos in the first two hours of darkness, transform to imagos before dawn and mate and oviposit by mid-morning. In temperate regions cool night-time temperatures often preclude the possibility of the tropical pattern; furthermore lessened predation allows other temporal patterns. Temperate mayflies thus have a variety of emergence and swarming times. Short-lived specialized genera are subject to fewer restraints on emergence and swarming times and tropical and temperate forms are similar. Seasonal emergence and coordinated mass emergence are mechanisms for satiating predators. Remote nuptial flight probably evolved as a mechanism of escape from predation; it is assumed that swarm markers are essential to allow remote flight. It is probable that swarm markers are more common in tropical than in temperate mayflies. There is some evidence that ancestral emergence and swarming habits may persist when mayflies disperse to new areas.
The nymphs of nine species of baetid mayflies from Sri Lanka are described in detail. These include Baetis frequentus sp.n., B. acceptus sp.n., B. conservatus sp.n., B. collinus sp.n., B. geminatus sp.n., B. pulchellus sp.n., B. ordinatus sp.n., and Procloeon regularum sp.n. A single nymph of Cloeon appears closely related to Cloeon bimaculatum Eaton. The first four species mentioned do not fit in any known species-group. Baetis geminatus sp.n. and B. pulchellus sp.n. are associated with the Oriental molawinensis species-group (which corresponds to the European atrebatinus species-group and to the North American propinquus species-group). The sumigarensis sub-group is proposed within the mol winensis species-group. The nymphs described herein are the first nymphs to be described in the family Baetidae from Sri Lanka. The genus Procloeon is recorded from the Oriental Region for the first time. A key to the baetid nymphs of Sri Lanka is included. /// Se describen en detalle las ninfas de nueve especies de efemerópteros de Sri Lanka. Se incluyen Baetis frequentus sp.n., B. acceptus sp.n., B. conservatus sp.n., B. collinus sp.n., B. geminatus sp.n., B. pulchellus sp.n., B. ordinatus sp.n., y Procloeon regularum sp.n. Una ninfa de Cloeon paraece estar cercamente relacionada a Cloeon bimaculatum Eaton. Las primeras cuatro especies mencionadas no pertenecen a ningún grupo de especies conocidas. Baetis geminatus sp.n. y B. pulchellus sp.n. pertenecen al grupo de especies oriental molawinensis (que corresponde al grupo de especies europeo atrebatinus y al grupo de especies norteamericano propinquus). Se propone el subgrupo de especies sumigarensis en el grupo de especies molawinensis. Las ninfas que se describen en este trabajo son las primeras ninfas de la familia Baetidae descritas de Sri Lanka. Se registra por primera vez para la Región Oriental el género Procloeon. Se incluye una clave para las ninfas de Baetidae de Sri Lanka.
1. The zoogeography of the Melanesian ponerine fauna is preliminarily analyzed. Most of the fauna has apparently been derived ultimately from Oriental stocks entering by way of New Guinea; some invading species are able to spread beyond this island to Queensland and outer Melanesia. A smaller part of the fauna has been derived from old Australian stocks that have entered by way of New Guinea or New Caledonia. Faunal flow from New Guinea through outer Melanesia has been unidirectional, with an ever diminishing number of species groups found outward from the Bismarcks to the Fiji Islands. New Caledonia draws almost all of its fauna from eastern Australia and has engaged in very little direct faunal exchange with the remainder of Melanesia. 2. A cyclical pattern of expansion, diversification, and contraction is hypothesized to account for later evolutionary events following initial dispersal. Following invasion of Melanesia (Stage I, primary), the pioneer populations may then diverge to species level (Stage II) and further diversify. Eventually the source populations outside Melanesia tend to contract, leaving the species group as a whole peripheral and Melanesian-centered (Stage III). Endemic Melanesian species occasionally enter upon a secondary phase of expansion (Stage I, secondary) but are rarely if ever able to push beyond Australia or the Philippines. 3. Stage-I species are characterized on New Guinea by their greater concentration in "marginal" habitats, including open lowland forest, savanna, and littoral. The central habitats, including denser lowland forest and montane forest, contain significantly larger faunas as well as a higher percentage of Stage-II and Stage-III species. Stage-I species are also characterized by their individual occurrence in a greater range of major habitats. Finally, these species make up a significantly higher proportion of the faunas of the archipelagos of central Melanesia, including the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, and the New Hebrides. 4. On the basis of these data it is suggested that ponerine species normally invade New Guinea by way of the marginal habitats. Evolutionary opportunity is nevertheless limited in the marginal habitats, and there is a strong selective pressure favoring re-entry into the inner rain forest habitats. In general, Stages II and III, leading to the origin of the great bulk of the Melanesian fauna and its most distinctive endemic elements, are played out only in the inner rain forest.
Benthic samples were collected monthly during 1978–1979 at two sites in a tropical stream in Palau, Caroline Islands. Secondary production was measured by the size‐frequency method. At both sites, a riffle and an outcrop, the majority of matter and energy flowed through the decapod crustaceans, especially the shrimp Atya pilipes. Atya had a univoltine life cycle, possibly tuned to seasonal precipitation changes. The highest annual benthic production in this stream (7.70 g· m ⁻² ·yr ⁻¹ at the outcrop) did not differ greatly from production estimates in some temperate climate streams.
Western North America has grown by more than 25% through accretion over about 200 Ma since early Jurassic times. Growth was mainly by the addition of terranes of oceanic origin, each recording a unique sequence of events. Most have been carried thousands of km E and N from their sites of origin, many have rotated, mostly clockwise, and most have become highly elongated parallel to the coast of North America. Collisions between terranes and the continental plate have played a major role in the creation of mountain ranges. Fusulinids and magnetism can be used to find the origin of the terranes in the Pacific. -from F.McElhoe Jr
A comprehensive revision of Cloeodes Traver, a genus clearly distinguished as larvae by the presence of ventral tufts of setae on abdominal segments 2-6, shows that species with hind wings and species without hind wings are included. Two major phyletic lineages within the genus are recognized as subgenera: the monotypic Notobaetis Morihara & Edmunds, n. status, including C. penai (Morihara & Edmunds) from Argentina; and Cloeodes sensu stricto (=Centroptella Braasch & Soldán [in part]) including C. maculipes Traver from Puerto Rico (the type species), C. anduzei (Traver), n. comb., from Venezuela, C. aymara (Traver), n. comb., from Uruguay, C. consignatus Traver from Puerto Rico, C. excogitatus, n. sp., from Arizona, C. irvingi, n. sp., from Paraguay, C. longisetosus (Braasch & Soldán) from China, C. macrolamellus, n. sp., from New Mexico, C. peninsulus, n. sp., from Baja California, C. redactus, n. sp., from Peru, and C. soldani (Müller-Liebenau) from Sri Lanka. Species are delineated primarily on the basis of larval structural characteristics, especially those of abdominal terga and armature associated with legs. Only C. consignatus, C. anduzei, and C. aymara are unknown as larvae, and these together with C. penai and C. maculipes are the only species presently known as adults. A key to the species in the larval stage is included.
THE Alpine mountain chain is generally accepted to be the product of continent-continent collisions. In this belt the zone of recent tectonic activity is wide (up to 2,000 km in Tibet) and crustal thickness in places is 1.5-2 times the average continental crust, presumably due to the inability of light continental material to sink into the astheosphere. Under the Himalayas, for example, the crust is 70 km thick1. Furthermore, as indicated by seismicity, the active collision zone here includes not only the highly deformed Himalaya belt but also the entire Tibet plateau. Major wide mountain belts exist, morphologically similar to the Alpine belt, in regions which do not experience continental collision, such as western North America, Alaska, east Siberia and the Andes. The crustal thickness here can also be very great, up to 70 km in the Andes2. All are seismically active, wide, highly deformed and include high plateaus of various sizes. Many of these wide erogenic belts also exhibit great geological complexities which are not simply explained by the model of an oceanic lithosphere under-thrusting a continental lithosphere. We suggest, therefore, that the circum Pacific mountain belts may be the result of past continental collisions, similar to those associated with the Alpine belt. We summarise the evidence for the incorporation of past continental masses around the Pacific Ocean. Holmes3 has given a compelling case for large continental land masses during parts of late Palaeozoic to early Tertiary to the west of North America such as Cascadia and Llanoria4. The land includes conglomerates derived from crystalline sialic rocks which have since disappeared. Hamilton5 and Davis and Armstrong6 suggested that the Klamaths were originally some distance offshore to the west and that the Permo Triassic Sonoma Orogeny results from an arc continent collision.
SYNOPSIS. Cladistic analysis of mayflies suggests that dispersal was very asymmetrical after the new land connection between North and South America. Twenty-one genera apparently moved from South to North and Central America, but there is good evidence for only one North American genus moving into the south. Testable predictions are possible once the boreal (Laurasian) or austral (Gondwanian) designations are made. For example, Paracloeodes , a genus of austral origin, was predicted to be found in South America, and in North America in warm rivers north and east of its known distribution. These predictions have been confirmed. Other characteristics of tropical mayflies, such as length of larval period and emergence and mating patterns, may be used to predict habitats and characteristics of present North American genera. Merger events and consequent dispersal of organisms have profound influences on distributional patterns, and from such information, biologically useful generalities can be made.
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Eintagsfliegen (Ephemeroptera) von den Sunda-Inseln
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Transpacific floristic affinities, particularly in the tropical zone
- C G G J Van Steenis
- CGGJ Steenis van
Dispersal of animais in the Pacific
- J L Gressin
- C M Yoshimoto
- JL Gressin
Streams and Ponds. Reference Booklet. Ecological Field Guides Project
- J A Mclean
The Leptophlebiidae of New Caledonia (Ephemeroptera). Part I. Introduction and systematics
- W L Peters
- J G Peters
- G F Edmunds
- Jr
New genera and species of the family Baetidae from West-Malaysia (River Gombak)
- I Müller-Liebenau
Three new species of the genus
- I Müller-Liebenau
Review of the original material of the baetid genera
- I Müller-Liebenau
Baetidae from Sabah (East Malaysia) (Ephemeroptera)
- I Müller-Liebenau
New species of the family Baetidae from the Philippines
- I Müller-Liebenau
A redescription of the genus
- P J Suter
Revision of the genus
- R D Waltz
- W P Mccafferty
Panbiogeography: a progressive research program?
- R Craw
- P Weston
- RC Craw
Streams and Ponds. Reference Booklet. Ecological Field Guides Project. UNDP (UNESCO) Curriculum Development Unit
- J A Mclean
- JA McLean
In Insects of Samoa and other Samoan terrestrial Arthropoda
- R J Tillyard
- RJ Tillyard