Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akahdar and Marmarica Plateau)

Abstract

Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering A 2 (2013) 41-58
Formerly part of Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, ISSN 1934-8932
Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of
Libya (El-Jabal El-Akahdar and Marmarica Plateau)
Yacoub Mohamad Mohamad El-Barasi1 and Manam Wafi Barrani Saaed2
1. Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Benghazi University (Previous Gar-Yunis University), Benghazi 25426, Libya
2. Range Department, High Institute of Agriculture Techniques, Al-Marj city 25426, Libya
Received: December 23, 2012 / Accepted: January 14, 2013 / Published: January 20, 2013.
Abstract: Little thought has been given to threats facing plant diversity in this area where many wild plants still exist in their refuge
sites in valleys (wadis), the study area harboring most of the endemic species in the zone, and there are substantial maquis vegetation
still remaining. Many plants species in this region have medicinal properties that give them scientific and commercial value.
However, the wildlife species are gradually disappearing as a result of damaging and excessive resource exploitation the consistency
of the irresponsible and inattentive activities, such as over grazing, ploughing, land reclamation, urbanization, mining, forest fires,
over collecting and charcoal production cause damage to several habitats, communities disturbance as a result of that, hundreds of
species are threatened with disappearance where many are at the brink of extinction. Also, the anthropogenic pressure accelerates
Aeolian soil erosion and destroys the soil seed bank.
Key words: Biodiversity, human activities, El-Jabal El-Akhadar, Marmarica plateau.

Full text

Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering A 2 (2013) 41-58
Formerly part of Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, ISSN 1934-8932
Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of
Libya (El-Jabal El-Akahdar and Marmarica Plateau)
Yacoub Mohamad Mohamad El-Barasi1 and Manam Wafi Barrani Saaed2
1. Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Benghazi University (Previous Gar-Yunis University), Benghazi 25426, Libya
2. Range Department, High Institute of Agriculture Techniques, Al-Marj city 25426, Libya
Received: December 23, 2012 / Accepted: January 14, 2013 / Published: January 20, 2013.
Abstract: Little thought has been given to threats facing plant diversity in this area where many wild plants still exist in their refuge
sites in valleys (wadis), the study area harboring most of the endemic species in the zone, and there are substantial maquis vegetation
still remaining. Many plants species in this region have medicinal properties that give them scientific and commercial value.
However, the wildlife species are gradually disappearing as a result of damaging and excessive resource exploitation the consistency
of the irresponsible and inattentive activities, such as over grazing, ploughing, land reclamation, urbanization, mining, forest fires,
over collecting and charcoal production cause damage to several habitats, communities disturbance as a result of that, hundreds of
species are threatened with disappearance where many are at the brink of extinction. Also, the anthropogenic pressure accelerates
Aeolian soil erosion and destroys the soil seed bank.
Key words: Biodiversity, human activities, El-Jabal El-Akhadar, Marmarica plateau.
1. Introduction
Libya occupies an area of 1.75954 million km2. The
desert is spread over more than 95% of the country,
except for a narrow coastal strip which contains most
of the country’s inhabitants (6,310,434 inhabitants).
The population density is about 1 inhabitant per km2
in the southern region; meanwhile it is about 50
inhabitants per km2 in the coastal strip.
The northern strip is characterized by a relative
abundance of rainfall and soil fertility that make it
suitable for the appearance of rich wildlife, thus
differing from the rest of the country. El-Jabal
El-Akhadar and Marmarica plateau have a unique
relatively large biodiversity, particularly in valleys
and depressions that act as a haven for many species.
The background of the area shows that it was free
of any natural resource, other than the natural
Corresponding author: Yacoub Mohamad Mohamad
El-Barasi, Ph.D., professor, main research field: ecology, plant
ecology, phytosociology, seed ecology, range ecology and land
uses. E-mail: Yammab54@yahoo.com.
vegetation, as a result life of the local inhabitants
relied upon. The main activities throughout history
were grazing, gathering wood for fuel, production of
bees honey, gathering medication species and wood
products. Many plant species were a source of food
for people, and at the same time, the natural
vegetation is a haven for many kinds of birds and wild
animals that are also a source of food and medication
for the inhabitants.
In fact, the study area is rich in many medicinal and
aromatic species such as Ceratonia siliqua, Zizphus
lotus, Cistus sps., Thymus capitatus, Artemisia
herba-alba, Globularia arabica, Teucrium polium,
Juniperus phoenicea, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia
fruticosa, Chamomilia pubescens, Pituranthos
tortuousus. El-Jabal El-Akhadar contains about 43
endemic plant species, meanwhile Marmarica plateau
contains about 12 endemic plant species.
The human activities over the centuries have
dramatically affected the biodiversity of this region. In
recent decades, this effect has been intensified due to
DAVID PUBLISHING
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Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
42
the increase in the population and the import of
modern mechanization which has caused an increase
(in both density and area) of the destructive effects of
human activities.
Although this region is one of the important areas
for wildlife in Libya, it suffers from extreme
biodiversity destruction and degradation and it is very
important now to begin extensive environmental
studies and conservation programs, including not only
soil and biodiversity conservation but also beauty
conservation and attention to local inhabitants because
they play an important role in the ecological systems
throughout the whole area.
2. The Biophysical Environment
The study area lies on the Mediterranean coast in
north eastern Libya (Cyrenaica), at coordinates 20° to
25° east and 31°:30' to 33° north (Fig. 1), which
include El-Jabal El-Akhadar (The Green Mountain), a
three terraces hill which rise up gradually, the highest
terrace reaches about 880 m above sea level. El-Jabal
El-Akhadar extends from the city of Benghazi toward
east reaching Gulf of Bomba with a length of about
350 km.
Moreover, the eastern part of the study area known
as Marmarica plateau, a wide plateau which extends
about 250 km from the Gulf of Bomba to reaches the
Egyptian border, with an average height of 200 m
above sea level [1].
In fact, the study area is a part of the great
sprawling plateau that forms the Libyan land, which
descends gradually from the south of the country to
the north, but rises, near the coast to consist the study
area, which is an elevated land. The north of the area
abruptly descends to form steep slopes towards the sea,
and it descends gradually towards the south until we
reach the desert. The study area is divided by a large
number of valleys that vary in depth and length; they
are oriented towards the sea in the north, while many
are oriented towards the south to end in the desert
(Sahara).
Topography of the area has a great effect on the
Fig. 1 Location map of the study area (by the authors).

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
43
distribution of natural vegetation because the low land
receives more water through runoff after rainfall, and
it has more prevention against wind and human
activities, hence many valleys act as havens for many
wildlife species that have disappeared completely
from other parts in the region.
The soil in El-Jabal El-Akhadar area is
characterized by the presence of red clay soil (Terra
Rosa), it tends to be neutral or slightly alkaline (pH
7-8), the value of TDS (total dissolved salt) ranged
between 190-624 ppm, O.M% (organic matter
percentage) ranged between 1%-9% [2].
On the other hand, the soil in southern parts of
El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica plateau is mainly
dry soil sediment over parent calcareous rocks,
characterized by sandy loam texture and tends to be
alkaline (pH 8-9), the value of TDS ranged between
208-5,311 ppm, O.M% ranged between 0.30%-1.10%
[3].
In some coastal depressions and at the ends of some
valleys, there are salt-marshes (sabkha) that have a
high value of TDS which ranged between
6,769-14,471 ppm, and have a high value of alkalinity
due to the accumulation of alkaline salt. Where the
value of pH reached up to 10.6, it was occupied by
Halophyte plant species [4].
El-Jabal El-Akhadar Mountain receives the greatest
amount of rainfall in all Libya, where it has an
average annual rainfall of about 400 mm/year, in
Cyrene city area it is up to 600 mm/year. The rate of
precipitation decreases as we head south, east or west,
where as it is up to 270 mm/year in some areas south
of El-Jabal El-Akhadar, and about 180 mm/year in
Marmarica plateau, and it is about 270 mm/year in
Benghazi plain. This rate will continue decreasing as
we head south to reach the desert areas that receive
rates of less than 50 mm/year.
About 75% of the rainfall falls during the winter
season starting from October to February, while the
dry period of the year starts from April to September.
The average annual temperature in El-Jabal
El-Akhadar is about 17 °C and in Marmarica plateau
and parts of southern El-Jabal El-Akhadar it is 20 °C
[5].
3. Natural Vegetation
According to Brullo and Furnari [6], the vegetation
of this area represents in most of its aspects a
pronounced autonomy, although there is less evidence
to connect the west and east Mediterranean areas.
There are three main habitats that can be
distinguished in the study area: The coastal zone is
characterized by halophytic vegetation, the piedmont
and mountain zone prevail with Mediterranean
vegetation (Fig. 2) and the predesert south El-Jabal
(mountain) zone is characterized by thermo-xerophilic
vegetation. South El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica
plateau are floristically and ecologically considered to
be as a pasture zone (Fig. 5).
The flora of El-Jabal El-Akhadar is constituted of
more than 1,350 species. About 70% of the total
number of Libyan flora and the endemic species are
about 43. While in Marmarica plateau, the flora is
constituted of 407 species with about 12 endemic
species. The total endemic plant species in the study
area is estimated at 55 species which consists of about
78% of the endemic species in Libyan flora.
According to Le Houerou [7], this zone (surrounded
by Sahara desert) with monomodal rainfall regime is
considered to be one of the main centers rich in
endemic species.
Areas, like El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica
plateau, with species concentration of endemism and
unique habitats, that are facing risks, are considered to
be hotspots.
As a matter of fact, in order to escape drought and
survive, most of the vegetation exist where the
prerequisite of life are available, such as in wadis
(valleys) which harbour many wild species especially
endemic and rare species. In these habitats, the
spectrum of life is constituted of: therophytes 52.65%,
phanerophytes 12%, chamaeophytes 7.5%,

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
44
cryptophytes 27.6% and hemicryptophytes 0.25%,
with rainfall ranging between 63-576 mm/year,
favoured by the monomodal rainfall regime. Important
canopy species are met like: Arbutus pavarii, Olea
europea, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus,
Juniperus phoenicea, Rhamnus lycioides, Pinus
halpensis, Cistus parviflorus, Quercus coccifera, Rhus
tripartita and others met like: Sarcopoterium
spinosum, Asphodelus ramosus, Nicotiana glauca,
Arisarum vulgare, Rosmarinus officinalis, Micromeria
nervosa, Bellis sylvestris, Androcymbium graminium,
Trifolium tomemtosum, Silene Cyrenaica, etc.. While
in the drier predesertic southward zone, the
therophytes constituted 56.75%, the phanerophytes
9.3%, chamaephytes 27.2%, cryptophytes 6.5% and
hemicryptophytes 0.25%. Some of the species
encountered in this area are Ceratonia siliqua,
Asphodulus ramosus, Sarcopoterium spinosum,
Haloxylon scoparium, Thymeleae hirsuta, Artemisia
herba-alba, Artemisia campestris, Thymus capitatus,
Polygonum equisetiforme, Ononis reclinata, Onyza
aegyptica, Emex spinosus, Nonea viviani, Pallenis
spinosa, Anthemis taubertii, Noea mucronata,
Plantago notata, Carduus argentatus, Atractylic
serratuloides, Malva sylvestris, Hordeum morinum,
etc. The rainfall in these habitats ranged between
25-200 mm/year. The increased percentage of
Therophytes reveals the effect of aridity in both zones
causing the fragility and high sensitivity of these
ecosystems.
The area suffers from retrogressive succession and
the driving forces for this are: cutting of wood, over
collection, fire, overstocking, clearing (the main
anthropogenic pressure) and droughts. Vegetation of
the area is very heterogeneous in distribution and
closely associated with landscape features, geological
formation and topography which control water
availability. Ephemeral waves of short-lived plant
growth appear during spells of rain and last as long as
water is available. However, water availability is still
the main factor affecting the distribution of plant
species in the region.
Beside topography, rain water controls vegetation
distribution in the region as follow:
(1) At isohyets 50-200 mm/year: This zone
represents south Al-Jabal Al-Akhadar and the whole
of Marmarica plateau zone, and many species are
distributed there such as: Artemisia herba-alba,
Pituranthos tortuousus, Thymus capitatus, Anabasis
articulata, Haloxylon scoparium, Thymelaea hirsuta,
Zilla spinosa. At wadis beds, we encounter species
like: Rhus tripartita, Retama raetam, Ziziphus lotus,
Lycium europaeum, Atriplex halimus, but in coastal
salt marshes and wet lands, many species are existing,
such as: Mesembryanthemum sps., Silene succulenta,
Arthrocnemum sps., Atriplex mollis, Salsola kali,
Juncus maritimus, Arundo donax, Tamarix aphylla,
Nitraria retusa, Zygophyllum album, Suaeda vera,
most of these areas are subjected to degradation and
desertification particularly those which are on the
fringe of the Sahara;
(2) At isohyets 200-300 mm/year: It is located north
of the previous zones, and many species are
distributed there such as: Centaurea alexandrina,
Carthamus lanatus, Sarcopoterium spinosum, Ballota
pseudo dictamnus, Marrubium alysson, Phlomis
floccose, Eryngium compestre, moreover Juniperus
communs is found, but in small pockets on the coast
due to degradation of an ancient open forest;
(3) At isohyets 300-450 mm/year: This zone
represents the whole part of El-Jabal El-Akhadar. The
main distributed species are: Juniperus phoenicea,
Arbutus pavarii, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus,
Quercus coccifera, Pinus halepensis, Olea europaea,
Rosmarinus officinalis and Rhamnus oleoides;
(4) At isohyets 450-600 mm/year: This is
represented by small areas in some wadis in parts of
Cyrene city area and Wadi El-Kouf near El-Bayda city,
in places considered being the last refugial sites for:
Cupressus sempervirens.
The main endangered species in the study area are:
Juniperus phoenicea, Juniperus communs, Myrtus

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
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communis, Cupressus sempervirens, Rosmarinus
officinalis, Salvia officinalis, Ziziphus lotus, Thymus
capitatus, Olea europea, Artemisia herba alba,
Ceratonia siliqua, Arbutus pavarii and Urgenea
marittima.
4. Soil Seed Bank
Climatic factors play an important role in forming
soil seed banks in these zones, which are mainly
composed of ephemeral and annual seeds (therophytes)
forming the transient soil seed bank. They have the
ability to complete their life cycle, producing
considerable quantities of seeds, in just a few weeks in
the rainy season. In general, during autumn the higher
density of transient and permanent seed banks are
available in the soils. On the other hand, there is a
reduction in soil seeds bank in spring, due to the
depletion by germination.
However, the density of soil seeds increased under
the canopy of trees and shrubs. In contrast, the density
decreased, away from the sources of seed production
in places with low cover or devoid of vegetation.
In Marmarica plateau soil seed density ranged
between 600-6,000 seeds/m2, in south of El-Jabal
El-Akhadar it ranged between 1,200-50,520 seeds/m2,
while in north El-Jabal El-Akhadar it ranged between
2,400-60,000 seeds/m2. In places dominated by
threatened species such as: Juniperous phoenicea and
Rhamnus lycioedes in their last stands at altitudes of 510
m the soil seed bank reached 18,530 seed/m2 [3, 8, 9].
This zone is mainly dependent on seasonal rainfall,
the presence of great number of valleys sloping in
different directions carrying large quantities of water,
dams and rocky dykes are present along their course
in different places preventing soil erosion, thus
enhancing the increment of soil profile and the storing
of more soil seed bank by accumulating seeds behind
them. This must be considered to be an effective
factor in enriching diversity. This activity in these
zones has been carried out since long ago.
In Marmarica plateau, the density of soil seed bank
in dam’s soil ranged between 1,800-25,200 seeds/m2,
in south El-Jabal El-Akhadar it ranged between
1800-10,800 seeds/m2, and in the areas north of
El-Jabal El-Akhadar it ranged between 1200-6,600
seeds/m2 [3, 8].
Marmarica and south El-Jabal El-Akhadar receive
less amounts of rainfall compared with north El-Jabal
El-Akhadar, but consisted of larger soil seed banks
than north El-Jabal El-Akhadar. This may be
explained by the fact that most of the vegetation in the
former areas is xerophylous and composed mainly of
annual species, which produces a large number of
seeds.
At north and south El-Jabal El-Akhadar, the
greatest proportion of soil seed banks belongs to
Poaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Bracssicaceae
respectively, while in Marmarica plateau, the greatest
proportion of soil seed banks are composed of
Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Fabaceae and
Asteraceae respectively.
The proportion of soil seed banks of Fabaceae,
which is an important species in rangeland,
constituted about 1% of the isolated soil seeds in the
areas of south El-Jabal El-Akhadar, 2% around the
agricultural areas in north El-Jabal El-Akhadar, but in
some areas of El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica
plateau it reached up to 10%. However, in Mesus
rangeland (south Benghazi) seeds of Fabaceae reached
31%, where species like Medicago polymorha,
Medicago coronata, Astragulus spinosus, Medicago
turbinata and Trifolium campestre are able to
establish considerable soil seed banks, besides their
seed characteristics, this enhanced fraction of seeds is
mainly attributed to the reseeding programs of these
grazing areas by the agriculture authority.
5. Anthropogenic Pressure
Global climate change, coupled with increased
human activities in the study area is likely to affect the
ecosystems and pose significant threats to biodiversity
especially to rare and endemic species. The important

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
46
of this lie in the fact that the study zone (Cyrenaica
and Marmarica) is holding more than 1,350 plant
species which consist about 70% of Libyan flora [6].
Human activities have the most severe impact on
retrogressive succession. Degradation caused by
human activities is not unprecedented, this destruction
has been going on throughout the ages, but what is
new is that the pace of this decline accelerated
significantly in recent decades.
The major degradation causes of ecosystems in the
study areas are: the increase in population,
overgrazing, uprooting of woody species for use as
fuel or for medical uses, ploughing land for cereal
production, infrastructure development, disposal of
solid and liquid wastes, mining and mismanagement
of natural resources.
5.1 Historical Background in the Area
From historical evidence, it is known that this
region used to be flourishing, especially in Roman era,
possibly with a large population and more prosperous
cultivation of olives, figs, vines and cereals as it was
in the Mediterranean basin [10]. Throughout history,
the natural vegetation was the sole resource upon
which the inhabitants lean on in this region.
Historical records indicate that the eastern region of
Libya (Cyrenaica) was a populated region as well as an
important pasture zone. Inscriptions on walls of temples
of ancient Egypt recorded that the zone was inhabited
by tribes and herders that supplied Egypt with livestock
[11, 12]. Some of them described that oxen, donkeys,
sheep and a special type of oil as well were all exported
from the region to ancient Egypt [13].
During the Greek era (631-96 BC), many
agricultural colonies were built. This induced
Herodotus to point out that the reason of the
agricultural settlements was mainly attributed to the
grazing activities and the presence of great number of
grazing animals specially caprins (the fourth book of
Herodotus).
Moreover, ancient Greeks constructed several
towns, villages and ports, as well as dykes and cisterns
in order to harvest run-off water, and developed
irrigation canals and organized water consumption
(Figs. 3 and 4). They removed vegetation and turned
forest areas to farmland in order to grow barley, wheat,
fruit trees and vegetables.
They also introduced many plant species, now
included in the natural vegetation of the region, such
as olive trees, still today the remnants of olive oil
mills are present in the region, carved in the rocks,
scattered in many valleys and hills of El-Jabal
El-Akhadar area, as an evidence of the expansion of
olive tree cultivation at that time.
The archaeological inscriptions found in Cyrene
showed that Cyrenaica granted more than 800,000
Medmni (Medmni is an old measuring unite
equivalent to about 43.5 L) of wheat to more than 40
Greek cities during the famine period (330-326 BC).
Cyrenaica was also famous for the production of
barley, fodder, olives, legumes, fruits and other
foodstuffs as well as various types of wine, olive oil,
honey and various famous perfumes derived from
wild flowers [14].
During the Roman era (96 BC-643 AD), the
development of irrigation systems and cisterns
continued, with the expansion in land reclamation and
cultivation at the expense of natural vegetation.
Cyrenaica was considered as the yield store of Rome.
The pressure on the region’s natural resources
continued as well during the middle ages. The region
exported grains, fruits, tree tar, wine, fruits of
Juniperous phonicea, honey, wool, cotton, cow hides,
sheep and wood of pine trees particularly to Egypt.
Even during the Arab era, these zones were wealthy
with a lot of agricultural activities at the expense of
plant diversity in the regions.
During the Arab era at the 7th and 8th centuries,
remarkable changes in land use were introduced, and
they encouraged the return of pastoral life and nomad
livestock. That led to the abandonment of many
irrigation constructions and disappearance of old

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
47
villages, and the cultivated areas were again taken
over by natural steppic vegetation found today as
Artemisia herba-alba, Thymelae hirsuta and Anabasis
articulata.
In the 9th century, the famous sea port of Ptolemais
located 30 km north the ancient prosperous city of
Barce (the old city of El-Marj) situated 100 km east of
Benghazi in northern Cyrenaica was famous by its
natural resources and the richness of its surrounding
villages and farms, however it imported textiles and
cotton linen, and exported tar, honey, barley, wheat
and sulfur, which constituted the products of the
agricultural activities of the zone indicating the
significance of these human activities.
All the chronologers who visited the area after the
9th century describe a dramatic change to poverty and
a cute deficiency in natural recourses.
During the Ottoman era (1554-1911), a culture of
cave dwellers (Troglodytes) developed in several
wadis in Cyrenaica and in Tripolitania, due to the
spread of tribe wars and famine, and their main
requirements were based on the vegetation. Plant
species affected at El-Jabal El-Akhadar were: Olea
europea, Ballotta andreuziana, Pinus sps., Juniperous
pheonicea, Arbutus pavarii, Ceratonia siliqua,
Phoenix dictalyfera, Myrtus communis, Phlomis
floccosa and many others.
During the Italian occupation (1911-1941), a big
effort in the agricultural sector was undertaken, large
areas were cleared and changed to farms, with the
introduction of several types of plant species and
cultivars, imported from abroad like, Nerium oleander,
Eucalyptus sp, Acacia sp and many fruit trees and
other agricultural crops.
During the second half of the 20th century, more
efforts were made in agricultural development with
extensive use of machineries at the expense of
environment, especially in El-Jabal El-Akhadar which
is still targeted heavily for the establishment of
agricultural projects, urbanization and demographic
expansion.
5.2 The Most Important Anthropogenic Factors Which
Threaten the Biodiversity in the Region Are
5.2.1 Overpopulation
The Libyan population has increased significantly
over the last 50 years, more than six-fold. The
country’s population was less than one million in the
Fig. 2 The north front slopes of El-Jabal El-Akhadar near the sea coast (authors camera, 2012).

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
48
Fig. 3 Big cistern from the Roman era for collecting runoff water. In old Ptolemais city (old sea port of Barce) north
El-Jabal El-Akhadar at the sea coast (author’s camera, 2013).
Fig. 4 The old hydraulic-engineering system in old Ptolemais city for collecting and distributing water from springs and
Roman cisterns (author’s camera, 2013).

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
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Fig. 5 Xerophytic species dominated in Marmarica plateau (author’s camera, 2012).
Table 1 Number of grazig animals in the area.
Area Sheep Goat Cattle Camel
Marmarica area 206,258 59,171 2,516 9,250
El-Jabal
El-Akhadar
area
Derna 147,542 52,879 6,492 3,923
El-Bayda 178,978 63,020 18,004 3,938
El-Marj 354,538 64,817 19,023 3,622
Benghazi 138,322 18,575 1,835 2,392
Total 1,025,638 258,462 47,870 23,125 1355,095
Source: general authority for information [16].
1954 census and in 2006 it was about 6,310,434. The
population of the study area of about 1,579,978 people
consists 21.48% of Libya’s population [15].
This significant increment caused a substantial
increase in the volume of the environmental damage
caused by pressure on the region’s natural resources.
5.2.2 Pastoralism
Nomadic pastoralism is a traditional habit in the
whole zone, it depends mainly upon natural vegetation,
and because Mediterranean winters are generally more
or less mild, vegetation is not protected against
grazing during this season. About 30% of the
population in these regions is involved in this activity,
and the number of grazing animals in the area is about
1,355,095 head (Table 1).
The range lands in the study area are estimated to
be about 5,284,000 hectares, accounting for about
40% of the grazing area in Libya, of which about
2,475,000 hectares (47%) receives a rainfall rate less
than 100 mm/year, about 1,768,000 hectares (33%)
have a rainfall rate between 100-150 mm/year, about
1,041,000 hectares (20%) have a rate between
150-400 mm/year [17].
The movement of herds within the region is

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
50
according to the rainfall and rangeland conditions. The
improvement in transportation in last few decades has
helped the herds to be always moved to other grazing
areas. In addition, the continuous increase in the
number of dug wells has made the herds more
attracted to the area around those water sources. These
entire activities act together to facilitate over grazing.
In general, the movement of herds is towards the
south of Marmarica and the south of El-Jabal
El-Akhadar areas during winter and spring, where
they depend on annuals plants. While in summer and
autumn, they head north towards the coastal areas in
Marmarica and toward El-Jabal El-Akhadar bushes,
where they depend on perennial shrubs and sub-shrubs
and the remains of rain-fed crops that are often left
without harvesting after bad seasons to feed the
grazing animals (the farms of wheat and barley). Also,
the owners provide fodder to compensate the
deficiency in pasture production, especially in the dry
season of the year or in dry years. Camels graze in
areas adjacent to the deserts southern of Marmarica
and El-Jabal El-Akhadar Mountain.
It is very clear that the number of animals is more
than the grazing capacity of the rangelands in the area,
according to Census 2006 they represent about 600%
of the grazing load of Marmarica [3], which has led to
natural vegetation deteriorating causing the
disappearance of many palatable species.
In addition to the devastating effects on vegetation,
the movement of livestock caused trampling,
especially around wells and water sources, where
herds’ ranging around water sources in circles was
estimated nearly 10 km in diameter [18].
The rangelands degradation, especially by
overgrazing and soil trampling, has resulted in the
disappearance of perennial grasses, which in turn has
increased pasture shortage. As a result of that and in
the absence of range management, the more palatable
species such as Retama raetam, Atriplex halimus,
Artemisia herba-alba, Avena fatua, Vicia sps.,
Medicago sps., Periploca angustifolia, Pituranthos
tortuousus, Rhus tripartita and many other species
have been replaced by less/or unpalatable species,
such as: Euphorbia dendroides, Thymelaea hirsuta,
Haloxylon scoparium, Asphodelus ramosus,
Sarcopoterium spinosum, Peganum harmala, Phlomis
floccosa, Marrubium alysson and Ballota pseudo
dictamnus that have invaded many areas.
In the past, traditional herders of rangelands in this
area had learned to exploit ecosystem cycles
sustainably through mobility and unwitting regulation
because they were nomads. Recently that has been
changed towards the centralization of the pastoralists
in fixed area and the provision of supplemental animal
fodder, and they nowadays focus more on economic
sustainability and increase the pressure on ecosystems
by allowing the herds for long or continuous stays in
the same area.
5.2.3 Agriculture Expansion
Due to the lack of permanent water sources such as
rivers or freshwater lakes, this region suffers from a
deficiency of water, so rain-fed agriculture has
prevailed in the region since ancient times. The crops
which are most cultivated are wheat, barley, lentils,
chickpeas and beans, in addition to the cultivation of
fruit trees which well adapted to such harsh climate as
fig trees, grapes, olives and palm trees.
However, the availability of modern machineries
during the past few decades has given the inhabitants
the ability to expand the rain-fed agriculture area
towards the rangelands. The new lands have been
cleared from perennial species such as Lycium
europaeum, Rhamnus oleoides, Ziziphus lotus, Suaeda
vermiculata, Salsola sps., Haloxylon scoparium,
Atriplex halimus, Anabasis articulata, Rhus tripartita,
Junipeorus phoenicea, Pinus halepensis, Pistacia
lentiscus, Olea europaea, Ceratonia siliqua, Querecus
coccifera, Rosmarinus officinalis, Arbutus pavarii,
Calicotome villosa and many others. When the
farmers leave the ploughed areas due to the drought,
the above species are replaced by less productive
annual species such as Polypogon monspeliensis,

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
51
Papaver rhoeas, Avena fatua, Malva sylvestris,
Chenopodium murale, Echium angustifolium,
Convolvulus sps., Achillea santolina, Cyperus kalli
and Chrysanthemum carinatum. Under the
environmental conditions of this area, the
re-generation of natural vegetation cover after
successive ploughing is a very slow process.
There is also a widespread trend towards the
expansion of irrigated crops, especially in areas of
El-Jabal El-Akhadar by drilling underground wells,
and the establishment of agricultural projects that
sweep towards areas of forests which are replaced by
fruit trees and vegetable farms and the establishment
of greenhouses.
During the last 30 years, the state implemented
projects in El-Jabal El-Akhadar in an area of about
315,200 hectares, in places receiving higher rain-fall
amount, having good soil and dense vegetation. After
clearing them from vegetation they replaced with
cereal crops.
There is a widespread trend from the local land
owners to shift to irrigated crops, where data have
shown that 50% of farmers in the areas of El-Jabal
El-Akhadar switched to irrigated agriculture by
drilling wells and deforested their lands (the area of
private land that has been deforested and converted to
irrigated farms is non-estimated yet) which introduce
a considerable income for the owners of those lands
[19].
Most of the farmers in the region do not practice
crop rotation due to a low education (53% illiterate)
and they tend to apply chemicals in irrigated
agriculture where 76.8% are using chemical control
against pests. The levels of knowledge about
pesticides and fertilizers are very low (1.3% are
familiar with) and there is no accuracy in the practice
of pesticides and fertilizers (0.7% of them are accurate)
but the big story is that 93.9% of the farmers were not
familiar with the environmental pollution effects [19].
5.2.4 Firewood Collection and Charcoal Production
The natural vegetation in this region was the only
source of fuel throughout the ages. Firewood
collection has in the past led to the removal of large
areas of natural vegetation (woody perennial),
particularly around cities and urbanization centers.
Firewood collection in this area is a selective
process on a certain species particularly trees and
woody shrubs and sub-shrubs. In the past, the average
daily consumption of wood for every family was
about 10 kg per day; it increased and decreased
depending on the number of family members and
whether the season was warm or cold. There were
markets for selling wood in all cities and villages;
nowadays firewood collection in the region has
dropped considerably due to the availability of
alternative energy sources.
Charcoal production in the areas of El-Jabal
El-Akhadar is still one of the good economic activities
for the local nomads. It is applied in an intensive and
selective way on woody species such as Rhus
tripartita, Pinus halepensis, Juniperus phoenicea,
Pistacia lentiscus, Olea europaea, Ceratonia siliqua,
Querecus coccifera and Arbutus pavarii. The charcoal
productivity of El-Jabal El-Akhadar is estimated at
more than 4,575 bags (weighing 25 kg) per year. The
exposed area for charcoal production is estimated
annually at about 111 hectares [20].
5.2.5 Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Species
The region is rich in species having medicinal uses.
It is well known in folkloric medicine that it depends
mainly on the use of the property from the parent plant.
They are collected in large quantities and are sold in
special stores (herbalist), which are widely found in
all Libyan cities. Many of these species have not been
studied yet.
Plant species used in folk medicine are Peganum
harmala, Ziziphus lotus, Thymus capitatus, Teucrium
polium, Alhagi graecorum, Chenopodium murale,
Chamomilla pubescens, Artemisia herba-alba,
Pituranthos tortuousus, Olea europaea, Ceratonia
siliqua, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis,
Ricinus communis and many others.

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52
It is noted that the collection of these plants for
medicinal purposes is concentrated in the El-Jabal
El-Akhadar area, at a commercial scale. The plants are
collected in random, unregulated and uncontrolled
ways. These species are uprooted and collected
without precautionary steps, which may lead to the
extinction of many species.
Despite the great activity in the collection of
medicinal and aromatic species in the region, and the
availability of these plants in herbalist in all Libyan
cities, there is still no accurate data concerning the
quantities and the areas of collection.
5.2.6 Fires
El-Jabal El-Akhadar is the richest area of natural
vegetation in Libya. It is also the area most threatened
by fire, which is also in fact threatening the plant
communities and changing the trend of succession,
and causes major damage to the vegetation and soil.
More than 90% of fires in the region are due to
human causes which in turn cause the disappearance
of many species that are not able to regenerate after
fires, such as Juniperus phoenicea, which is one of the
most important species in El-Jabal El-Akhadar and is
one of the climax species at the brink of extinction.
For more than 20 years, there have been no records of
regeneration of this species in the areas which suffered
fire damage.
Retrogressive succession is very clear in the areas
of wildfire due to the disappearance of many canopy
species such as: Juniperous phoenicea, Olea europaea,
Querecus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua and Phillyrea
angustifolia, and the establishment of other shrubs
and sub-shrubs such as Rhamnus oleoides, Cistus sps.,
Sarcopoterium spinosum, Phlomis floccosa, Ballota
pseudo dictamnus, Calicotome villosa and
Rosmarinus officinalis. It is worthy to note the
spreading of certain species that have the ability to
regenerate after fires like Querecus coccifera,
Rosmarinus officinalis, Arbutus pavarii and Pinus
halepensis.
During the period from 1986 to 2003, about 1,991
wildfires were recorded in El-Jabal El-Akhadar areas,
which destroyed an area of about 161,533 hectares of
mixed forest of Arbutus pavarii, Pinus halepensis,
Querecus coccifera, J. phoenicea, Olea europaea,
Querecus coccifera, Ceratonia siliqua and Pistacia
lentiscus. From these about 463 wildfires were in pure
forests of J. phoenicea, with an estimated area of
about 14,490 hectares, in which no regeneration of J.
phoenicea has been recorded [20].
The average annual number of fires in El-Jabal
El-Akhadar is about 111/year, and the average annual
area burned was about 8,975 ha/year. These rates far
exceed the natural fire rates, and make wildfires one
of the main causes in decreasing natural vegetation
and affecting the diversity of species.
5.2.7 Mining
There are about 164 quarries in El-Jabal
El-Akhadar and Marmarica areas, most of which
produce sand and different types of aggregates for
infrastructure works and other constructions, in
addition to the production of some material for
factories of clay bricks and cement plants. The total
area of these quarries is more than 1,600 hectares
spread all over the area at the expense of natural
vegetation. For the purpose of constructions a huge
amount of sand from sea shore sand dunes are
removed and carried in an uncontrolled way causing
changes in shore landscape and destroying habitats.
In addition to the damage that mining has caused to
the surrounding environment in those areas, it has also
severely damaged the natural bees pastures in the
southern region of El-Jabal El-Akhadar and
Marmarica plateau, where they cause harmful impacts
on plant species such as: Ziziphus lotus, Phlomis
floccosa, Ballota pseudo dictamnus and Thymus
capitatus, from which bees produce delicious kinds of
natural honey.
Mining in this region is undoubtedly very
destructive by direct and indirect impacts on the
surroundings lands. First of all, it sweeps away natural
vegetation and soil, and secondly it cuts the rocks and

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
53
removes the ores causing land degradation and the
destruction of habitats as well as damaging the
aesthetic beauty of the landscape.
5.2.8 Tourism
This area with its fascinating landscape, interesting
geological formation, rich wildlife and numerous
historical sites attracts naturalists, tourists and hunters.
Tourists, scholars and practitioners as well as for
hunting, are continuously increasing, especially in the
areas of south El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica
plateau.
El-Jabal El-Akhadar is more exposed to touristic
activities, especially internal tourism. A very large
number of local tourists from different regions of
Libya visit these areas regularly, particularly in spring
and summer because of its mild climate in addition to
its growing forests, valleys and other natural places.
The main negative impacts of tourism are plant
cutting and uprooting, solid waste pollution, damaging
the wild beauty, fires, disappearance of many wild
animals (especially birds and reptiles) and threaten of
rare and endemic species that still exist in the region.
Cyrene, Ptolemais, Ras Al-Hilal and Apolonia are
the most important archeological sites which suffer
from damage and destruction as a result of intensive
and non-regulated tourism activities. These sites are
the most beautiful and rich in rare and endemic
species.
5.2.9 Habitat Destruction
Developmental programs and urbanization of
natural vegetation areas have caused many harmful
impacts on wildlife habitats of many important species
(flora and fauna).
Infrastructure development caused the disruption of
the physical environment, altered the chemical
environment and accelerated the introduction of
invasive species [21-24].
There is no doubt that infrastructures in this area
appear to play a major role in biodiversity losses
simply because it accelerates and facilitates human
access to scattered and patchy biodiversity hotspots.
It is quite clear that if human activities continue in
the same way as they are now, it will lead to even
more environmental degradation and severe loss in
biodiversity and continuous retrogressive succession.
5.3 General Remarks
From the foregoing discussion, it is apparent that
both zones (El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica
plateau) are subject to multi types of anthropogenic
pressure, although in some areas, valleys and
depressions have deep strata with considerable soil
seed banks, which offer great possibilities for the
construction of plant cover, but adverse changes are
proceeding at such a fast rate and becoming
increasingly severe that degradation of its vegetation
may be irreversible.
Human activities in the form of construction of
cisterns, dams and small rocky dykes, roads and
tourist villages in areas with dense forest and other
settlements cause landscape change and the spread of
solid and liquid waste which pollute the soil of these
areas with copper, zinc, lead and other harmful heavy
elements. Many exotic species were introduced in
Libya from the beginning of the last century [25] like
Nicotiana glauca started spreading and intermingling
with natural vegetation in/and around the solid waste
of workshops, restaurants, fuel stations, garbage,
services buildings, roadsides and around other wastes.
Companion species of Nicotiana glauca are
Sarcopoterium spinosus, Pallenis spinosa, Nerium
oleander, Artemisia herba-alba, Artemisia campestris,
Peganum harmala, Ecballium elaterium, Citrullus
colocynthis and Datura strominiumin, in mountainous,
hilly, coastal, semiarid and arid areas south and east
wards.
Agricultural activities especially shifting cultivation,
which is intensively practiced in the region, caused
ploughed and denuded areas. These activities
encouraged the spreading of Thymelaea hirsuta in
abandoned fields, while overstocking enhanced the
spreading of non palatable species such as

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
54
Sarcopoterium spinosus, Anabasis articulata,
Peganum harmala and Haloxylon scoparium. In the
southern fringe of the region, which has more arid
climate, it is apparent that the trend of succession is
toward retrogressive changes due to anthropogenic
pressure beside the fragility of ecosystems. We
consider this trend to be an expression of secondary
succession which resulted from the disturbance of
normal succession (e.g., overgrazing) that destroys the
main species of an established community. In
degraded steppes around water sources, villages and
other settlements enriched the soils with nitrogen from
sewage and livesock wastes, Peganum harmala
formed associations with Pallenis spinosa, Nicotiana
glauca, Asphodelus ramosus, and other species.
Still for unknown reasons collective deaths of
several canopy species is spreading throughout the
whole of El-Jabal El-Akhadar region such as:
Juniperous pheonicea, Pinus helepensis, Olea
europea, but regeneration of this species is not
affected. It should be remarked that most of these
species are densely covered by Lichens, more over for
more than 40 years the whole zone has been suffering
from increased aridity with an increase in temperature
and a decline in rain-fall.
6. Options of Conservation in the Area
The present status of plant diversity in the study
areas is very critical. The region is characterized by
the apparent variation in their habitats, where the high
and opened lands are exposed to severe erosion by
wind and water all year around, especially in the
southern fringe. Wind sheeting erosion is most
pronounced in Marmarica plateau and south El-Jabal
El-Akhadar areas, while water erosion is more active
in El-Jabal El-Akhadar area.
The harsh environmental conditions added the
overgrazing, wide species collection and hunting,
deforestation, unsuitable agricultural regime and other
irresponsible human activities which undoubtedly
hinder the natural vegetation regeneration and soil
formation and development. Some zones, e.g., wadis
and depressions, have deep strata with considerable
soil seed bank, which offer great possibilities of
progressive succession. Degradation of the land
gradually makes species less common and rare, and
increasing the endangered.
Measures of conservation are urgently needed in
these two zones (El-Jabal El-Akhadar and Marmarica
plateau). According to Boulos [26], these regions have
the richest number of species and contain the most
endemic species in Libya.
The first step in any conservation program is to
prevent the harmful impacts of human activities.
Another issue is the choice of priority, i.e., rare,
medicinal or endemic species have priority. Complete
protection may be imperative, if the objective is the
conservation of an ecosystem as a whole, there is
more room for manoeuvre, but at the end we must
save both species and ecosystems.
A large proportion of the indigenous species,
especially with a high heritage, historical or
biogeographic value in the area, are only represented
by small or very small populations, very often only a
few individuals or in small area.
As it was said before, the study area is rich in its
endemic taxa. Endemics are usually rare and restricted
to rather small geographical regions or even in small
pockets, so they deserve special attention for their
conservation. They represent an important part of our
heritage and may provide us with important food,
medicinal or other resources in the future.
The most important step in conservation should be
a general plan for all the regions and all their
components, focusing especially on soil, plant
diversity, beauty and local inhabitants and ending with
the declaration of El-Jabal El-Akhadar as a protected
zone with all the legal regulations required.
6.1 Soil Conservation
The topography of El-Jabal El-Akhadar consists of
a large number of hills dissected by a huge number of

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
55
wadis. Therefore, it is very important to prevent water
and wind erosion resulting from several factors, such
as ploughing, clearing and overgrazing. So, attention
must paid to establish soil by dams and terraces in the
slope areas and in wadis and watersheds, afforestation
and windbreak trees play a key role in soil
establishment and preventing erosion. But the most
important object is to reduce tillage operations and
rain-fed agriculture as much as possible.
Recently, the authorities implemented many
programs for soil conservation by building dams and
rocky dykes, north and south of El-Jabal El-Akhadar
Mountain and in Marmarica plateau. In the latter case,
there were remarkable results in stabilizing and
preventing soil erosion and increasing the amount of
water harvested but more efforts are needed.
6.2 Plant Diversity Conservation
The markedly increased rate of plant diversity loss
in the study area is mainly attributed to the continuous
increased rate of anthropogenic pressure.
The priority of plant diversity conservation in the
region is to focus on medicinal, rare and endemic
species, by focusing on species that are important to
the ecosystem such as Arbutus pavarii, Pinus
halepensis, Querecus coccifera, Juniperus phoenicea,
Olea europaea, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus,
Ziziphous lotus, Myrtus communis, Rosmarinus
officinalis, Thapsia sylphium, Thymus capitatus and
Artemisia herba alba. The attention of
conservationists should focus not only on the
community or population levels but also at different
life stages of the species from seedling until adult
stage (life cycle).
Generally, adult plants are subject to be harvested
by local people during their peak vegetation growth
for use as a forage material for livestock or as a fuel.
The challenge is not to prevent people from using
them, but to rationalize the harvesting process while
maintaining the minimum viable population of the
species in different sites. Since the reproductive value
drops with age, the partial harvest of plants should be
restricted to the oldest individuals of the population.
This solution may be applicable for the sowing of
many wild plant species by: (1) sowing introduced
plant species and (2) reseeding native plant species by
selecting seeds of indigenous species, with the aim to
create communities of plants that are nutritious to
livestock resilient to grazing and protective to the soil
surface, where the concept of preventing local people
from using any natural resource is not easily
acceptable. In this way, the species population would
remain large enough so as not to be vulnerable to
extinction.
In fact, the conservation of all components of
wildlife in the region is very important. Each one has
a basic role in the ecosystem cycle and all the
components are greatly interdependent with each other.
The life and continued existence of any plant or
animal species are linked to the existence of the other
types of organisms and even the existence of other
environmental elements (such as location, climate, soil
and topography, etc.).
6.3 Beauty Conservation
The beauty of the region is so essential to tourists
and residents and is a further priority for conservation.
It has a very rich wild life in addition to many
historical and ruins sites, mild climate, shining sky,
and its long and fascinating coast.
These areas of natural beauty suffer from wide
damage due to intensive human activities and the
gradual increase of tourism activities. The beauty of
the region needs to be an important priority for
conservation programs. It is extremely necessary now
to stop all harmful activities and begin a program of
environmental impact assessment for all the
development programs in the area.
6.4 Inhabitants Conservation
The people in this area and their habits and
traditional ways of cultivation and their grazing

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
56
animals have been a part of the ecosystem for
thousands of years.
Therefore, the local population must be paid special
attention. Their activities should not be prohibited but
to modified in order to suit the potential of the region.
The awareness must concentrate on changing the
behaviors of inhabitants to get a large economic
income by the maximum possible utilization of the
available resources with minimum extinction and
environmental damage. To make any conservation
program successful, various demands of inhabitants
needs must be balanced with the capacity of the area
resources.
The awareness of local people about environmental
degradation, biodiversity loss and their consequent
effects not only on the surrounding areas, but even on
themselves, is a fundamental step in any conservation
program.
Somewhat similar, but more broadly focused, are
the FIRM (forums for integrated resource
management), through which inhabitants take the lead
in coordinating their own development trajectories
[27].
By establishing a FIRM and inviting all relevant
service providers (including agricultural and water
extension officers, education and health authorities,
conservancy representatives, regional councilors and
traditional leaders, and universities and research
centers) to participate in coordinated development
planning and regular monitoring of progress, local
people can take charge of their own development
according to their own preferences, and plan for and
manage anticipated risks as they occur.
7. Recommendations
In fact, until now the development in these zones
lacks environmental vision. A new more balanced
vision is really needed where the natural resources and
inhabitants are valued both by government and civil
society, where the sustainability and the inhabitants
are given the highest priority. The development of the
area should be guided by a long planning strategy that
is based on an acute understanding of the limitations
and potential of this very unique environment.
Obviously, the key of any conservation program in
this region is more and ever-better environmental
education and concomitant awareness.
Generally, the following recommendations are
essential to conserve the species and to assist in
devising management strategy:
 Representative natural species populations (flora
and fauna) should be maintained in situ for
conservation;
 Establishment of new populations in similar
habitats on the Mediterranean coast;
 Encouraging botanical gardens and research
institutes to maintain ex situ populations;
 Biological and ecological management of the
natural and artificial population;
 Preservation of plant seeds in a gene bank;
 Plant harvesting in case of human use for any
purpose should be restricted to the oldest individuals
of the population;
 Establishment of small protected areas within the
two regions with adequate legal protection, and the
collaboration of the local tribes in their territories,
especially in the areas of valleys that are refugial sites,
for a number of rare and endemic plant and animal
species;
 Re-cultivation of endemic, rare, medical and
economic plant species in order to find a good source
of income source for the local inhabitants;
 Re-afforest the destroyed areas of J. phoenicea,
by re-collecting its seeds and treated in the laboratory
to break the inhibiting stage (where it is very difficult
to germinate in nature) and then re-disseminated,
especially in areas that burned down or where J.
phoenicea has disappeared;
 Re-seeding and cultivation of plant species of
environmental and pastoral value, such as leguminous
seeds in the southern areas of El-Jabal El-Akhadar
and Marmarica plateau;

Threats to Plant Diversity in the North Eastern Part of Libya (El-Jabal El-Akhdar and Marmarica Plateau)
57
 There must be a vision of an integrated and
far-reaching plan to deal with all environmental
components in the region, including conservation of
all natural resources in the short and long term;
 Environmental impact assessment for any project
or activity in the region;
 Re-afforestation in the areas of south El-Jabal
El-Akhadar Mountain and Marmarica plateau is very
important for soil conservation and to increase
biodiversity. The afforestation must be with local
plant species.
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