Andreas G. Orphanides, “The Mycenaeans in Cyprus: Economic, Political and Ethnic Implications,” Lines Between: Culture and Empire in the Eastern Mediterranean Conference, 3-6 June 2015, Nicosia, Cyprus

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1
Lines Between: Culture and Empire
in the Eastern Mediterranean Conference
3-6 June 2015, Nicosia, Cyprus

TheMycenaeansinCyprus:Economic,Political
andEthnicImplications
by
ProfessorAndreasG.Orphanides
EuropeanUniversityCyprus
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CulturalandsocialinteractionsintheEasternMediterraneanduringtheLate
BronzeAgeinvolvedtrade,mercantileoperations,migration,colonizationand/or
militaryengagement.TheMycenaeanexpansionintheEasternMediterraneanfound
CyprusoccupyingastrategicpositioninthesearoutesbetweenGreeceandtheNear
East.TheMycenaeanstookadvantageofit,andasearlyasthefourteenthcenturyBC
launchedeffortsthateventuallyendedupinestablishingentrepôtstationsinCyprus
thatfacilitatedtheircommercialinteractionswiththeNearEast.1Inthemeantime,

1S.W.ManningandL.Hulin,L.,“MaritimeCommerceandGeographiesofMobilityintheLate
BronzeAgeoftheEasternMediterranean:Problematizations,”inE.BlakeandA.B.Knapp(Eds.),The
ArchaeologyofMediterraneanPrehistory,(Malden,MA2015),270‐302;A.BernardKnapp,
“PrehistoricCyprus:A‘Crossroads’ofInteraction?”inA.LichtenbergerandC.vonRüden(Eds.)
MultipleMeditterraneanRealities:CurrentApproachestoSpaces,Resources,andConnectivities,
(Paderborn2015),17‐30;L.Steel,“LateBronzeAgeCyprus,inM.SteinerandA.Killebrew(Eds.),
OxfordHandbookoftheAncientLevant,(Oxford,2014),577‐591;P.W.Stockhammer,“Levantine
andCypriotPotteryinMycenaeanGreeceasMirrorsofInterculturalContacts,”inA.Babbietal.
(Eds.),TheMediterraneanMirror.CulturalContactsintheMediterraneanSeabetween1200and750
B.C.Conference,Heidelberg,6th–8thOctober2012,RGZM(Mainz,2015),177–187;A.Bernard
Knapp,TheArchaeologyofCyprus:FromEarliestPrehistorythroughtheBronzeAge,Cambridge

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somethingequallyimportantledthemtopaymoreattentiontotheisland,to
graduallydominateoverit,toachievecontroloveritsterritory,andtoconsequently
Hellenizeit.ItwasthefactthatCypruswasoneofthemostimportantcopper
sourcesintheMediterranean.2ThediscoverybytheMycenaeansthataresourceas

UniversityPress(Cambridge,2013);I.VoskosandA.BernardKnap,“CyprusattheEndoftheLate
BronzeAge:CrisisandColonizationorContinuityandHybridization,”AJA112(4)(2008),659‐684;S.
Sherratt,“ImmigrationandArchaeology:SomeIndirectReflections,”inP.Åström(Ed.),ActaCypria,
Vol.2,SIMA‐PB117,(Jonsered,1992),316‐347;M.Atzy,NomadsintheSea”inResMaritimae:
CyprusandtheEasternMediterraneanfromPrehistorythroughLateAntiquity,S.Swiny,R.
Hohlfelder,andH.W.Swiny(Eds.),CyprusAmericanArchaeologicalInstituteMonographI(Atlanta,
1997),1‐16;M.Atzy,“Routes,Trade,Boatsand‘NomadsoftheSea’,”inS.Gitin,A.Mazar,andE.
Stern(Eds.),MediterraneanPeoplesinTransition:ThirteenthtoTenthCenturies,(Jerusalem,1998),
439‐448;K.Nicolaou,“TheFirstMycenaeansinCyprus,”inV.Karageorghis(Ed.),Actsofthe
InternationalSymposiun:TheMycenaeansintheEasternMediterranean,(Nicosia,1973),51‐61;M.
Iacovou,“TheGreekExodustoCyprus:TheAntiquityofHellenism.”MediterraneanHistoricalReview
14(2)(1999),1‐28;M.Iacovou,“CyprusattheDawnoftheFirstMillennium:Cultural
HomogenizationversustheTyrannyofEthnicIdentification,”inJ.Clarke(Ed.),Archaeological
PerspectivesontheTransmissionandTransformationofCultureintheEasternMediterranean.
LevantSuppl.2(Oxford2005),125‐134;M.Atzy,NomadsintheSea”inResMaritimae:Cyprusand
theEasternMediterraneanfromPrehistorythroughLateAntiquity,S.Swiny,R.Hohlfelder,andH.W.
Swiny(Eds.),CyprusAmericanArchaeologicalInstituteMonographI(Atlanta,1997),1‐16;Actsofthe
InternationalArchaeologicalSymposium‘TheMycanaeansintheEasternMediterranean,’Nicosia
27thMarch‐2ndApril1972(Nicosia,1973);V.Karageorghis,FromtheStoneAgetotheRomans
(London,1982),61‐113;P.Åström,TheLateCyprioteBronzeAge,SCEIV:IC(Lund,1972);H.W.
Catling,CyprusintheNeolithicandBronzeAgePeriods(CAH1966),56;P.ÅströminSCEIV:1C,289‐
414;A.WaceandC.BlegeninKlio32(1939),131‐147;Y.LynnHolmes,“TheForeignTradeofCyprus
duringtheLateBronzeAge,”inN.Robertson(Ed.),TheArchaeologyofCyprus:RecentDevelopments
(NewJersey,1975),90‐110;J.D.Muhly,“TheLateBronzeAgeinCyprus:A25YearRetrospect,”inV.
Karageorghis(Ed.),ArchaeologyinCyprus1960‐1985(Nicosia,1985),20‐46;V.KarageorghisandJ.D.
Muhly(Eds.),CyprusattheCloseoftheLateBronzeAge(Nicosia,1984);P.Åström,“TradeintheLate
BronzeAge,”inE.Peltenburg(Ed.),EarlySocietyinCyprus(Edinburgh,1989),202‐208;K.Nikolaou,J.
L.Myres,HandbookoftheCesnolaCollectionofAntiquitiesfromCyprus(NewYork,1914).
2V.Kassianidou,“MiningLandscapesofPrehistoricCyprus,”Metalla20:2(2013),36‐45;H.W.
Catling,CypriotBronzeworkintheMycenaeanWorld(Oxford,1964),17;J.DuPlatTaylor,“Mines
WheretheMycanaeansGotTheirCopperDiscoveredinCyprus,”ILN196(1940),251;D.
Panagiotopoulos,“TheStirringSea:ConceptualisingTransculturalityintheLateBronzeAgeEastern
Mediterranean,”inK.DuistermaatandI.Regulski(Eds.),InterculturalContactsintheAncientMediterranean,
OrientaliaLovaniensiaAnalecta202(Louvain2011),31‐51;A.BernardKnapp,“PrehistoricCyprus:A
‘Crossroads’ofInteraction?”inA.LichtenbergerandC.vonRüden(Eds.)MultipleMeditterranean
Realities:CurrentApproachestoSpaces,Resources,andConnectivities,(Paderborn2015),17‐30;
A.G.Orphanides,"LateBronzeAgeWeaponsinCyprus,"Κυπριακός Λόγος 74‐75(1981),178‐179;

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valuableascopperwasreadilyavailableontheisland,increaseditsimportance
considerably.Timber,asthemainmaterialforshipbuilding,wasobviouslyanother
importantresourceforthemontheisland.
Itisverywellestablishedthatbronzetoolsandvessels,andparticularly
bronzeweaponswereextensivelyusedintheMycenaeanculture.Especiallybronze
weaponswereprimarilyandvitallyimportanttotheMycenaeansfortheirmilitary
expeditions.ItisworthytomentionthatacomparisonbetweenthetypicalCypriot
weaponsandtheMycenaeanonesclearlyshowsthattheislandlaggedfarbehind
theMycenaeansinthedesign,manufacture,technologyandeffectivenessofits
weapons.3Bearingthisinmind,wemaybetterunderstandthelevelofresistance
thattheMycenaeanswouldencounterduringtheprocessofestablishing
themselves,exploitinganddominatingovertheisland.
AnewtypeofeconomyandpoliticalorganizationemergedinCyprus,based
ontheMycenaeanexploitationofcopper.4Theneweconomicandpoliticalsystem

A.G.Orphanides,“SouthernCyprusintheLateBronzeAge:ARegionalPerspective,”Archaeologia
CypriaI(1985)23‐27;J.D.Muhly,R.Maddin,andV.Karageorghis,EarlyMetallurgyinCyprus4000‐
500B.C.,inActaoftheInternationalArchaeologicalSymposium(Larnaca1981);L.VagnettiandF.L.
Schiavo,“LateBronzeAgeLongDistanceTradeintheMediterranean:TheRoleoftheCypriots,”in E.
Peltenburg(Ed.),EarlySocietyinCyprus(Edinburgh,1989),217‐243;J.D.Muhly,“TheOrganization
oftheCopperIndustryinLateBronzeAgeCyprus,”in E.Peltenburg(Ed.),EarlySocietyinCyprus
(Edinburgh,1989),298‐314;S.Sherrat,”CirculationofMetalsandtheEndoftheBronzeAgeinthe
EasternMediterranean”,inC.F.Pare(Ed.),MetalsMaketheWorldGoRound:TheSupplyand
CirculationofMetalsinBronzeAgeEurope(Oxford,2000),82‐98.
3H.W.Catling,CypriotBronzeworkintheMycenaeanWorld(Oxford,1964),17;A.G.Orphanides,
"LateBronzeAgeWeaponsinCyprus," Κυπριακός Λόγος74‐75(1981),178‐179;A.M.Snodgrass,
ArmsandArmouroftheGreeks(NewYork1976);L.Steel,CyprusbeforeHistory:FromtheEarliest
SettlerstotheEndoftheBronzeAge,(London,2004),196.
4E.Peltenburg(Ed.),EarlySocietyinCyprus(Edinburgh,1989);A.BernardKnapp,“Cyprus,Crete,
andCopper:ACommentonCatling'sParadox,”ReportoftheDepartmentofAntiquities,Cyprus
(1990),55‐63;P.Åström,“TheEconomyofCyprusanditsDevelopmentinthe2ndMillenium,”Arch

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4
causedanincreaseofsettlementsandpopulationintheregionsofcopper
exploitation,anditisreflectedbythedistributionofthesettlementsthataimedat
servingthemaximalexploitationofthecoppersourcesforthebenefitofthe
Mycenaeans.5Inotherwords,thedistributionandorganizationofthesettlement
patternduringtheLateCypriotIIandparticularlyintheLateCypriotIIIperiods
reflectthecompleteeconomicandpoliticalcontrolofanddominationoverCyprus
bytheMycenaeans.
Thesettlementsweredistributedinapatternofdistinctclusters.6Eachcluster
includedawealthycoastalurbancenterwithaharbor.Suchclustersofsettlements

VivaII:3(1969),73‐80.B.Knapp,CopperProductionandDivineProtection:Archaeology,Ideology
andSocialComplexityinBronzeAgeCyprus(SIMAPocket‐Book42)(Göteborg,1986).

5L.Steel,“ExploringRegionalSettlementonCyprusintheLateBronzeAge:theRuralHinterland,”in
I.Hein(Ed.),TheFormationofCyprusinthe2ndMillenniumBC.StudiesinRegionalismDuringthe
MiddleandLateBronzeAges,(Vienna,2009),133‐143;V.Kassianidou,“MiningLandscapesof
PrehistoricCyprus,”Metalla20:2(2013),36‐45;V.Kassianidou,“TheProductionandTradeof
CypriotCopperintheLateBronzeAge:AnAnalysisoftheEvidence.”PasiphaeVII(2013),133‐146;
H.W.Catling,“PatternsofSettlementinBronzeAgeCyprus,”OpAthIV(1963),142;K.Nicolaou,The
HistoricalTopographyofKition(SIMAXLIII)(Göteborg,1976);P.Åström,“Dromolaxia,Locality
“Trypes”,”RDAC(1977),110‐112:A.G.Orphanides,“ThePoliticalandEconomicImplicationsofthe
MycaenaeanPresenceinCyprus,”ActsoftheThirdInternationalCongressofCypriotStudies,
(Nicosia,1985),379‐385.
6A.G.Orphanides,“SouthernCyprusintheLateBronzeAge:ARegionalPerspective,”Archaeologia
CypriaI(1985)23‐27;N.P.StanleyPrice,EarlyPrehistoricSettlementinCyprus6500‐3000B.C.(BAR,
InternationalSeries),65(Oxford,1979),81;P.Åströmetal.,inSIMAXLV:1‐7;V.KarageorghisandO.
Masson,inStudiCipriotoeRapportidiScavoI(BibliotecadiAntichitaCipriote,1971),237‐247;H.W.
Catling,CypriotBronzeworkintheMycenaeanWorld(Oxford,1964),17;J.Johnson,Maronide
Chypre(SIMALIX)(Göteborg,1980);G.Cadogan,“MaroniandtheLateBronzeAgeofCyprus,”inV.
KarageorgisandJ.D.Muhly(Eds.),CyprusattheCloseoftheLateBronzeAge(1984),1‐10;
KarageorghisandM.Demas,inRDAC(1981),135‐141;F.G.Maier,“EvidenceforMycenaean
SettlementatOldPaphos,”ActsoftheInternationalArchaeologicalSymposium‘TheMycanaeansin
theEasternMediterranean,’Nicosia27thMarch‐2ndApril1972(Nicosia,1973);M.Demas,Pyla
KokkinokremmosandMaa‐Palaeokastro:TwoFortifiedSettlementsoftheendofthe13thCentury
B.C.inCyprus,Unpub.Ph.D.Dissertation,Univ.ofCincinnati,1984(UMIno.8420868);A.South,
“Kalavassos‐AyiosDhimitriosandtheLateBronzeAgeinCyprus,”inV.KarageorgisandJ.D.Muhly
(Eds.),CyprusattheCloseoftheLateBronzeAge(1984),11‐18;S.Swiny,“BronzeAgeSettlement


5
canbefoundattheMorphoubayandPolistisKhrysokhousonthenortherncoast,
whereassuchclustersofsettlementsontheeasterncoastcouldbefoundatEnkomi,
atthemodernvillageofPyla,atKitionatmodernLarnaca,andatHalaSultanTekke
ontheLarnacaSaltLakes,where,atthattime,therewasanopeninletandafine
harbor.Harborscanalsobedocumentedintheothermentionedclustersof
settlements,withDhekeliaforthePylaclusterandKitionfortheKitionone.Asfor
thesoutherncoast,aclusterofsettlementsoccupiedtheareaaroundMaroniand
KalavassosthatincludedthePendaskinosandVassilikosrivers.Therelativelylarge
quantityofAegeanimportsatthesetwosites,suggestthattheyattractedmuchof
thetradewiththeWest,sothataharborfunctionedthereasitwasthecasewiththe
otherclusters.Anotherconcentrationofimportantsitesisonbothsitesofthe
Kourrisriver;theEpiskopisettlementisonthewesternbank,whereastheErimi
groupisontheeasternbank.AclusterofsettlementsisalsofoundaroundKouklia
(Palaepaphos).Inthelasttwoclusters,harborsmayhaveexistedinthesamemanner
asintheotherclustersonthesoutherncoast.Finally,aclusterofsettlementscanbe
foundatMaa‐Palaeokastro.Itispossiblethatadditionalsuchclustersexisted
elsewereinCyprusaswell.
Thecoastalurbancentersoccupiedprominentpositionswithintheseclusters
ofsettlements;thisisobviousbyconsideringthewealthunearthedinexcavations,
theirfunctionasindustrialcitiesengagedincopperrefiningandproductionof
bronzework,7andtheevidenceofliteracy.Whereharborscannoteasilybelocated,

PatternsinSouthwestCyprus,”Levant13(1981),51‐87;O.Negbi,“TheClimaxofUrban
DevelopmentinBronzeAgeCyprus,”RDAC(1986),97‐121.
7J.D.Muhly,R.Maddin,andV.Karageorghis,EarlyMetallurgyinCyprus4000‐500B.C.,inActaofthe
InternationalArchaeologicalSymposium(Larnaca1981);V.Kassianidou,“TheProductionandTrade
ofCypriotCopperintheLateBronzeAge:AnAnalysisoftheEvidence.”PasiphaeVII(2013),133‐146;
H.W.Catling,CypriotBronzeworkintheMycenaeanWorld(Oxford,1964)21;R.S.MerrilleesinRDAC
(1982),244‐251;E.HerscherinRDAC(1980),18‐20;P.Rabar,TheOrganizationandDevelopmentof
EarlyCopperMetallurgyinthePolisRegion,WesternCyprus,Unpub.Ph.D.Dissertation,Penn.State


6
rivermouthswerewellsuitedtotheneedsofshipping.Forexample,suchriver
mouthscanbeobservedatKivisilonthePouzisriver,ErimiandEpiskopionthe
Kourrisriver,andKoukliaontheDhiarrizos.Thecoastalurbancentersobviously
providedcommunicationwithforeignregions,thuspromotingtradewiththe
Aegean,AsiaMinor,Syria‐Palestine,andEgypt.Butaboveall,theymanagedand
controlledtheextraction,smelting,refiningandexportofcopperforsatisfyingthe
relevantneedsoftheMycenaeansthemselvesandtheneedsofmarketsinthe
EasternMediterraneanservedbythem.8
Coastalurbancenters,suchasEnkomi,Dhekelia,Kition,HalaSultanTekke,
Maroni,Kalavassos,etc.offeranexcellentideaoftheirmaterialprosperityandthe
tremendousnumberofmaterialgoodsimportedfromabroad.Mycenaeantradeis
verywelldocumentedinalmostallclustersofsettlements,judgingespeciallyfrom
theMycenaeanpotteryandotherartifactsreachingtheirpeakinLCIIIandfoundat
almostallLateCypriotsitesintheseclusters.9ThisimportedMycenaeanmaterial

Univ.,1984(UMI,no.8419658);P.Rabar,“EarlyCopperProductioninthePolisRegion,Western
Cyprus,”JFieldA14(1987),297‐312;R.F.Tylecote,“TheLateBronzeAgeCopperandBronze
MetallurgyatEnkomiandKition,”EMC(Nicosia,1982),81‐103.
8V.Kassianidou,“TheProductionandTradeofCypriotCopperintheLateBronzeAge:AnAnalysisof
theEvidence.”PasiphaeVII(2013),133‐146;L.VagnettiandF.L.Schiavo,“LateBronzeAgeLong
DistanceTradeintheMediterranean:TheRoleoftheCypriots,”in E.Peltenburg(Ed.),EarlySociety
inCyprus(Edinburgh,1989),217‐243;G.F.Bass,“ABronzeAgeShipwreckatUluBurum(Kas):1984
Campaign,”AJA90(1986),269‐296;J.D.Muhly,“TheRoleofCyprusintheEconomyoftheEastern
MediterraneanDuringtheSecondMilleniumB.C.,”inV.Karageorghis(Ed.),ActsoftheInternational
ArchaeologicalSymposium‘CyprusBetweentheOrientandOccident’(Nicosia,1986),45‐60;C.
Pullak,“TheBronzeAgeShipwreckatUluBurun,Turkey:1985Campain,”AJA92(1988),1‐37;Z.A.
Stos‐Gale,N.H.GaleandU.Zwicker,“TheCopperTradeintheSouth‐EastMediterraneanRegion.
PreliminaryScientificEvidence,”RDAC1986),122‐144;N.H.Gale,“LateBronzeAgeCopperOxhide
IngotsandtheAncientExploitationoftheCypriotCopperDepositsinRelationtoBronzeAgeTrade
intheMediterranean:NewResults,”3rdInternationalCongressofCypriotStudies,Nicosia16‐20
April,1996.
9A.BernardKnapp,TheArchaeologyofCyprus:FromEarliestPrehistorythroughtheBronzeAge
(CambridgeUniversityPress,2013);L.Steel,“ExploringRegionalSettlementonCyprusintheLate
BronzeAge:theRuralHinterland,”inI.Hein(Ed.),TheFormationofCyprusinthe2ndMillenniumBC.


7
wasobviouslydistributedtothevarioussiteswithineachclusterofsettlementsvia
themajorcoastalurbancenters.Theriverswereprobablyvitallyrelatedtocertain
settlementsinallclusters.Thiscaneasilybeunderstood,consideringtheimportance
ofwatersupplytothesurvivalofthesettlements.Itseemslikelythatsomeofthese
settlementswereexclusivelyengagedwithagriculture,producingsotherequired
surplusforconsumptioninthecoastalurbancenters,andinothersettlementsthat
wereprimarilyengagedwiththeextractionandsmeltingofcopper.
Anumberofsettlementsineachclusterwerelocatednearcoppermines.It
seemslikelythattheirpopulationwasprimarilyinvolvedwithextractingand
smeltingcopper.Theywereactuallyplacedonlinesofcommunicationwiththerich
industrialcoastalurbancenters,sothatrawcoppermaterialextractedbythemcould
bedispatchedtothosecenters.10Anargumenthasoccasionallybeenraisedthat
possiblyimportedcopperorewassmeltedatCypriotsites.Consideringthefactthat

StudiesinRegionalismDuringtheMiddleandLateBronzeAges,(Vienna,2009),133‐143;I.Voskos
andA.BernardKnap,“CyprusattheEndoftheLateBronzeAge:CrisisandColonizationor
ContinuityandHybridization,”AJA112(4)(2008),663‐676;P.Keswani,“BeyondEmulationand
Hierarchy:DiverseExpressionsofSocialIdentityinLateCypriotMortuaryRitual,”inS.Antoniadou
andA.Pace(Eds.),MediterraneanCrossroads,(AthensandOxford,2007),509‐535;P.Keswani,
MortuaryRitualsandSocietyinBronzeAgeCyprus.MonographsinMediterraneanArchaeology9,
(London,2004),127‐127;L.Steel,“ARappraisaloftheDistribution,ContextandFunctionof
MycaenaeanPotteryinCyprus,”inJ.Balensi,J.‐Y.Monchambert,andS.Müller‐Celku(Eds.),La
CeramiqueMycéniennedel’ÉgéeauLevant.TravvauxdelaMaisondel’Orient41,(Lyon,20014),
69‐85;ActsoftheInternationalArchaeologicalSymposium‘TheMycanaeansintheEastern
Mediterranean,’Nicosia27thMarch‐2ndApril1972(Nicosia,1973);J.D.Muhly,“TheLateBronze
AgeinCyprus:A25YearRetrospect,”inV.Karageorghis(Ed.),ArchaeologyinCyprus1960‐1985
(Nicosia,1985),20‐46;V.Karageorghis,FromtheStoneAgetotheRomans(London,1982),61‐113;
P.Åström,TheLateCyprioteBronzeAge,SCEIV:IC(Lund,1972);E.VermeuleandF.Wolsky,“New
AegeanRelationswithCyprus:TheMinoanandMycenaeanPotteryfromToumbatouSkourou,
Morphou,”ProcAmerPhilSoc122(1978),293‐317;B.Kling,MycenaeanIIIC:1bandRelatedPottery
inCyprus(AnnArbor,1986).
10V.Karageorghis,TheEndoftheBronzeAgeinCyprus,(Nicosia,1990);H.W.Catling,Cyprusinthe
NeolithicandBronzeAgePeriods(CAH1966),91;Y.LynnHolmes,“TheForeignTradeofCyprus
DuringtheLateBronzeAge,”inN.Robertson(Ed.),TheArchaeologyofCyprus:RecentDevelopments
(NewJersey,1975),91;V.R.Desborough,TheLastMycenaeansandtheirSuccessors,(Oxford,1964).


8
CyprusitselfwasamainsourceofcopperintheEasternMediterranean,such
argumentdoesnotseemtobereasonable;somethingthatcanalsobetestifiedwith
chemicalcharacterization.11Copper‐bearingoresoccurforeachclusterof
settlements,suchasatLimniMines,Skouriotissa,AplikiandAmbelikou;attheareas
ofTroulli,Sha,Kornos,PanoLefkaraandOra;atKhirokitia,Kalavassos,Monagroulli,
Mathikoloni,etc.Ontheotherhand,remainsofslagatseveralsites,suchasEnkomi,
Kition,HalaSultanTekke,Arpera,Klavdhia,Maroni,Kalavassos,Mari,Moni,etc.
indicatethatcopperorewasmined,whereasfindsofindustrialequipmentatthe
coastalurbancentersshowthatitwassmelted,itwasmadeintomanufactured
goodsand/oringots,anditwasexported.12Thisactivitywastheprimarybasisofthe
economy,whichobviouslyservedprimarilytheMycenaeansoninternationalbasis,
andsecondarilythelocalpopulation.
Theflowofrawcopper,timberandagriculturalsurplusononehand,andthe
flowofimportedpotteryandotherartifactsontheother,arecharacteristicofthe
natureofinteractionsbetweensites,andoftheoveralleconomicandpolitical

11N.H.Gale,“LateBronzeAgeCopperOxhideIngotsandtheAncientExploitationoftheCypriot
CopperDepositsinRelationtoBronzeAgeTradeintheMediterranean:NewResults,”3rd
InternationalCongressofCypriotStudies,Nicosia16‐20April,1996;V.Kassianidou,“TheProduction
andTradeofCypriotCopperintheLateBronzeAge:AnAnalysisoftheEvidence.”PasiphaeVII
(2013),133‐146;V.R.Desborough,TheLastMycenaeansandtheirSuccessors,(Oxford,1964).
12V.Kassianidou,“MiningLandscapesofPrehistoricCyprus,”Metalla20:2(2013),36‐45;V.
Kassianidou,“TheProductionandTradeofCypriotCopperintheLateBronzeAge:AnAnalysisofthe
Evidence.”PasiphaeVII(2013),133‐146;P.W.Stockhammer,“LevantineandCypriotPotteryin
MycenaeanGreeceasMirrorsofInterculturalContacts,”inA.Babbietal.(Eds.),TheMediterranean
Mirror.CulturalContactsintheMediterraneanSeabetween1200and750B.C.Conference,
Heidelberg,6th–8thOctober2012,RGZM(Mainz,2015),177–187;J.D.Muhly,R.Maddin,andV.
Karageorghis,EarlyMetallurgyinCyprus4000‐500B.C.,inActaoftheInternationalArchaeological
Symposium(Larnaca1981);J.D.Muhly,“TheOrganizationoftheCopperIndustryinLateBronzeAge
Cyprus,”in E.Peltenburg(Ed.),EarlySocietyinCyprus(Edinburgh,1989),298‐314;V.R.Desborough,
TheLastMycenaeansandtheirSuccessors,(Oxford,1964).


9
system.13Itseemsthatacertainpatternofinteractionandacertainpolitico‐
economicmodelrecursineachclusterofsettlements,wherethecoastalurban
centers ‐‐ whichwereentirelycontrolledbytheMycenaeans‐‐canbeclassifiedas
high‐ordercenters,andtheothersettlementswithineachclusteraslower‐order
centers.
Lowordercenterswereresponsibleforextractingandprobablypartly
processingtheore,eitherattheareaoftheminesorwithinthesettlements;the
refining,sometimessmelting,andmanufacturingofingotsand/orcopperartifacts
tookplaceinthecoastalurbanandindustrialcenters,i.e.thehigh‐ordercenters.The
immediateconsequencewasthatthesecentersprovidedtheindustrialunitsforthe
finalstagesofcopperrefining,smeltingandmanufacturing.Thisactivityhad
obviouslybotheconomicandpoliticalimplications.Tin‐bronzewasalsowidelyused
inCyprusthroughouttheLateBronzeAge.However,sincethereisnoevidenceof
anytinsourcesinCyprus,itseemsreasonabletoassumethattinwasimportedto
theislandatthattime.14Therefore,thehigh‐ordercentershadaswellthesupplyof

13L.Steel,“ARappraisaloftheDistribution,ContextandFunctionofMycaenaeanPotteryinCyprus,”
inJ.Balensi,J.‐Y.Monchambert,andS.Müller‐Celku(Eds.),LaCeramiqueMycéniennedel’Égéeau
Levant.TravvauxdelaMaisondel’Orient41,(Lyon,2014),69‐85;V.Kassianidou,“TheProduction
andTradeofCypriotCopperintheLateBronzeAge:AnAnalysisoftheEvidence.”PasiphaeVII
(2013),133‐146;A.BernardKnapp,“Production,ExchangeandSocio‐PoliticalComplexityinBronze
AgeCyprus,”OxfJA5(1986),35‐60;J.D.Muhly,“TheOrganizationoftheCopperIndustryinLate
BronzeAgeCyprus,”in E.Peltenburg(Ed.),EarlySocietyinCyprus(Edinburgh,1989),298‐314;T.
Stech,“UrbanMetallurgyinLateBronzeAgeCyprus,”EMC(Nicosia,1982),105‐116;A.K.South,
“FromCoppertoKingship:AspectsofBronzeageSocietyViewedfromtheVasilikosValley,”in E.
Peltenburg(Ed.),EarlySocietyinCyprus(Edinburgh,1989),315‐324;P.Keswani,MortuaryRituals
andSocietyinBronzeAgeCyprus.MonographsinMediterraneanArchaeology9,(London,2004).
14V.Kassianidou,“TheTradeofTinandtheIslandofCopper,”inA.Giumlia‐MairandF.LoSchiavo
(Eds.),LeProblèmedel´Etainal´OriginedelaMétallurgie/TheProblemofEarlyTin.XIVCongress
UISPP,Section11,2ndColloquium,BARInternationalSeriesS1199,(Liège,2003),109‐119; H.W.
Catling,CyprusintheNeolithicandBronzeAgePeriods(CAH1966),71;J.D.Muhly,“CopperandTin:
TheDistributionofMineralResourcesandtheNatureoftheMetalsTradeintheBronzeAge,”Trans
ConnAcadArtsandSciences43(1973),155‐535;T.S.Wheeler,J.D.MuhlyandR.Maddin,
“MediterraneanTradeinCopperandTinintheLateBronzeAge,”AnnIstItNum26(1979),139‐152.


10
tinundertheircontrol.Timberandagriculturalgoodsobviouslymovedfromlow‐
ordercenterstothehigh‐ordercenters.Ontheotherhand,importedpotteryand
otherartifactsmovedintheoppositedirection,sothatthesetypesofmaterialwere
distributedbythehigh‐ordercenterstothelow‐ordercenters.Thisdirectional
distributionwasobviouslythenaturalconsequenceofthefactthatthesetypesof
materialwereimportedviatheharborsofthehigh‐ordercenters;theirdistribution
wasthereforecontrolledbythesecenters.
Theorganizationandinteractionofthesettlementsineachclusterseemto
followaDendriticCentral‐Placemodel.Accordingtothismodel,eachhigh‐order
centerdevelopslatticesoflow‐ordercenterswithinauniformresourcedistribution
andequaltransportfacilityinalldirections.Thepatternofthismodelisdetermined
bytheflowofcopper,timberandagriculturalgoodsononehand,andofimported
artifactsontheother.ItalsoconsiderstherolethataMycenaeanpowerbased
outsidethesystemplayedinthisframework.TheDendriticCentral‐Placemodel
includesuptoaconsiderableextenttheChristaller'sAdministrativePrinciple.15
Accordingtothisprinciple,themodelisdesignedforthebenefitoftherulingelite
ratherthanofthesmallproducer(inthecaseofcopper,timberandagricultural
goods)orconsumer(inthecaseofimportedartifacts).Itisbounded,withthelow‐
ordercenterslocatedwithinthehinterlandofasinglehigh‐ordercenter.
Transactionsandinteractionsaredirectbetweenthemajorcenterandthe
peripheralsecondaryones.Eachhigh‐ordercentercontrolsthelower‐orderonesand
thehinterlandexclusively,withminimalcompetitionbetweenthehigh‐ordercenters
regardingthelow‐ordercenters.Therefore,thissystemofeconomicandpolitical

15W.Christaller,DieZentralenOrteinSüddeutschland(Jena,1933);C.A.Smith,"RegionalEconomic
Systems:LinkingGeographicalModelsandSocioeconomicProblems,"inC.R.Smith(Ed.),Regional
Analysis:EconomicSystems,Vol.I,AcademicPress(NewYork,1976),3‐68;V.L.Scamborough,andJ.
E.Clark(Eds.),ThePoliticalEconomyofAncientMesoamerica,(NewMexico,2007).


11
organizationseemstobehighlyefficientinformingdiscretepolitical‐administrative
units.16Apartfromthisadministrativeaspect,themodelisalsocharacterizedbythe
existenceofaMycenaeanpower/elitebasedoutsidethesystemandacommodity
flowthatfollowsadendriticpattern.Theexportofaprimarycommodity,i.e.copper,
createsadistinctiveregionaleconomicorganization,labeledadendriticsystem.
Spatially,thepatternofcentersresemblesabranchingtreeordendrite,with
theMycenaeanpower/elitebeingthehighest‐levelentity,andwithalsoanumberof
high‐ordercenters,eachoneincontrolofanumberoflow‐ordercenters.Neither
concentrationofpoliticalandeconomicpower,norcontrolofinformationallows
competitionwithinthehinterland,whereasthehigh‐ordercenterisinamonopoly
position.Inaddition,aninternationalmarketelite,whicheitheritisMycenaeanorit
isservedbytheMycenaeans,isbasedoutsidethesystem.Sinceruralgoodsdonot
flowwithregularityacrossruralmarkets,peasantsattheperipheralendsofdendritic
systemsspecializeinproducinggoodsforabroad,ofteninternational,marketand
consumeothergoodsfromthatmarket.Butatthesametimetheyproducetheir
ownsubsistencegoods.17
InaDendriticCentral‐Placemodelitisexpectedthattheelitepoliticalgroups
arelocatedincentersinwhichthecontrolovertheregionaleconomicsystemcanbe
maximized.Obviously,theonlypointfromwhichthegreatestpoliticalcontrolcanbe

16W.Bray,inE.Z.VogtandR.M.Leventhal(Eds.),PrehistoricSettlementPattern,HarvardUniversity
(Cambridge,1983),171;C.A.Smith,“EconomicsandMarketingSystems:ModelsforEconomic
Geography,”AnnualReviewofAnthropology3(1974),175.Inthecaseofpossibleclustersof
settlementsintheinterioroftheisland,e.g.Idalion,suchclusterscanbeaccomodatedinthe
proposeddendriticmodel,providedthatthemajorcenterineachoneofthemwasinfactcontrolled
byahigh‐ordercenteronthecoast.
17K.B.Kelley,"DendriticCentral‐PlaceSystemsandtheRegionalOrganizationofNavajoTrading
Posts,"inC.R.Smith(Ed.),RegionalAnalysis:EconomicSystems,Vol.I,AcademicPress(NewYork,
1976),219‐254.


12
exercisedisthehigh‐ordercenter.OfcourseinthecaseofLateBronzeAgeCyprus,
theelitegroupslocatedinthehigh‐ordercentersareactuallytheextensionofthe
actualpoliticalandeconomicelitethatisoutsideCyprus,i.e.theMycenaean.It
seemslikelythatthereligiousinstitutionsingeneralandthepriesthoodinparticular
werethemajorcomponentsofthepoliticalandeconomicrulingelite.Thisisclearly
indicated,forexampleatKition,whereinitsindustrialquarteratKatharionits
northernsection,thecopperindustrialworkshopswerelocatedwithintheareaof
thesacredcompoundthatwasobviouslycontrolledbythepriesthood.18Thiskind
ofpoliticalandeconomiceliteplayedamajorroleduetoitsnatureandfunction
towardsthedominationoftheGreekMycenaeanreligion,language,artandculture
ingeneraloverthelocalpopulation.ThisconsequentlyledtotheHellenizationofthe
territoriesthattheycontrolledwithintheframeworkofaCentral‐PlaceDendritic
modelofpoliticalandeconomicorganization.
MycenaeanmigrationtoorcolonizationofCyprusintheLateBronzeAge,
interrelatedtoaHellenizationperspective,basedprimarilyonthesuperiorityofthe
incomingMycenaeansoverthelocalCypriotpopulation,havebeendeepandcentral
inCypriotarchaeology.19Inaddition,andinreactiontobothcolonizationand

18K.Nicolaou,TheHistoricalTopographyofKition(SIMAXLIII)(Göteborg,1976),308;V.
Karageorghis,ViewfromtheBronzeAge:MycenaeanandPhoenicianDiscoveriesatKition(NewYork,
1976),26‐57;F.G.Maier,“PriestKingsinCyprus,”inE.Peltenburg(Ed.),EarlySocietyinCyprus
(Edinburgh,1989),376‐391;T.Stech,R.Maddin,andJ.D.Muhly,“CopperProductionatKitioninthe
LateBronzeAge,”KitionI(1985),388‐402;R.F.Tylecote,“CopperWorkingatKition,”KitionI(1985),
430;B.Knapp,CopperProductionandDivineProtection:Archaeology,IdeologyandSocial
ComplexityinBronzeAgeCyprus(SIMAPocket‐Book42)(Göteborg,1986).
19N.Leriou,“LocatingIdentitiesintheEasternMediterraneanduringtheLateBronzeAge‐EarlyIron
Age:TheCaseof‘Hellenised’Cyprus,”inS.AntoniadouandA.Pace(Eds.),Mediterranean
Crossroads,(AthensandOxford,2007),563‐591;N.Leriou,“TheMycenaeanColonisationofCyprus
undertheMagnifyingGlass:EmblematicIndicaversusDefiningCriteriaatPaphos,”inG.Muskett,A.
Koltsida,andM.Georgiadis(Eds.),SOMA2001:SymposiumonMediterraneanArchaeology,(Oxford,
2002),169‐177;M.Iacovou,“CyprusattheDawnoftheFirstMillennium:CulturalHomogenization
VersustheTyrannyofEthnicIdentification,”inJ.Clarke(Ed.),ArchaeologicalPerspectivesonthe
TransmissionandTransformationofCultureintheEasternMediterranean.LevantSuppl.2(Oxford


13
Hellenizationmodels,amercantilemodelhademerged,characterizedbyand
attributedtoalocalizedandentrepreneurialMediterraneanmaritimetrade.20Onthe
otherhand,ahybridizationmodelhademergedaftercritiquingandcontestingthe
abovemodels,basedonthenotionofsocialadmixture,andonanenlargementand
contributionofdifferentgroupsofpeopleofdifferingorigins.Employingthe
principleofavoidingunitaryviews,Iwouldsaythatalltheabovemodelsand
perspectivestogether,mostlikelysynthesizeaholisticperspectiveoftheissue.21
HellenizationofCyprusisafact;havingitsoriginsintheLateCypriotperiod,
developedthereaftergraduallythroughtime.Themercantileandentrepreneurial
operationsoftheMycenaeansintheEasternMediterranean,togetherwiththe
exploitationandtradeofcopper,werethestartingpointsforthepresenceofthe
MycaeneansinCyprus.TheMycaenaeans,whowithintheframeworkofthe
DendriticCentral‐PlacemodelthatIdescribedabove,actedoriginallyascontrolling
economicandpoliticaleliteoutsidethesystem,andaftergradualmigration,efforts
ofcolonization,andeventualeconomicandpoliticaldominationoverthecoastal
urban/highordercentersandtheirregions,dominatedoverCyprus,leadingsotoits

2005),125‐134;M.Iacovou,“TheGreekExodustoCyprus:TheAntiquityofHellenism.”
MediterraneanHistoricalReview14(2)(1999),1‐28;K.Nicolaou,“TheFirstMycenaeansinCyprus,”
inV.Karageorghis(Ed.),ActsoftheInternationalSymposiun:TheMycenaeansintheEastern
Mediterranean,(Nicosia,1973),51‐61;V.Karageorghis,“HellenismbeyondGreece:Cyprus,”inI.A.
ToddD.Komini‐Dialeti,andD.Hatzivassiliou(Eds.),GreekArchaeologywithoutFrontiers,(Athens,
2002),31‐43.
20S.Sherratt,“ImmigrationandArchaeology:SomeIndirectReflections,”inP.Åström(Ed.),Acta
Cypria,Vol.2,SIMA‐PB117,(Jonsered,1992),316‐347;M.Atzy,NomadsintheSea”inRes
Maritimae:CyprusandtheEasternMediterraneanfromPrehistorythroughLateAntiquity,S.Swiny,
R.Hohlfelder,andH.W.Swiny(Eds.),CyprusAmericanArchaeologicalInstituteMonographI
(Atlanta,1997),1‐16;M.Atzy,“Routes,Trade,Boatsand‘NomadsoftheSea’,”inS.Gitin,A.Mazar,
andE.Stern(Eds.),MediterraneanPeoplesinTransition:ThirteenthtoTenthCenturies,(Jerusalem,
1998),439‐448.
21I.VoskosandA.BernardKnap,“CyprusattheEndoftheLateBronzeAge:CrisisandColonization
orContinuityandHybridization,”AJA112(4)(2008),659‐684.


14
gradualHellenization.HellenizationofCyprus,thatoriginallydevelopedgradually
andstronglyintheLateBronzeAgeandinthefollowingGeometricperiod,coexisted
withothersocialandculturalelementsandinfluences,andwasthereafter
completedinthefollowingperiodsofantiquity.
