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Chima, U. D. and Larinde, S. L. 521
DEFORESTATION AND DEGRADATION OF MANGROVES IN THE
NIGER DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS IN A
CHANGING CLIMATE
Chima, U. D.* and Larinde, S. L.
Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Port
Harcourt, P.M.B. 5323, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
Abstract
The mangrove forest ecosystem in addition to acting as a buffer to extreme weather events,
contributes immensely to the socio-economic wellbeing of the coastal communities. However, this
important ecosystem is fast diminishing in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria due to factors which
are mainly anthropogenic. This study investigated the factors responsible for mangrove
deforestation and degradation in this region, and x-rayed the consequences in a rapidly changing
climate. It was observed that land reclamation for building of settlements, fish farming, road
construction, electricity projects, timber/fuel-wood gathering, oil exploration/exploitation and
related activities, refuse dumping, and Nypa fruticans invasion, are among the causes of mangrove
deforestation and degradation in the region. The paper posits that climate change impact will be
more severe in the region, as the ecological, socio-economic, and adaptive roles of the mangroves
are lost through deforestation and degradation. Strict protection of the remaining mangrove forests
and the regeneration of deforested and degraded mangroves are recommended, for the sustenance
and enhancement of their roles in climate change mitigation and adaptation, and the socio-
economic wellbeing of the coastal communities.
Keywords: Niger Delta, mangrove, deforestation, climate change, impact, adaptation.
*Corresponding author (uzoma.chima@uniport.edu.ng)
Introduction
The mangrove forest is typically a tropical group of salt tolerant plants that occupy the
inter-tidal zone of sheltered coasts around estuaries and lagoons. The mangrove forests
are known to serve various socio-economic and ecological functions especially in the
coastal communities. For instance, they provide breeding grounds for fish species and
provide numerous non-wood products that contribute to rural livelihoods.
However, the African mangroves have suffered much pressure in the recent past with
enormous losses. The loss, destruction and degradation of the mangrove forests have
been attributed to many factors including urbanization, quarrying, salt and sand
extraction; pollution from industries, agro-industrial chemicals, petroleum and gas
exploitation; absence of appropriate legislation; deforestation for fish smoking (Ajonina
and Usongo, 2001; Ajonina et al, 2005).
522 38th Annual Conference of Forestry Association of Nigeria (FAN)
The Nigerian mangrove forest belt, besides contributing to the socio-economic wellbeing
of the rural coastal communities, has the potential to protect them against extreme
weather events orchestrated by climate change. Rising sea level is envisaged to increase
flooding in low lying coastal areas, which will in turn increase the physical and socio-
economic vulnerability of coastal cities. Nigeria has been recognised as one of the most
vulnerable African countries to climate change and the impacts are already being felt in
different parts of the country.
Nigeria has over 2,000 industrial establishments with about 80% of these concentrated in
the coastal zone especially urban centres, mainly in Lagos, Port Harcourt, and their
environs. Industries located in the Nigerian coastal zone include: oil and gas,
petrochemical, iron and steel, fertilizer plant, aluminum smelting plant and
manufacturing industries such as textiles, food, plastics, pharmaceuticals, cement, soaps
and detergents, paints, brewing, and wood pulp and paper(FEPA, 1997).
With the majority of Nigeria’s total industrial establishments in the coastal States and
more people living and working in climate change-prone areas in the country, the
consequences of mangrove deforestation and degradation cannot be underestimated. This
paper therefore investigated the causes of mangrove deforestation and degradation in the
Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, and examined the implications in a rapidly changing
climate.
Methodology
Field trips spanning coastal communities in purposively selected States – Rivers,
Bayelsa, and Ondo, within the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, were embarked upon in
2010 and 2015, to ascertain the causes and consequences of mangrove deforestation and
degradation in the study area. In addition, information available from relevant scientific
literature on the subject matter was used.
Distribution and Extent of the Mangrove Forest in Nigeria
The distribution of mangroves is affected by climatic factors like temperature and
moisture (Duke 1992; Saenger and Snedaker 1993), and other coastal processes like tidal
mixing and coastal currents, which affect the dispersal of propagules (De Lange and De
Lange 1994). Agrawala et al. (2003), noted that the richest mangrove communities occur
in areas with water temperature in the warmest month greater than 24oC; while Aizpuru
et al. (2000) observed that most are found within latitude 25° north and south of the
equator, covering approximately 17 million ha in 112 countries and territories in Asia,
Africa, Australia, and the Americas.
Approximately 75 per cent of mangroves are concentrated in just 15 countries; with close
to half of mangrove coverage occurring in five countries – Indonesia, Australia, Brazil,
Chima, U. D. and Larinde, S. L. 523
Nigeria and Mexico. Nigeria’s mangrove forest which covers an area of about 105,000
hectares is known to be the largest in Africa and the third largest in the world (World
Bank, 1995 and Ndukwu and Edwin-Wosu, 2007).The Nigerian coastline which is
approximately 853km long stretches from the western border with the Republic of Benin
to the eastern border with Cameroon, with mangroves and estuaries extending from 10-
150 km inland (USAID, 2008). Mangroves are found in all the coastal states of Nigeria
namely – Akwa-Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, and
Rivers States (Figure 1). However, the extent of mangroves in these states varies with
Rivers/Bayelsa having the largest area of mangroves (Table 1).
Niger
Borno
Sokoto
Yobe
Bauchi
Taraba
Plateau
Oyo
Kebbi
Kogi
Kaduna
Kwara
Edo
Benue
Kano
Ondo
Adamawa
Jigawa
Katsina
Delta
Rivers
Ogun
Enugu
Cross River
Osun
Abia
Imo
Lagos
Akwa Ibom
Anambra
FCT
Nigerian States
Mangrove Forest
200 0 200 400 Kilometers
N
MANGROVE FOREST OF NIGERIA
Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing the distribution of the mangrove forest
524 38th Annual Conference of Forestry Association of Nigeria (FAN)
Table1: Distribution of Mangrove Forest in the Nigerian Coastal Area
State
Area of Mangrove (Km
2
)
Mangrove in Forest Reserves
Area (Km
2
)
% of total
Lagos
42.20
3.13
7.42
Ogun
12.18
-
-
Ondo
40.6
2
-
-
Edo/Delta
3,470.32
143.75
4.14
Rivers /Bayelsa
5,435.96
90.62
1.67
Cross
River/Akwa Ibom
721.86
67.19
9.31
TOTAL
9,723.14
304.69
-
Source: Adapted from (NEST, 1991)
The Nigerian mangrove is dominated by the red mangroves (Rhizophoraceae), in
association with white mangroves (Avicenneaceae). The red mangrove – Rhizophora
racemosa, is the most common species, covering over 90% of the area and can grow to a
height of 45 m under favourable conditions. It is the pioneer species, and is followed by
R. harrisonii and R. mangle as the land gets drier and salinity decreases. Avicennia
species, a smaller tree than Rhizophora species, grows singly on firm land.
As confirmed by Figure 1 and Table 1, much of the Nigeria’s mangrove forest is found in
the Niger Delta region, and the mangrove in this area, has been reported to be the most
exploited in the world (FAO, 2007). The pressure on the mangrove ecosystem, which was
minimal, during the pre-colonial era due to low population densities and subsistence
agriculture (Bisong, 2001), has been exacerbated by the burgeoning human population
and the concomitant activities, including oil exploration and exploitation (Mmom, 2007).
The major factors responsible for the destruction of the Nigerian mangroves are discussed
in detail in the subsequent section.
Causes of Mangrove Deforestation and Degradation in the Niger Delta Region
Several factors are responsible for the deforestation and degradation of the mangrove
forest in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. These include land reclamation for building
of settlements, fish farming, road construction, electricity, logging for timber, fuelwood
gathering, oil exploration/exploitation and related activities, refuse dumping, and Nypa
fruticans invasion.
Development of Infrastructure
This is a major cause of mangrove deforestation in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. In
recent times especially with the creation of the Niger Delta Development Commission
(NDDC) following so many years of struggle and campaign against marginalization of
Chima, U. D. and Larinde, S. L. 525
the people of the Niger Delta Region (where Nigeria’s crude oil is mainly found), some
efforts have been made to develop infrastructure, and these sometimes result to the
destruction of the mangroves. Plates 1 and 2 respectively show the destruction of
mangrove forest and subsequent sand-filling as the Ogbia-Nembe road was being
constructed in Bayelsa State. These activities sometimes introduce and encourage the
growth of some species alien to the mangrove environment around it (see Plate 3).
Plate 1: Destruction of the mangrove for the construction of Ogbia-Nembe road,
Bayelsa State
Source: Field survey, 2010.
Plate 2: Sand-filling of destroyed mangrove area, Ogbia-Nembe road construction,
Bayelsa State
Source: Field survey, 2010.
526 38th Annual Conference of Forestry Association of Nigeria (FAN)
Plate 3: Musanga cecropioides growing on topsoil deposited in a mangrove swamp
forest by the grader near Agip Canal during the construction of Ogbia-Nembe road,
Bayelsa State.
Source: Field survey, 2010.
Land reclamation for building of settlements and public facilities is also another major
threat to the mangrove ecosystem in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. In many parts of
the region, the mangrove forest is being cleared to build residences (Plate 4) and other
public facilities like schools (Plate 5), especially in mangrove areas that are close to
access roads.
Plate 4: Mangrove deforestation to reclaim land for residential buildings, Buguma,
Rivers State
Source: Field survey, 2015.
Chima, U. D. and Larinde, S. L. 527
Plate 5: Land reclamation from mangroves for the construction of a model
secondary school in Buguma, Rivers State.
Source: Field survey, 2015.
Electricity Projects sometimes result to the destruction of the mangrove forest (Plate 6).
Laying of high-tension wires for electricity projects in mangrove areas leads to mangrove
deforestation and degradation in some cases.
Plate 6: Mangrove destruction for electricity projects, Buguma, Rivers State
Source: Field survey, 2015.
528 38th Annual Conference of Forestry Association of Nigeria (FAN)
Fish Farming
Large scale fish farming is one of the factors responsible for mangrove deforestation and
degradation in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. A very good example is seen in
Buguma, Rivers State (Plate 7) where ONIDA – an Israeli company is involved in large-
scale fish farming. The construction of the fish farm (with over forty ponds) led to the
destruction and sand-filling of a large expanse of the mangrove forest on which rural
livelihood depends to some reasonable extent. The major interest in sitting the farm near
the mangrove is constant provision of brackish water required to grow the fish species of
interest – Barramundi (Plate 8), which is bred and imported from Australia. One wonders
what the contributions of such a venture are, especially to the rural economy, as virtually
everything used in the farm including fish feed, is being imported from either Israel or
Australia.
Plate 7: Mangrove deforestation for large scale fish farming in Buguma, Rivers
State
Source: Field survey, 2015.
Plate 8: Barramundi – an exotic fish species reared by an Israeli company –
ONIDA, in Buguma, Rivers State
Source: Field Survey, 2015
Chima, U. D. and Larinde, S. L. 529
Timber and Fuel Wood Gathering
The mangrove forest is a source of timber. The mangrove species are widely used as fuel
for firing small scale industrial boilers due to its high thermal capacity. The red mangrove
– Rhizophora racemosa, is the most exploited species and is used for firewood, poles and
timber. The destruction of the mangrove for fuelwood gathering (Plate 9) is on the
increase in many parts of the Niger Delta to meet household energy needs and for income
generation.
Plate 9: Destruction/degradation of mangroves via fuel-wood gathering
Source: Field survey, 2015.
Oil Exploration/Exploitation and related Activities
Activities of the oil and gas industry in the mangrove forests of the Niger Delta (Figure 2)
are to a large extent responsible for mangrove fragmentation, deforestation and
degradation. Oil drilling and spillage, dredging of canals, and construction of residential
quarters for oil workers, constitute huge threat to the survival and proper functioning of
the mangrove ecosystem in the Niger Delta region. O’Neil (2007) observed that oil spills
and leakages have destroyed much of the Nigeria’s mangrove areas including the fishing
economy and water quality.
530 38th Annual Conference of Forestry Association of Nigeria (FAN)
Figure 2: Crude oil pipeline network in the Niger Delta Region
Source: Niger Delta Regional Plan 2005.
The Menace of Nipa palm
Nypa fruticans (Nipa palm) – an invasive alien species (Plate 10), is another major threat
to the mangrove ecosystem in the Niger Delta Region. The species which was introduced
in Nigeria for the control of river bank erosion has become a big menace to the mangrove
ecosystem. The deforestation and degradation of the mangroves for firewood gathering,
the construction of navigational canals, villages, and the activities of oil companies,
encourage their replacement by this fast colonizer (Nypa fruticans) which does not
provide the enormous ecological services provided by mangroves (USAID, 2008).
Tackling the menace of Nipa palm invasion of the mangrove ecosystem requires a
holistic approach that will discourage mangrove deforestation and degradation, complete
removal of the species in invaded areas, and massive regeneration of degraded
mangroves. SCBD (2001) observed that restoration of degraded habitats in addition to re-
introduction of native species can enhance biological diversity and also enhance the
resilience of ecosystems against future invasions. Efforts should also be made towards
discovering other uses of the Nipa palm that will be beneficial to man.
Chima, U. D. and Larinde, S. L. 531
Plate 10: Nypa fruticans (Nipa palm) – a fast colonizer that threatens the mangrove
ecosystem
Source: Field survey, 2015.
Other Factors
Defecation, refuse dumping, and unsustainable exploitation of non-wood resources, are
also among the factors responsible for mangrove degradation in the Niger Delta region.
The construction of public toilets that empty directly into the mangroves and the dumping
of refuse in and near the mangroves (Plate 11) are now common in the region.
Unsustainable exploitation of non-wood resources like fish, periwinkle, crab, etc. is also
worrisome.
532 38th Annual Conference of Forestry Association of Nigeria (FAN)
Plate 11: Public toilets and refuse dumping in mangroves
Source: Field survey, 2015.
Another factor that encourages the loss and degradation of the mangrove forests in the
Niger Delta is the palpable weakness in the implementation of the Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) decree. Sometimes projects are executed before EIA is done, and in
some cases where they are done prior to the execution of the project, the process is
usually replete with irregularities that are allowed by the representatives of relevant
agencies that should ensure due process and maintain standards. In some cases, clearance
is given for projects with huge potential negative impacts on the environment. Here in the
Niger Delta Region, multinational oil companies get away with pollution and spillage in
many places including the marine and coastal ecosystems unlike in most developed
countries. There is need for strict adherence to and compliance with the provisions of the
EIA decree if sustainable development is to be guaranteed.
Implications of Mangrove Deforestation and Degradation in a Changing Climate
The implications of mangrove deforestation and degradation in the Niger Delta Region of
Nigeria are quite grave especially in the light of the vulnerability of the region to climate
change. In this paper, these implications are considered in respect of climate change
mitigation and adaptation, and the socio-economic consequences of extreme weather
events orchestrated by climate change.
Implications for Climate Change Mitigation
The role of mangrove forests in climate change mitigation has been acknowledged the
world over. The mangrove forests are among the most carbon-rich tropical forests
Chima, U. D. and Larinde, S. L. 533
(Donato et al., 2011), due to high levels of plant production in addition to high levels of
sedimentation from rivers and tidal inputs (Kristensen et al., 2008). Annual mean carbon
sequestration rate of the mangrove has been known to exceed those of the terrestrial
forest ecosystems like the tropical rain forest, the temperate rain forest and the boreal
forests (McLeod et al., 2011). Unlike in most terrestrial ecosystems, the mangrove
ecosystems store about 50 – 90 % of their carbon below ground where it can remain for
very long periods, with the remainder equally stored for long periods of time in the wood
(Pan et al. 2011; Pendleton et al., 2012). As a result, more carbon is released to the
atmosphere and the ocean when mangroves are degraded or converted to other land uses
compared with the terrestrial ecosystems. Donato et al. (2011) estimated that mangrove
deforestation generates emissions of 0.02-0.12 Pg carbon per year – as much as around
10% of emissions from deforestation globally, despite accounting for just 0.7% of
tropical forest area. Thus, as the mangrove forests are destroyed in the Niger Delta
Region, they not only release the carbon they hold but also lose their potential to
sequester more carbon in the future.
Implications for Climate Change Adaptation
It has been documented that climate change will have considerable impacts in coastal
regions (Bardsley, 2006; Caton, 2007), which will probably include beach and dune
erosion due to the effects of rising sea levels, extreme events, changes to run-off patterns,
and flooding (Caton, 2007). Many coastal communities in different parts of the world
have already started experiencing some of these impacts with their concomitant colossal
damages and losses.
However, the mangrove forests and other marine and coastal ecosystems like sea-grass
meadows, mangroves, and tidal marshes, provide services that aid adaptation to climate
change impacts along the coast. These services include prevention of shoreline erosion,
protection from storms and sea level rise, regulation of coastal water quality, and food
security for many coastal communities around the world. They also protect adjacent
marine ecosystems (often coral reefs) from terrestrial inputs, and provide habitat for
diverse fish and invertebrates, some of which are commercially important (Rützler and
Feller 1996; Mumby et al. 2004).
Therefore the current rate of mangrove deforestation and degradation in the Niger Delta
Region without any attempt at regeneration will definitely increase the vulnerability of
coastal communities in the area, to extreme weather events. There are clear evidences in
several parts of the world to buttress this assertion. Evidences from the countries affected
by the 2004 Tsunami confirmed that mangrove forests played crucial roles in saving lives
and property, and that the waves penetrated far inland where mangroves and other coastal
ecosystems had been destroyed, resulting to flooding of farms, destruction of homes and
means of livelihood (EJF, 2006). The four countries – Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India and
534 38th Annual Conference of Forestry Association of Nigeria (FAN)
Thailand, that were worst hit by the impacts of the 2004 Tsunami lost 28% of their
mangrove forests between 1980 and 2000 (EJF, 2006). It is also widely acknowledged
that the destruction of mangroves and reefs exacerbated the damages done by the 2005
Hurricane Katrina to the US coastal States.
Socio-Economic Implications
The socio-economic consequences of mangrove deforestation and degradation are quite
enormous. Although there are no particular estimates or figures for Nigeria, UNEP
(2014) reported that the variety of goods and services provided by mangrove forests
worth an estimated US$33-57,000 per hectare per year to the national economies of
developing countries with mangroves; and that over 100 million people that live within
10 kilometres of large mangrove forest benefit from them. In addition, emissions
resulting from mangrove losses make up nearly one fifth of global emissions from
deforestation, resulting in economic damages of US$6–42 billion annually (UNEP,
2014). Other socio-economic implications may include effects on public health,
employment and income generation, changes in population and ethnic patterns, and needs
for resettlement of families affected by extreme weather events.
Although there are no studies that have quantified the monetary contributions of the
mangroves (in terms of the goods and services provided) to the Nigerian economy,
mangroves provide tangible goods like fuel-wood, crabs, shrimps, honey, medicine, dyes,
thatch, salt and periwinkles, which support rural livelihoods and serve as vital sources of
income to the rural dwellers especially in coastal communities. In addition to the above
tangible goods, the mangroves provide intangible services by buffering the coastal
communities and providing breeding grounds for fishes.
The economic implications of mangrove deforestation and degradation in the Niger Delta
Region cannot be overemphasized, given the fact that the oil companies which contribute
immensely to the wealth of the Nigerian nation is located mostly in this region. Lubeck et
al. (2007) reported that there are over 600 oil fields, 5,284 on- and- off shore oil wells, 10
export terminals, 275 flow stations, 4 refineries and an LNG project, in the Niger Delta
Region. In addition to these are other subsidiary companies and investments, and the
teaming human population in the region. Therefore, with current high spate of mangrove
destruction, extreme weather events orchestrated by climate change, are bound to cause
colossal and monumental economic damages.
What Should be Done?
The importance of mangrove ecosystems in climate change mitigation and adaptation
(especially in coastal areas) cannot be overemphasized. Hence, the need for the Nigerian
Government to come up with appropriate laws and policies that will halt the current high
spate of mangrove degradation and conversion, conserve the remaining mangroves, and
Chima, U. D. and Larinde, S. L. 535
ensure massive regeneration of degraded areas. These will help to improve the resistance
of mangrove ecosystems to climate change so that they can continue to deliver ecosystem
services, and provide alternative livelihood options in the face of climate change. Mant et
al. (2014) observed that the conservation, restoration and sustainable management of
ecosystems can help reduce vulnerability to climatic hazards such as hurricanes, rising
sea levels, floods and droughts.
It is imperative to ensure that EIAs are thoroughly done for developmental projects in the
Niger Delta region to mitigate the high spate of destruction and degradation of very
important ecosystems like the mangrove forest. In addition, environmental impacts of
industries sited in coastal regions can be mitigated by ensuring that their wastes are
treated to specified and acceptable standard before they are discharged into the sea.
In addition, Nigeria should emulate other countries like Indonesia, Philippines,
Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, where mangrove regeneration has become a very serious
business. Apart from direct planting of mangrove species, efforts to conserve the
mangroves in these countries include environmental education of the coastal communities
on the need for sustainable use.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Mangrove forests in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria have been deforested and degraded
to a large extent due mainly to anthropogenic pressures. There is need for mapping and
strict protection of the remaining mangrove forests in the region. Massive regeneration of
deforested and degraded mangrove areas should be carried out urgently, for enhanced
ecological roles, socio-economic wellbeing of the people, and climate change
adaptation/mitigation. There appears to be paucity of information from the available
literature concerning the ecology of mangrove ecosystems in Nigeria, their carbon
sequestration capabilities/potential, economic values, and current status. There is a dire
need for empirical studies to fill these gaps.
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