Post-glacial activity and earthquakes of the Great Glen Fault (Scotland)

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ABSTRACT - The article describes geologic evidence, derived
from field survey, remote sensing analysis and study of dig-
ital terrain models, for post-glacial movement on the Great
Glen Fault (GGF), the most pronounced tectonic structure
in Scotland. It describes evidence of recent slip on the
fault, which is to be found not only at one spot, but along
the entire length of the structure. Fluted terrain morpholo-
gies related to the Last Glacial Maximum (ca. 28 to 18 ka
BP) are truncated by slip on the fault. Moraines and fluvial
deposits related to the Ardesier and Loch Lomond read-
vance glaciers (ca. 13 and 10 ka BP, respectively), as well as
active alluvial fans, are faulted. The fault also appears ca-
pable of moderate earthquakes, like the events of 1901
(M=5) or 1816 (M=5.1).
Ancient local legends are interpreted as indicating historical
seismicity of this fault. In addition, it appears that memo-
ries of an earthquake on the GGF, with epicentre between
Loch Ness and Inverness, here referred to as the “St.
Columba earthquake”, are preserved in the 6th century leg-
ends of the journey of St. Columba in Scotland.
Activity of this fault appears to play a pivotal role in the ex-
istence of the ancient myth of the Loch Ness Monster. Pre-
vious studies at other ancient sanctuaries have concluded that
relationships exist between myths, cult-sites and local seismic
faults, deriving from peculiar natural phenomena on faults’
trace (e.g., Delphi, Ephesus, Cnidus, Monte Sant’Angelo, and
others). Direct correspondence of myth, cult-site and active
fault exists also in the case of the Monster of Loch Ness,
whose liar sits directly on the most seismic sector of the
GGF.
KEY WORDS: Active faults, Earthquakes, Glacio-seismotec-
tonis, Great Glen Fault, Loch Ness monster
RIASSUNTO - L’articolo, descrive evidenze geologiche di movi-
mento post-glaciale lungo la Great Glen Fault (GGF), la struttura
tettonica più marcata della Scozia, ricavate da rilievi sul terreno,
analisi di telerilevamento e studi di modelli digitali del terreno.
Il lavoro mette in luce evidenze di attivazione recente della
faglia visibili non in un solo punto, ma su tutta la lunghezza
della struttura. Morfologie glaciali del terreno relative all’ul-
timo massimo glaciale (ca. 28-18 ka BP) risultano troncate
dalla faglia. Morene e depositi fluviali correlati al riavanza-
mento dei ghiacciai Ardesier e Loch Lomond (ca. 13 e 10 ka
BP, rispettivamente), così come conoidi attivi, sono dislocati
dal movimento della faglia. La faglia risulta essere la proba-
bile sorgente di eventi sismici di moderata entità quali quelli
del 1901 (M=5) o 1816 (M=5.1).
Antiche leggende locali possono essere interpretate come indica-
zione della attività sismica recente di questa faglia. In particolare,
memorie di un terremoto sulla GGF, con epicentro fra il Loch
Ness e Inverness, sembrano essere presenti nelle leggende del VI
sec. riguardanti il viaggio di San Colombano in Scozia. Questo
evento è qui indicato come il terremoto di “SanColombano”.
L’attività di questa faglia ha inoltre giocato un ruolo impor-
tante nella nascita dell’antico mito del mostro di Loch Ness.
Studi precedenti hanno infatti messo in luce la corrispon-
denza e le relazioni esistenti fra miti, luoghi di culto e faglie
sismiche locali, derivanti dai particolari fenomeni goelogici
che si verificano lungo le tracce delle faglie attive (es. Delfi,
Efeso, Cnido, Monte Sant’Angelo e altri). La corrispondenza
diretta tra mito, luogo di culto e faglia attiva esiste anche nel
caso del mostro di Loch Ness, il cui sito è ubicato diretta-
mente nel settore a più elevata sismicità del GGF.
PAROLE CHIAVE: faglie attive, terremoti, glacio-sismotettonica,
Great Glen Fault, Mostro di Loch Ness
Post-glacial activity and earthquakes of the
Great Glen Fault (Scotland)
Attività postglaciale e terremoti della Great Glen Fault (Scozia)
PICCARDI L. (*)
(*) C.N.R. – Istituto di Geoscienze e Georisorse, Via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Firenze, Italy. piccardi@geo.unifi.it
Mem. Descr. Carta Geol. d’It.
XCVI (2014), pp. 431-446,
figg. 10

1. - INTRODUCTION
In most sanctuaries of antiquity sacredness was not
limited to temples and altars. Every natural feature was
part of a sacred geography. A special reverence was due
to seismic faults, peculiar geologic elements apparently
endued with proper life, because of their association
with earthquakes and related phenomena (e.g. under-
ground sounds and rumblings, ground ruptures, light-
ning phenomena, sudden variations in the activity of
springs, hydrothermal manifestations, etc.). These awe-
some and fearful aspects impressed past cultures and at-
tracted mythological explanations, and became the kernel
around which many myths nucleated. Therefore, several
sanctuaries of antiquity were deliberately positioned di-
rectly above active fault traces (PICCARDI, 2001). Knowl-
edge of earthquake geology allows us to recognize how
these faults became the kernel around which a main
myth nucleated during centuries. Most common attribu-
tion of these ruptures was to be gates to Hades, “Ditis
spiracula”, Hell’s mouth or Heavens’ doors: in any case a
passageway from the upper- to the lower-world, the fer-
tile womb of Mother Earth (PICCARDI, 2000a). Also, the
occurrence of such unusual telluric manifestations has
often induced the belief in subterranean beings, monster
or divinities, and these places were indicated as dragon’s
lairs (PICCARDI, 2000b).
To investigate how geological phenomena may have
influenced similar legendary attribution is not easy. One
can study such a remote and uncertain process only by
comparative analysis of similar cases, to highlight pos-
sible analogies.
This work has a twofold aim. On the one hand, it
documents for the first time clear geological evidence
for post-glacial slip on the Great Glen Fault, a still
much debated question. Our observations imply that
the fault is capable of seismic slip, although small. On
the other hand, it analyses if local legends may contain
useful information on historical seismicity of the area.
We finally also investigate the belief in the Loch Ness
monster, and conclude that it may be similar in origin
to other ancient geo-myths related to seismic faults and
earthquakes (PICCARDI, 2001).
1.1. - EARTH DRAGONS AND EARTHQUAKES
The dragon of the Earth, the chthonic monster so
frequently indicated as the shaker of earth, is a very an-
cient and complex image, common to almost all cultures
in the world. This archetypal figure is the product of a
long and complex cultural evolution, the slaying of these
dragons reflecting a cultural/religious evolution. In fact,
mayor myths show a marked religious stratification, in
which new elements are over-imposed on an older struc-
ture, reworking religious traditions, symbols and rituals
of a sacred place, from the pre-existing cult into the new
religion. In our society this implied the conversion from
pagan cults to Christianity, while in pre-historic times a
similar passage occurred from the cult of chthonic Earth
divinities, often related to unexplained telluric forces (Cy-
clops, Tytans, dragons, and so on) to a more heavenly re-
ligion (the Olympians in the Mediterranean area). The
telluric creatures were subjugated by the new divinity.
The underworld, once their kingdom, becomes their
prison. Their sudden roars and powerful shakings con-
tinue to make the earth tremble. So we have Apep over-
thrown by Ra in ancient Egypt, Python slain by Apollo
in Greece, Typhon overcast by Zeus in Sicily, Ravana
pinned down by Shiva in India (fig. 1A), Namazu crushed
by Kashima in Japan (fig. 1B), Michael defeating the
Dragon in Italy (fig. 1C), the Whale overcome by Thun-
derbird in North America, and many others.
The “sanctuaries” of these telluric monsters,
guardians of the gates to Hades, were therefore neces-
sarily related to the presence of openings on the under-
world. These sacred creatures of the underworld were
associated to special places, Hades’ doors”, indicated as
their lair, their grave or the way through which they
came to the surface. An interdisciplinary survey on these
ancient sacred sites, performed here in particular in the
East Mediterranean region, reveals that the close corre-
spondences between the cult-sites and the local active
faults, so frequently observed, appears to be intentional
and significantly motivated (PICCARDI, 2001).
Myths often associate the earth-shaking dragons
with a specific place, and in some case the geographical
reference may become accurate, linking the myth to a
specific spot. For instance, the flaming tongue of the
Chimaera, indestructible fire-breathing dragon killed by
Greek hero Bellerofron, remained after her death in the
form of an inextinguishable flame burning methane,
which exhales out of the ground along a major active
fault south of Antalya (Turkey). Similarly, the Hydra of
Lerna (offspring of Typhon and Echidna and sibling
of Chimaera and Cerberus) had his liar in the small Al-
cyonian Lake, in the east coast of Peloponnesus, a fa-
mous entrance to Hades, positioned above a seismic
fault (PICCARDI, 2005a).
In many cases, sanctuaries have been built to pre-
serve the venerated spot, so that the geologic fulcrum
of the cult remains incorporated into the sacred archi-
tecture. Monte Sant’Angelo, in southern Italy, provides
a brilliant example of such a kind of cult-site. Here the
sanctuary was said to have been built expressly to pre-
serve unusual “traces”, not better specified in the leg-
end, found impressed in the rock after an earthquake
and interpreted as the “footprints” of Archangel
Michael. The connections of the sacred place with
earthquakes, clearly highlighted in the myth, find strik-
ing correspondences in local geology and arrangement
of the sanctuary. The sacred “footprints” result to be
small seismic fractures, interpreted as supernatural by
local people, opened at the entrance of what was al-
ready a sacred cave (PICCARDI, 2005b).
L. PICCARDI
432

Apollo’s Oracle at Delphi (Greece), provides the
clearest, direct and explicit mention of a seismic chasm,
originally sacred to Ge and the “Earth-shaker” Posei-
don, as fulcrum of this most important sanctuary of
antiquity. The oracle was in fact located directly on the
local active fault, and the geological correspondences
between the myth and local geology has been discussed
in earlier works (PICCARDI, 2000c; PICCARDI et alii, 2008
and references therein). The myth configures an earth-
quake scenario at Delphi, with the giant snake Pythone
being hit by Apollo’s arrow and in his agony shaking
the earth. Some authors say that Python, the semi-di-
vine dragon guardian of the oracle, lived inside the sa-
cred chasm, others say that he was left to rot there
inside, after being killed by Apollo. It was the exhala-
tions rising from its corpse through the chasm that gave
inspiration to the prophetess.
One can find the same elements of the Delphi leg-
end (dragon-snake, earthquake, opening of the earth),
although arranged with a different order within the nar-
ration, also in a palaeo-Christian legend. The Apoc-
rypha ‘Acts of Philip’, which accounts for the
martyrdom of the Apostle in AD 80 at Hierapolis of
Phrygia (Aegean Turkey), relates a somehow similar
story. The arrival of Philip is highlighted first by the
apparition of a dragon, with strong earthquake and
lightning, and later by the opening of a deep abyss in
the earth, which swallowed 7000 men, in the middle of
the city. The infernal snake-goddess, the Viper or
Echidna in Hierapolis, had the chasm as the grave, just
like the snake-dragon Python in Delphi. Hierapolis was
then known also as Ophioryme: “Snake street” (or
“street of the snake”). The city is laid directly on an ac-
tive fault, which crosses the town from side to side. Just
along the trace of the fault is built the main street. Both
the Sanctuary of Cybele, the Plutonium, one of the
most famous Hades’ mouth of antiquity, and the Tem-
ple of Apollo where build bridging the trace of the
seismic fault (PICCARDI, 2007).
2. - LOCH NESS AND ITS MONSTER
Among ancient dragons, one gained so much cred-
ibility to obtain the recognition of a proper biological
name, Nessiteras rhombopteryx (SCOTT & RINES, 1976):
that is the Monster of Loch Ness (Scotland), affection-
ately called Nessie (figs. 2A, 3). Those authors published
on Nature underwater photographs of what it was as-
sumed to be an animal, but the photos resulted to have
been manipulated with the computer.
The dragons described in the chapter above are ba-
sically earthly monsters, but they were also associated
to water, lakes, and sea. Especially in Irish folk-tales,
water was the domain of the other-world, and lakes
were frequently regarded as passageways between the
two worlds.
Loch Ness, 39 km-long, less than 2 km-large and
with a surface area of more than 56 km² (figs. 2A, 3B),
is the second largest lake in Britain, after Loch Lo-
mond. Its surface elevation is about 16 m a.s.l. Due to
its great depth it is the largest reservoir by volume (7.4
km3). Its deepest point is 230 m.
Apart from the modern apparitions of Nessie, the
Loch Ness was famous in the past for another unusual
feature that made it to be regarded as ‘peculiar’ among
the other lakes. This is the fact that it does not freeze
over in winter. It may be due to relevant processes of
thermal convection, which are possible here because
of the great amount of water in this extremely deep
lake. This fact was so peculiar and relevant, that it was
specifically reported on most maps of Scotland be-
tween 17th and 19th century, with the quotation: “The
Loch Ness and the river Ness never frozen in winter” (fig. 3C)
(ORTELIUS, 1573; MERCATORE, 1595; SPEED, 1610;
POST-GLACIAL ACTIVITY AND EARTHQUAKES OF THE GREAT GLEN FAULT 433
Fig. 1 - Comparative iconographies showing the defeat and subjugation of the
dragon. A) Ravana shaking Mount Kailash from below (India, Ellora cave n.
16). B) The Namazu pinned down by god Kashima (Japan). C) The Dragon
crushed by Archangel Michael (Italy). D) St. Columba triumphing over the
Loch Ness monster (Scotland).
- Iconografie comparate che mostrano la sconfitta e la sottomissione del drago. A) Ra-
vana che scuote da sotto il Monte Kailash (India, Ellora, grotta n. 16). B) Il Na-
mazu schiacciato dal dio Kashima (Giappone). C) Il drago schiacciato sotto
all’Arcangelo Michele (Italia). D) San Colombano trionfante sul mostr o di Loch
Ness (Scozia).

HONDIUS 1636; CORONELLI, 1696; available on
www.maps.nls.uk/scotland).
2.1. - NESSIE SIGHTINGS
The modern belief in Nessie mostly spread out in
1933, after the road A82 was opened to traffic allowing
travel along the coast of the lake. Famous sightings,
such as the so-called “surgeon’s photo” in 1934, con-
solidated its iconography as the long necked ple-
siosaurus familiar to most of us. Since then, there have
been a large number of alleged sightings of the mon-
ster, but none has produced convincing evidence of a
beast. The photographs taken above water are all quite
different, showing a variety of creatures of different
size and shape. Differing from what one could expect,
the number of sightings seems to go down the more
the Loch is visited, so that we have now less pictures
documenting Nessie than in the early years of the phe-
nomenon.
MACKAL (1976) studied a collection of ca. 10,000
reported sightings, the strongest evidence being by a
long the eyewitness reports. Out of these, after critical
examination, he reduced the number of valid obser-
vations, meaning that could not be accounted for by
any other simple explanation, to less than 250. Ex-
cluding from these deliberate hoaxes, misinterpreted
spotting of animals or objects, and mirages due to air
refraction (e.g. LEHN, 1979), the predominance of
sightings resulted related to anomalous wave-wakes.
2.2. - LOCH NESS AND THE GREAT GLEN FAULT
(GGF)
Loch Ness is positioned directly on top of the
Great Glen Fault (figs. 2, 3B). One could more properly
say that the lake is positioned directly within the fault
zone itself.
The Great Glen Fault is a major crustal subverti-
cal, SW-NE oriented strike slip fault, deriving from
Caledonian orogeny, which extends for a distance of
about 500 km. It goes from the Inner Hebrides to the
Shetland offshore in the north. The fault separates,
the Northern Highlands, to the northwest, from the
Grampian Highlands, in the southeast. It divides the
predominantly Moine rocks of the Northern High-
land Terrane from the Dalradian rocks of the Central
Highland Terrane to the south. The present architec-
ture of the fault zone might represent a positive
flower structure formed during regional sinistral
transpression (STEWART et alii, 1999). The history of
strike slip of the GGF system has been complex, with
multiple reactivations. Predominant displacement
seems to have been a sinistral shear in its earlier Cale-
donian stages (between ca. 430 and 390 Ma), and dex-
tral offset after deposition of the Old Red Sandstone
in Devonian (KENNEDY, 1946; ROGERS et alii, 1989;
STEWART et alii, 1999).
The GGF represents, together with the Highland
Boundary Fault (HBF), one of the major geological
features of Scotland.
L. PICCARDI
434
Fig. 2 - A) Landsat image of Scottish Highlands, showing the Great Glen Fault, the most prominent tectonic structure of Scotland. B) Seismicity of Scottish
Highlands, data from British Geological Survey “Interactive UK earthquake map” (www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk). Many instrumentally recorded seismic events,
al least until 1994, could be reliably located to only within 30 to of their epicentres (MUSSON, 1994).
- A) Immagine Landsat delle Highlands scozzesi, con evidenziata la Great Glen Fault, la struttura tettonica più marcata in Scozia. B) Sismicità delle Highlands scozzesi, dati da
“Interactive UK earthquake map” del British Geological Survey (www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk). Molti eventi sismici registrati strumentalmente potevano essere ubicati, almeno fino al 1994,
solo con una approssimazione del loro epicentro da 15 a 30 km (MUSSON, 1994).

3. - IS THE GREAT GLEN FAULT ACTIVE?
Historical and instrumental seismicity in northern
Britain presents a complex pattern. Seismicity is known
to be strongly influenced by glacio-isostatic readjustment
following deglaciation (MUSSON, 1996; STEWART et alii,
2000; FIRTH & STEWART, 2000). MUSSON (1996) infers
that a number of minor ancient faults reactivated by
these changes would have remained active where
favourably oriented with respect to the present crustal
stress regime. Postglacial rebound also affects the current
stress regime deriving from the Mid-Atlantic ridge-push
force, which results rotated from the expected NW-SE
directed one (STEWART et alii, 2000; OTTERMÖLLER &
THOMAS, 2007). Extensive postglacial reactivation of
short segments (1–14 km) of major basement faults is
also documented (DAVENPORT & RINGROSE, 1987;
RINGROSE et alii, 1991). Although being only short fault
segments, slip rates can be relevant.
Geological analysis of suspected active faults in
Scotland has often produced ambiguous results, such as
in the case of the Kinloch Hourn fault, where re-
searchers have reached different opinions (RINGROSE,
1989; STEWART et alii, 2001). Nevertheless, there is a gen-
eral consensus that a phase of enhanced seismic activity
occurred immediately following deglaciation, about 13000
years BP, and there is evidence that postglacial rebound,
in certain areas, has been accomodated by block uplift
along pre-existing faults rather than only by regional tilt-
ing (DAVENPORT & RINGROSE, 1987; STEWART et alii,
2000; FIRTH & STEWART, 2000; STEWART et alii, 2001;
STOKER & BRADWELL, 2009). DAVENPORT & RINGROSE
(1987) argued that micro-earthquake activity in Scotland
cluster along major NE-SW trending Caledonian base-
ment faults, like the Ben Nevis seismic zone close to the
Great Glen Fault and parallel to it.
Occurrence of seismic slip on the Great Glen Fault
is still a matter of debate. Some authors maintain that
UK geology bears no relation to the observed seismic-
ity of the last 300 years, and that it is impossible to
identify any demonstrably active faults (BROWITT et alii,
1985; MUSSON, 1994, 1996 and 1997). They argue that
the two roughly parallel major faults, the GGF and the
Highland Boundary Fault (HBF in figure 2), do not
POST-GLACIAL ACTIVITY AND EARTHQUAKES OF THE GREAT GLEN FAULT 435
Fig. 3 - A) The famous “surgeon’s photo” (1934), which determined the establish-
ment of the classical representation of the Loch Ness Monster as a long necked
animal. B) Landsat image of Loch Ness. Main star indicate epicentre of the 1091
earthquake. C) Loch Ness in Mercatore Map of Scotland, 1595 (available
on www.maps.nls.uk/scotland).
- A) La famosa foto del 1934 detta “la foto del chirurgo” (dalla professione del suo autor e),
che ha determinato la rappresentazione classica del mostro di Loch Ness come animale dal
collo lungo. B) Immagine landsat del Loch Ness. La stella mag giore indica l’epicentro del
terremoto del 1901. C) Il Loch Ness nella Carta della Scozia di Mercator e, 1595
(www.maps.nls.uk/scotland).

show sign of present activity (MUSSON 1996, 1997,
2001). They attribute, for instance, the 1901 earthquake
to a N-S oriented fault, supposed but apparently not
otherwise documented, splaying from the GGF in the
vicinity of Inverness (MUSSON, 1996, 1997; MUSSON,
2001). Most authors consider instead the GGF to be
active and capable of seismic slip, as for instance in the
1901 event (DAVISON, 1906, 1924; KENNEDY, 1946;
LILWALL, 1976; WILLMORE et alii, 1977; PRENCE, 1995;
COOPER & O’SULLIVAN, 1998; STEWART et alii, 1999;
OTTERMÖLLER & THOMAS, 2007). STEWART et alii
(1999), describe earthquake-related slump structures in
unconsolidated glacial deposits adjacent to the shear
zone, as evidence of present activity of the GGF. A
chaotic layer ca. 35 cm thick, located at ca. 1.2 m depth,
found in two drillings in the sediments at the bottom
of Loch Ness, has been attributed to a slumping event
from the steep lake shores about 4000 yr BP (COOPER
& O’SULLIVAN, 1998). Also other studies have indicated
that these two major faults, the GGF and the HBF, are
active structures. In particular, OTTERMÖLLER &
THOMAS (2007), studying the Aberfoyle earthquake se-
quence of June-September 2003, concluded that the
WSW–ENE striking causative fault was associated with
the HBF zone.
Although many earthquakes initially located in the
Great Glen, like the 1934 event (August 16, M=4.1),
have been later relocated (MUSSON, 1994), the area be-
tween Loch Ness and Inverness remains one of the
most seismically active ones in Great Britain. In the last
two centuries, at least three earthquakes hit this area
(www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk): in 1816 (August 13, M =
5.1, the strongest shock in Scotland), in 1890 (Novem-
ber 16, M = 3.5) and in 1901 (September 18, I=VIII,
M = 5).
The September 18, 1901 Inverness earthquake
(Mk=5) deserves particular attention because it is the
second strongest event in Scotland, and a large
amount of first-hand macroseismic data is available
(figs. 3B and 8). The area was the object of a careful
post-seismic survey, and the seismic sequence and its
effects were monitored by contemporaneous witness
and described in detail (e.g. DAVISON, 1906). There
was about ten foreshocks and a very large number of
aftershocks (more than 50), whose sequence contin-
ued until 12 November 1901 (MUSSON et alii, 1987).
According to the macro-seismic observations, the
earthquake was due to slip on the Great Glen Fault,
and the fault had a vertical slip, albeit minimal, with
downthrown of its southern block (DAVISON, 1905,
1906, 1915). The epicentre was determined about 2.5
km ENE of Dochgarroch (figs. 3B and 8). The focus
of the tremor extended for about 8 km, from Loch
Ness to Inverness. A break in the ground, a few cm
wide and about 500 m long, was described along the
northern bank of the Canal (v. fig. 8). Although sur-
face faulting was excluded as origin of this crack, it
indicates the maximum intensity area.
Because of the uncertainties of epicentre locations
ranging between 15 to 30 km until 1994 (MUSSON, 1994),
it has often been difficult to assign single shocks to a de-
termined fault. The recent earthquake of October 4, 2013,
with a ML = 2.4, has instead been precisely located
(www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/earthquakes/recent_events/
20131004204901.html#page=additional). It occurred on
the west bank of Loch Ness, at the very shallow depth of
2 km, at the head of Urquhart Bay, which associate it with
the Great Glen Fault. The shock was felt up to 25 km
from the epicentre all along the Loch Ness and Inverness
area. Associated to ground shaking, many people de-
scribed a sound like “a big rumbling bang”, “an explosion” or
“a loud rumble”.
(www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/earthquakes/recent_events/.
Despite the great interest for assessing active slip
on the GGF, discussion has generally been based on
speculations about epicentre locations (e.g. MUSSON,
1997), and little field investigation has been devoted to
this specific aim. Much of the debate also focused in
trying to distinguish between seismotectonic and
glacio-seismotectonic activity, that is movement on
faults due to regional tectonics or due to post-glacial
isostatic rebound. Defining the triggering cause of the
movement remains beyond the scope of the present
work. The area is subject to tectonic stress due both to
expansion of Atlantic Ocean and to glacial rebound,
and most quakes are likely to be the result of the inter-
play between these forces. The aim of the paper is only
to assess whether post-glacial movement may have oc-
curred on the GGF, i.e. if the fault is active and may
therefore originate earthquakes, although moderate.
Our observations are consistent with the fact that at
least some slip may still presently occurs along the
GGF, either due to tectonic stress or/and to postglacial
rebound.
3.1. - EVIDENCE FOR POST-GLACIAL MOVEMENT ON THE
GREAT GLEN FAULT
The Great Glen, the most prominent valley in Scot-
land, is a rectilinear deep valley that runs for over 100
km between Fort Williams and Inverness along the
GGF zone. Much of the fault zone is submerged be-
neath a series of elongated lakes. It is a fact that most
of present-day morphology of the Great Glen results
from enhancement due to glacial erosion along the
shattered rock of the fault zone, but this process alone
cannot explain all of the present-day morphologies vis-
ible along the fault.
This paper presents geologic and geomorphic data
to show that slip, although at a slow rate, occurs along
the GGF. Although movement may take place by in-
dependent reactivation of blocks, evidence of slip is to
be seen all along the fault. Examples from key sites are
described here below.
L. PICCARDI
436

In the northeast sector the effects of ice-sheet flow
and single glaciers are well preserved and constrained
(fig. 4). The two sides of the GGF are visibly asymmet-
ric, with a sharp rectilinear cliff on the north but not
on the south. Ice stream flow during the Last Glacial
Maximum (LGM) is documented by the diffused and
consistent glacial streamlined landforms, such as flutings
and drumlins (e.g. CLARK et alii, 2004; FINLAYSON &
POST-GLACIAL ACTIVITY AND EARTHQUAKES OF THE GREAT GLEN FAULT 437
Fig. 4 - A) Digital elevation model of the Loch Ness-Moray Firth area, derived from the USGS/NASA SRTM data (JARVIS et alii, 2008), elaborated with Global
Mapper v8.01. Flutings and drumlins fields document the flow direction of the Moray Firth Ice Stream. B) Schematic representation of streamlined landforms
truncated by the Great Glen Fault, and flow direction of the Ardesier glacier.
-A) Modello digitale del terreno dell’area Loch Ness-Moray Firth, dati USGS/NASA SRTM (JARVIS et alii, 2008) elaborati con Global Mapper v8.01. morfologie glaciali (flutings
and drumlins) documentano la direzione di flusso della corrente glaciale di Moray Firth. B) Rappresentaz ione schematica delle morfologie glaciali troncate dalla Great Glen Fault, e la
direzione di flusso del ghiacciaio di Ardesier.

BRADWELL, 2008). Fluted morphologies make an angle
with the fault, resulting truncated in correspondence
of it. This demonstrates the independence of this es-
carpment from ice flow pattern and relative scouring,
constraining activity of the GGF to be at least post-
Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, from about 28 to 18 ka
BP, e.g. EVANS et alii, 2005). Such linear cliff cannot be
due to sea erosion. Nor it can be due to action of the
readvancing Ardesier glacier shortly after 13000 years
BP. Decay of the main Late Devensian ice sheet was
interrupted by a series of readvances and stillstands.
During the Ardesier Readvance (ca. 13 ka BP), ice
flowed via the Beauly Firth and Great Glen to create
the ice-pushed front moraines forming the curved
Ardesier Peninsula (e.g. PEACOCK & HARKNESS, 1990;
MERRIT et alii, 1995). The GGF escarpment results un-
influenced by extent of that glacier. Moreover, NE of
Inverness at Fortrose, and SW of it between Dochgar-
roch and Torvean, the fault trace is marked by a scarp at
the contact between the substratum and the glacial de-
posits, consistent with post-13 ka BP activity of the
GGF. Also the bottlenecks of the Beauly and Cromarty
Firths glacial valleys at crossing the fault, provide further
indication of post-glacial uplift of the GGF.
In the central sector of the Great Glen, the clearest
example of faulted active alluvial fan is at Kilfinnan
(Loch Lochy, fig. 5). A fault scarp marks its contact with
the bedrock, offsetting the concave slope profile of the
glacial valley. The fan is also dissected by faults farther
to the south. In particular, in the middle of the valley,
L. PICCARDI
438
Fig. 5 - Faulted active alluvial deposits at Kilfinnan, Loch Lochy. This area is close to the epicentres of 1597 (July 23, M = 4.6), 1839 (March 20, M = 3.2) and 1946
(December 25, M = 4.1). A) The alluvial fan, the largest cone in the Great Glen, covers the valley floor from side to side, resting in less than 10 m deep water. Loch
Lochaidh, thegaelic version of Loch Lochy, means “Lake of theBlack Goddess”. B) and C)Viewof the mountain front and Kilfinnan debris fan from the north-east.
-Conoide attiva fagliata a Kilfinnan, Loch Lochy. Questa area è vicina agli epicentri del 1597(23 luglio, M=4.6), 1839 (20 marzo, M=3.2) e 1946 (25 dicembre, M=4.1). A) La
conoide alluvionale, la più grande nella Great Glen, copre il fondovalle da parte a parte, con una profondità dell’acqua di meno di 10 m. Loch Lochaidh, la versione gaelica di Loch Lochy,
significa “lago della Dea Nera”. B) e C) Vista da nord-est del versante e della conoide di Kilfinnan.

a small graben structure, making an angle with the main
direction of GGF, controls on-going deposition. This
attests the present-day activity of these faults.
Also in the southwest sector there is a marked asym-
metry, with a well developed rectilinear and faceted
mountain front on the north side of GGF but not to
the south (fig. 6). Evidence for Holocene movement
on the fault is visible at Corran Narrow (Loch Linnhe).
The curved belt of gravel deposit forming the penin-
sula of Corran are a fluvio-glacial outwash fan, de-
posited during a standstill in the retreat of the Loch
Lomond readvance glacier (ca. 10 ka BP; e.g. MCCANN,
1961; SISSON, 1974; BALLANTYNE, 2002). The Corran
peninsula has a stepped morphology, created by faults.
The tectonic origin of this morphology is also con-
firmed by the different tilting of blocks individuated
by these faults, with tilt progressively decreasing toward
the middle of the valley. Also here active alluvial fans
appear faulted by the GGF.
4. - NESSIE AND THE “ST. COLUMBA EARTH-
QUAKE”
The Loch Ness myth derives from the pre-Christian
culture of the Picts. Folk belief associated monstrous
beings with rivers and lakes. Christianization was ac-
companied by number of Saints who conquered drag-
ons in lakes or chained them to the bottom of the
water. Hence the common place-name of “Loch na
piast”, “Lake of the monster” (MACCULLOCH, 1991).
The pagan Picts (meaning the “Painted People”), made
extensive use of animal symbols, both for their body
tattooing and in stone carving. These were sacred sym-
bols with totemistic tribal significance (MCCULLOCH,
1991). All pictish symbol creatures represent actual an-
imals, except for the kelpie, who alone makes up about
40% of all animal symbols found. Its large diffusion
attests for its great importance, so that it may have rep-
resented the office of kingship (SUTHERLAND, 1994).
Nessie appears to be the reflection of the primitive
belief in the kelpie, or eich uisge (“water horse”) (figs. 7A,
B), which dominated Scottish folklore and was believed
to inhabit many Scottish and Irish lakes (SUTHERLAND,
1994). The belief in the mythological sea-horses, or
hippocampus, was also diffused all over the Mediter-
ranean. In Greek Roman mythology they were Posei-
don’s horses, and Poseidon was the god of earthquakes
(e.g. NUR, 2000) (fig. 7C).
The Inverness area, between Loch Ness and Moray
Firth, is also the area where the main original myth of
the Loch Ness developed (figs. 3B and 8). The first
mention of the Loch Ness monster is reported in
Adamnan’s biography of St. Columba, written about
696 AD, which describes events which took place more
than one century before (e.g. SHARPE, 1995). Adamnan
principally retells stories which were handed down
within his own community of monks, but also deriving
from a wider oral tradition about the Saint, which re-
worked more popular folk-tales. These popular tradi-
tions are known to have been used in particular in the
accounts of the visit of St. Columba to the king of the
Picts, while approaching his castle, when he had to en-
gage conflict with the pagan wizards of the king (e.g.
SHARPE, 1995).
POST-GLACIAL ACTIVITY AND EARTHQUAKES OF THE GREAT GLEN FAULT 439
Fig. 6 - A) and B) DEM of Loch Linnhe area, with detail on Corran Narrow
showing the faulted fluvio-glacial deposits (dip of blocks surface derived
from profiles on DEM). C) Active debris cone is faulted. D) Panorama on
the fault zone looking to the SW.
- A) e B) modello digitale del terreno dell’area del Loch Linnhe, con dettaglio sullo Stretto
di Corran con evidenziati i depositi fluvio-glaciali fagliati (l’inclinazione dei blocchi è cal-
colata su profili ricavati dal modello digitale del terreno). C) Cono di detriti attivo fagliato.
D) Panorama sulla zona di faglia verso sud-ovest.

According to tradition, St Columba (ca. 521–597
AD) set out from Ireland to spread Christianity across
pagan Scotland in about 567 AD. During this time the
saint is said to have paid visit to King Bridei (or Brude)
who ruled Pictland about from 550 to 580. The King
had his fortress just above River Ness. Some scholars
suggest this castle to have been sited in the centre of
Inverness, or at Torvean south of it, but most authors
identify this fort with Craig Phadrig, built in 4th century
BC and still occupied in 6th century AD (SUTHERLAND,
1994; SHARPE, 1995) (fig. 8).
Three episodes of this visit are of particular rele-
vance to understand the myth and its geologic origins.
In these episodes, all of them occurred in the nearby
of King Bridei’s castle, the area between the Loch Ness
and Inverness is associated with earth tremors and re-
lated phenomaena, in particular seismic sounds. The
first episode (a in figure 8) is the account of the en-
counter of St. Columba with the monster. This en-
counter took place not in Loch Ness, as commonly
maintained, but indeed in River Ness. The legend says
that, on his way to King Bridei’s fortress, Columba
encountered some locals burying one of their own
people, killed by a creature in the River Ness (Life, 2-
28; Appendix A). The dead man’s boat lay on the
other side of the water, so Columba ordered one of
his followers to swim over and retrieve the boat. As
the man was then attacked by the monster, Columba,
in the name of God, commanded the beast to return
to whence it came and it vanished beneath the water
leaving the swimming man unharmed. In the original
Latin version of the legend, the monster is described
to appear “cum ingenti fremitu” (with an “awful roar”),
and to disappear “tremefacta” (shaking herself).
The second episode (b in figure 8) occurred near the
castle as a contest with the pagan wizards, just before the
arrival of the saint to the fort. It is said that suddenly the
voice of the saint “was miraculously lifted up in the air like
some terrible thunder, so that the king and his people were filled
with unbearable fear” (Life, 1-35; Appendix B).
The third event (c in figure 8) occurred at the cas-
tle’s gate, that the king wanted to keep close to the saint,
but the saint made a sign of the cross “At once the bars
were thrust back and the doors opened of themselves with all
speed” (Life, 2-38; Appendix C).
L. PICCARDI
440
Fig. 7 - A) and B). The kelpie, or water horse, the sacred beast of the Picts who
inhabited lakes, from whom derives the modern Loch Ness monster (e.g.
SHARPE, 1995). C). The “water-horses”, or hippocampus (hippos – horse, and
kampos - sea monster), in greek-roman mythology drew the chariot of Posei-
don, god of earthquakes. The triumph the St. Columba over the kelpie is a
metaphor for the conversion of pagan cults.
- A) e B) Il “kelpie”, o “cavallo d’acqua”, la bestia sacra dei Picti che ritenevano abitasse
i laghi e dalla quale deriva il moderno mostro di Loch Ness (e.g. SHARPE, 1995). C) Il
“cavallo d’acqua”, o “hippocampus” (“hippos”-cavallo, e “kampos”-mostro marino), nella
mitologia greco-romana trainava il carro di Poseidone, dio dei terremoti. Il trionfo di San
Colombano sul kelpie è una metafora della conversion dei culti pagani.

The first episode makes direct reference to loud
roar and shakings. The occurrence of loud sounds (first
and second episodes) in connection with earthquakes
(first episode) is a common phenomenon in this area,
just as everywhere else. These sounds are sometimes
associated also to shocks sometimes too small to be
perceived by men. Seismic rumours were particularly
strong during the 1901 earthquake, and the sounds
were compared to “thunder, explosions, passing wagons or
loads of stone falling” (DAVISON, 1905, 1906, 1938). It was
“like a distant thunder” during the 1816 earthquake
(PRENCE, 1995). A similar noise was reported recently
during the Forth Williams earthquake of 10 December
2005, “sounding like a heavy clap of thunder, a gust of wind
or even a quarry blast” (www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/earth-
quakes/reports). Also the third account finds corre-
spondence in modern moderate earthquakes: for
example, during the event of March 23, 1839 (M = 3.2)
“felt from Glen Garry to Kingussie. The shock was apparently
strong enough to unlatch doors at Invergarr y” (www.earth-
quakes.bgs.ac.uk/earthquakes/historical).
5. - DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIVE REMARKS
Comparative analysis of similar sacred landscapes
demonstrates that active faults, due to the extraordinary
phenomena which might be experienced at the surface,
especially along the fault trace, may have been regarded as
sacred places, and the phenomena observed there often
induced the belief in chthonic monsters, worshiped in pre-
historical times (PICCARDI, 2000a, 2000b, and 2001).
Both due to glacio-seismotectonics or direct crustal
stress, nonetheless it appears that moderate earthquakes
may originate on the GGF. Earthquakes hit more fre-
quently the area between Inverness and Loch Ness.
One can infer that activity of the GGF played a pivotal
role in the ancient myth of the monster in the lake,
same as in other similar cases (e.g. PICCARDi, 2001).
Some of modern spottings of Nessie may as well have
been due to disturbances observed at the otherwise ex-
tremely calm water surface of the Loch Ness. This can
be due directly to the seismic fault or to seismicity in
the nearby region.
The beginning of the modern belief in Loch Ness
monster (March 1933) occurred in a period not far from
one of the main seismic periods in the Highlands, culmi-
nated in the earthquake of August 16, 1934. It is therefore
possible that some solicitation may have affected the lake
surface. The Inverness Courier, for instance, shows the
concomitance between earthquakes activity and monster
spotting during the 1934 earthquake. At page. 5 of the
issue of August 17, 1934, one can find the description of
the earthquake in Inverness, and on the facing page 4 the
report of a monster spotting.
In the more credited reports, in fact, the witnesses
only saw a violent commotion of the water and anom-
alous wave-wakes, without a clear vision of the alleged
beast supposed to have originated it. Two examples will
help to clarify this fact. The first one is the report from
north of Tor Point (location d in figure 8, text in Ap-
pendix D), which sparked off the modern popularity
of belief in Nessie, which describes a “a violent commo-
tion in the mirror-like surface” of the water. The second
one south of Tor Point (site e in figure 8, text in Ap-
pendix E) is even more significant because although
the water disturbance came in contact to fishermen,
hitting their boat, they could not see any beast below
it, because “the wash hid the ‘creature’ from view”.
Peculiar phenomena at the Loch Ness are known to
occur in connection with earthquake, even with very dis-
tant ones. For instance, the lake experienced a notable se-
iche as a consequence of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake (e.g.
PRENCE, 1995). In another case, during the 1890 earth-
quake, the ferryman of the Kessock Ferry (from Inver-
ness to the Black Isle) reported that they found their boat
suddenly driven along toward the shore (PRENCE, 1995).
The story of St Columba’s triumph over the most im-
portant Pictish sacred-beast, symbol of kingship, al-
though being a metaphor for the subjugation of the old
POST-GLACIAL ACTIVITY AND EARTHQUAKES OF THE GREAT GLEN FAULT 441
Fig. 8 - Epicentre area of the September 18, 1901 earthquake (M=5). The seis-
mic sequence continued until November 12, (e.g. DAVISON, 1906). The focus
of the tremor extended for about 8 km. A few cm wide and about 500 m long
break in the ground, along the northern bank of the Canal.
- Area epicentrale del terremoto del 18 settembre 1901 (M=5). La sequenza sismica è con-
tinuata fino al 12 novembre (e.g. DAVISON, 1906). Fu stimata una estensione di circa 8
km per la sorgente del terremoto. Lungo la banchina settentrionale del canale si aprì una
rottura nel terreno larga alcuni centimetri e lunga circa 500 m.

religion, nevertheless contains information on an ancient
sacred belief, based on telluric manifestations and local-
ized at River Ness, the dragon’s lair. It cannot be ignored
that this place is the sector of the Great Glen Fault more
frequently hit by the strongest earthquake in the past (fig.
3B). The localization of the victory of the Saint over the
kelpie at this site, points to this place as particularly im-
portant in the ancient cult at that time, indicating that this
area was already experienced at that time as a seismic one.
The GGF shows geologic and geomorphic evi-
dence of active slip, although at a slow rate, and may
generate moderate earthquakes. In the NE sector of
GGF, the fault post-date both the streamlined land-
forms of Last Glacial Maximum (28-18 ka BP), as well
as the Ardesier readvance moraines and the glacial de-
posits SW of Inverness (ca. 13 ka BP). Dissected
glacio-fluvial deposits at Corran Narrow indicate slip
on the fault to post-date the Loch Lomond readvance
phase (10 ka BP). Faulted active alluvial fans at Loch
Lochy and Loch Linnhe, central and southwest sectors
respectively, reveal that movement is still ongoing.
In fact, the Kessock Bridge (fig. 3B), opened in 1982
to carry the A9 road north from Inverness to the Black
Isle across the Great Glen Fault, is the only bridge in
Great Britain built with anti-earthquake buffers, in-
stalled in the north abutment, right above the fault.
Similarly, a project for a sewage water seabed pipeline
straddling the GGF line at Kessock has been designed,
in September 2008, with a degree of flexibility to cope
with earthquakes.
Major evidence of active slip occur on the northern
side of the GGF, a south facing sub-vertical fault, which
seems therefore to be the main active fault of the GGF
system. The possible inference of a small component of
dextral slip, as could be envisaged by arrangement of
splay structures (figs. 5 and 8), remains speculative.
We cannot unambiguously discern if an earthquake
actually occurred at the time of St. Columba, or if the
story reworked instead folk-tales containing memories
of a past earthquake. Both possibilities remain open.
Nevertheless, this legend reveals that an earthquake may
have occurred about that time, or little earlier, with epi-
centre in the area of River Ness, where the episodes are
located. The phenomena reported in the legend corre-
spond to facts historically observed here during earth-
quakes of magnitude 3 to 5, like codified images of real
seismic phenomena. This event, that we may indicate as
the “St. Columba earthquake”, appears therefore to be
somehow similar to the 1901 event, documenting an an-
cient (6th century?) seismic slip on the Great Glen Fault.
Some of modern spotting of the Nessie may as well
have been due to disturbances observed at the otherwise
extremely calm water surface of the Loch Ness. This can
be due directly to the seismic fault or to seismicity in the
nearby region (or even distant, as in the case of the local
seiche consequent to the 1755, Lisbon earthquake (e.g.
PRENCE, 1995).
5.1. - OTHER EXAMPLES OF TELLURIC FAMOUS LAKE
MONSTERS
In concluding this examination, one can shortly in-
dicate, between the many claimed lake monsters around
the world, two of the most famous cases, which are
somehow similar to the Loch Ness case. These cases
help to understand how the relation between unex-
plained sightings in lakes may be related to geologic ac-
tivity, and in particular how such a legendary indication
at a certain place may be a sign of ongoing geologic ac-
tivity and inform on related natural hazard.
One of the most cited lake monster is the one said
to live in Van Lake, in the far east of Turkey (fig. 9).
Van Lake is the largest lake in Turkey. It is 119 kilome-
tres across at its widest point, averaging a depth of 171
metres with a maximum recorded depth of 451 metres.
It is one of the largest endorheic lakes in the world,
and active volcanoes (Nemrut and Süphan volcanoes,
between the highest in Turkey) lie on its borders. It is
a saline and soda lake, so that although Lake Van is sit-
uated at an altitude of 1640 m with harsh winters, it
does not freeze due to its high salinity except occasion-
ally the shallow northern section.
L. PICCARDI
442
Fig. 9 - The Van Lake Monster (Turkey). A) Major seismotectonic structures
of the area of Van Lake in the Arabia-Eurasian collision zone. B) Seismic Haz-
ard Map of the region of Lake Van (www.earthquake.usgs.gov). C) Detail of
the October 23, 2011, Van earthquake (M=7,2), with major aftershocks. D)
Most famous photo depicting the Lake Van Monster.
- Il mostro del lago Van (Turchia). A) Principali strutture sismotettoniche dell’area del lago
Van, nella zona di collisione Arabo-Eurasiatica. B) Mappa del rischio sismico della regione
dellagoVan (www.earthquake.usgs.gov). C) Dettagliodel terremoto diVan del 23 ottobre 2011
(M=7.2), con i principali aftershocks. D) La più famosa immagine del mostro del lago Van.

The Lake Van Monster was not reported until 1995,
but there are now more than 1000 people claiming to
have witnessed the beast, which is reported to measure
around fifteen meters long, with spikes on its back, and
appears similar to a Plesiosaur or Ichthyosaurus. Re-
searches showed creature first mentioned on Saadet
newspaper’s (a newspaper published at Istanbul at the
time) April, 29, 1889 issue, says that the creature
dragged a man into lake. Following these reports the
Turkish government sent an official scientific survey
group to the lake who failed to spot the creature. In
1997 a teaching assistant at Van University, claimed to
have captured the creature on video, which was sent
for analysis, but his video is under constant criticism.
The Van Lake is situated in one of the most tecton-
ically active region of the world, just on the collision
zone between Arabian Plate, which converges in a
northerly direction at a rate of about 24 mm/yr, and
Eurasian Plate. It is situated due above the point where
the North Anatolian Fault meets the Bilitis-Zagros
Thrust Zone (figs. 9A, B). Lake Van was the seat of the
recent destructive Van earthquake (October 23, 2011,
M=7.1), whose epicentre was just a few km near the
shore, with the aftershocks sequence affecting the lake.
Another famous lake monster is the one said to inhabit
the Tianchi Lake (Heaven Lake), a 213 m deep crater
lake, which partially fills the summit caldera, about 5
km large, of Baitou (or Baekdu) Mountain (2744 m),
an active volcano at the border between North Corea
and China (fig. 10). Tianchi is the deepest mountain
lake and the largest crater lake in China. This mountain
is the highest peak in Korea, and it has been wor-
shipped throughout history. Koreans consider it as the
place of their ancestral origin, and one of the three
“spirited” mountains. It was first recorded in the Chi-
nese classic texts with the name Buxian Shan (the
Mountain with God).
The first reported sighting of this monster was in
1903. It was claimed that a large buffalo-like creature
attacked three people, and that the monster then re-
treated under the water after having been shot six times.
More than a hundred people reported sightings since
then, increasing in the last 20 years. A famous sighting
was videotaped by a tourist in 2005. Similar to the case
of Loch Ness, also in this case the beast was more sup-
posed by commotion of the water than really observed,
the witness in fact admit that “We were more than 1,000
metres away so it’s difficult … But I did notice that every time
it was above water, there were huge ripples in the water, suggesting
the rest of it was enormous.” Another famous sighting was
showed in 2007 by a Chinese TV reporter, who said
had shot a 20-minute video of six unidentified crea-
tures in the volcanic lake on September 6. He claimed
to have observed six seal-like, finned creatures in the
lake for an hour and a half, before they disappeared
around 7:00 a.m.
The caldera hosting Tianchi Lake formed with a
large eruption in 969 AD, and eruptions occur in aver-
age once every 100 years (1413, 1597, 1668 and 1702).
Is it surely interesting to notice that the last time the
volcano erupted in 1903, same year as the first monster
spotting. Moreover, since 2002, Mt. Baekdu is under
constant monitoring because it is showing sings of a
possible reprisal of volcanic activity. The newspaper ar-
ticle of The Korea Times (June 25, 2010) on this subject
deserves to be quoted literally: “Baekdu could erupt any-
time soon,” said geologist Yoon Sung-hyo at Pusan National
University. “A variety of indicators are backing this scenario.
… ‘unusual signs,’ including minor trembling among others,
began to emerge in June 2002 and a 7.3-magnitude earthquake
rattled areas in the vicinity of Baekdu. The frequency of the
quakes has notably increased since then. The height of the moun-
tain has grown nearly 10 centimetres since 2002, and in 2006
a Russian satellite found the surface temperature of the mountain
notably higher than before. If the eruption is major in scale, it
would bring about massive consequences to the two Koreas as well
as the surrounding states, including China, Japan and Russia.”
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APPENDIX
Appendix A
Biography of St. Columba (SHARPE, 1995)
Chapter 2-27
HOW AN AQUATIC MONSTER WAS DRIVEN
OFF BY VIRTUE OF THE BLESSED MAN’S PRA-
YER
On another occasion also, when the blessed man
was living for some days in the province of the Picts,
he was obliged to cross the river Nesa (the Ness); and
when he reached the bank of the river, he saw some
of the inhabitants burying an unfortunate man, who,
according to the account of those who were burying
him, was a short time before seized, as he was swim-
ming, and bitten most severely by a monster that lived
in the water; his wretched body was, though too late,
taken out with a hook, by those who came to his assi-
stance in a boat. The blessed man, on hearing this, was
so far from being dismayed, that he directed one of his
companions to swim over and row across the coble that
was moored at the farther bank. And Lugne Mocumin
hearing the command of the excellent man, obeyed wi-
thout the least delay, taking off all his clothes, except
his tunic, and leaping into the water. But the monster,
which, so far from being satiated, was only roused for
more prey, was lying at the bottom of the stream, and
when it felt the water disturbed above by the man
swimming, suddenly rushed out, and, giving an awful
roar, darted after him, with its mouth wide open, as the
man swam in the middle of the stream. Then the bles-
sed man observing this, raised his holy hand, while all
the rest, brethren as well as strangers, were stupefied
with terror, and, invoking the name of God, formed
the saving sign of the cross in the air, and commanded
the ferocious monster, saying, “Thou shalt go no fur-
ther, nor touch the man; go back with all speed.” Then
at the voice of the saint, the monster was terrified, and
fled more quickly than if it had been pulled back with
ropes, though it had just got so near to Lugne, as he
swam, that there was not more than the length of a
spear-staff between the man and the beast. Then the
brethren seeing that the monster had gone back, and
that their comrade Lugne returned to them in the boat
safe and sound, were struck with admiration, and gave
glory to God in the blessed man. And even the barba-
rous heathens, who were present, were forced by the
greatness of this miracle, which they themselves had
seen, to magnify the God of the Christians.
DE CUJUSDAM AQUATILIS BESTIAE
VIRTUTE ORATIONIS BEATI VIRI REPULSIONE
ALIO quoque in tempore, cum vir beatus in Pictorum pro-
vincia per aliquot moraretur dies, necesse habuit fluvium transire
Nesam: ad cujus cum accessisset ripam, alios ex accolis aspicit
misellum humantes homunculum; quem, ut ipsi sepultores fere-
bant, quaedam paulo ante nantem aquatilis praeripiens bestia
morsu momordit saevissimo: cujus miserum cadaver, sero licet,
quidam in alno subvenientes porrectis praeripuere uncinis. Vir e
contra beatus, haec audiens, praecipit ut aliquis ex comitibus ena-
tans, caupallum, in altera stantem ripa, ad se navigando reducat.
Quo sancti audito praedicabilis viri praecepto, Lugneus Mocu-
min, nihil moratus, obsecundans, depositis excepta vestimentis
tunica, immittit se in aquas. Sed bellua, quae prius non tam sa-
tiata, quam in praedam accensa, in profundo fluminis latitabat,
sentiens eo nante turbatam supra aquam, subito emergens, nata-
tilis ad hominem in medio natantem alveo, cum ingenti fremitu,
aperto cucurrit ore. Vir tum beauts videns, omnibus qui inerant,
tam barbaris quam etiam fratribus, nimio terrore perculsis, cum
salutare, sancta elevata manu, in vacuo aere crucis pinxisset si-
gnum, invocato Dei nomine, feroci imperavit bestiae dicens, Noles
ultra progrdi, nec hominem tangas; retro citius revertere. Tum
vero bestia, hac Sancti audita voce, retrorsum, ac si funibus re-
traheretur, velociori recursu fugit tremefacta: quae prius Lugneo
nanti eo usque appropinquavit, ut hominem inter et bestiam non
amplius esset quam unius contuli longitudo. Fratres tum, reces-
sisse videntes bestiam, Lugneumque commilitonem ad eos intac-
tum et incolumem in navicula reversum, cum ingenti admiratione
glorificaverunt Deum in beto viro. Sed et gentiles barbari, qui ad
praesens inerant, ejusdem miraculi magnitudine, quod et ipsi vi-
derant, compulsi, Deum magnificaverunt Christianorum.
Appendix B
Biography of St. Columba (SHARPE, 1995)
Chapter 1-37
HOW THE HOLY MAN’S SPIRIT BROUGHT
COMFORT TO WORKING MONKS ON THE
ROAD
Again, I cannot remain silent about the occasion
when his voice was uplifted in this extraordinary way, so
we are told, near the fort of King Bridei. The saint was
POST-GLACIAL ACTIVITY AND EARTHQUAKES OF THE GREAT GLEN FAULT 445

saying vespers as usual with a few brethren, outside the
king’s fort, and some wizard came quite close to them,
trying as best as they could to make them stop. For they
were afraid that the heathen people would hear the
sound of God’s praise from the brethren’s mouths. Kno-
wing this, St Columba began to chant the forty-fourth
psalm, and at that moment his voice was miraculously
lifted up in the air like some terrible thunder, so that the
king and his people were filled with unbearable fear.
Appendix C
Biography of St. Columba (SHARPE, 1995)
Chapter 2-35
HOW THE GATES OF THE ROYAL FORTRESS
SUDDENLY OPENED ON THEIR OWN
Once, the first time St Columba climbed the steep
path to King Bridei’s fortress, the king, puffed up with
royal pride, acted aloofly and would not have the gates
of his fortress opened at the first arrival of the blessed
man. The man of God, realizing this, approached the
very doors with his companions. First he signed them
with the sign of the Lord’s cross and only then did he
put his hand to the door to knock. At once the bars
were thrust back and the doors opened of themselves
with all speed. Whereupon St Columba and his com-
panions entered.
Appendix D
“In March 1933 John Mackay and his wife, then te-
nants of the Drumnadrochit Hotel, were returning
from Inverness, driving along the old narrow road near
the seven-mile stone, opposite Aldourie Castle at the
very northern tip of the lake, when Mrs Mackay shou-
ted to her husband to stop and look at an enormous
black body rolling up and down. By the time he had
stopped the car all he could see were ripples, but he
knew that something ‘big’ was out there, ‘about a mile
and a half [2,5 km] away’. According to Gould, Mrs
Mackay caught sight of a violent commotion in the
mirror-like surface about 100 m from the shore. The
commotion subsided and a big wake became visible,
apparently caused by something large moving along just
below the surface. This wake went away across the
water towards Aldourie Pier. Then, about halfway
(some 450 m) the cause of the wake emerged, showing
as two black humps moving in line, the rear one some-
what larger. They moved forward in a rolling motion
like whales or porpoises, but no fins were visible. They
rose and sank in an undulating manner. After some
time the object turned sharply to port and, after descri-
bing a half circle, sank suddenly with considerable
commotion” (CAMPBELL, 1996).
Appendix E
“At about 8.15 p.m. on 22 July 1930 three young an-
glers (one was Ian Milne who later kept a gunsmith’s
shop in Inverness) were fishing in a dead calm off Tor
Point near Dores when they heard a great noise and
saw much commotion in the water about 600 m away
down the lake (southwards). This commotion, throw-
ing spray up into the air, advanced to within 300 m of
their boat and then seemed to turn aside into the bay
above Dores. Their boat rocked violently as a 75 cm
high wave passed. They claimed that although they de-
tected a wriggling motion, the wash hid the ‘creature’
from view. Milne stated that the object travelled at a
speed of 7 m/sec with an undulating motion; he com-
pared it to an enormous conger eel, and was sure that
it was neither a seal nor an otter“ (CAMPBELL, 1996).
L. PICCARDI
446