![Flowchart summary of the carotenoids biosynthesis stages. Reference: Britton et al. [4].](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Natalia-Mezzomo/publication/296703214/figure/fig1/AS:1086551895351298@1636065567009/Flowchart-summary-of-the-carotenoids-biosynthesis-stages-Reference-Britton-et-al-4_Q320.jpg)
![Carotenoids structure: (a) xanthophylls: (A) zeaxanthin, (B) lutein, (C) beta-cryptoxanthin, and (D) astaxanthin; (b) Carotenes: (E) neurosporene, (F) lycopene, (G) β-carotene, and (H) α-carotene. Reference: Britton et al. [4].](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Natalia-Mezzomo/publication/296703214/figure/fig2/AS:1086551895351307@1636065567038/Carotenoids-structure-a-xanthophylls-A-zeaxanthin-B-lutein-C_Q320.jpg)
![Carotenoids structure: (a) xanthophylls: (A) zeaxanthin, (B) lutein, (C) beta-cryptoxanthin, and (D) astaxanthin; (b) Carotenes: (E) neurosporene, (F) lycopene, (G) β-carotene, and (H) α-carotene. Reference: Britton et al. [4].](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Natalia-Mezzomo/publication/296703214/figure/fig3/AS:1086551895343104@1636065567084/Carotenoids-structure-a-xanthophylls-A-zeaxanthin-B-lutein-C_Q320.jpg)
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Review Article
Carotenoids Functionality, Sources, and Processing by
Supercritical Technology: A Review
Natália Mezzomo and Sandra R. S. Ferreira
EQA-CTC/UFSC, Chemical and Food Engineering Department, Federal University of Santa Catarina,
CP 476, 88040-900 Florian´
opolis, SC, Brazil
Correspondence should be addressed to Nat´
alia Mezzomo; natimezzomo@gmail.com
Received November ; Revised January ; Accepted February
Academic Editor: Artur M. S. Silva
Copyright © N. Mezzomo and S. R. S. Ferreira. is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
Carotenoid is a group of pigments naturally present in vegetal raw materials that have biological properties. ese pigments have
been used mainly in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Currently, the industrial production is executed through
chemical synthesis, but natural alternatives of carotenoid production/attainment are in development. e carotenoid extraction
occurs generally with vegetal oil and organic solvents, but supercritical technology is an alternative technique to the recovery of these
compounds, presenting many advantages when compared to conventional process. Brazil has an ample diversity of vegetal sources
inadequately investigated and, then, a major development of optimization and validation of carotenoid production/attainment
methods is necessary, so that the benets of these pigments can be delivered to the consumer.
1. Introduction
Carotenoids are a class of compounds that have coloring
power and have been widely used in food industry, leading
itsmarkettofulldevelopment.Carotenoidsoccurwidelyin
nature and, in general, all fruits and vegetables of color are
good sources of these compounds. Currently, the carotenoids
used industrially are synthesized chemically, but a small por-
tion is obtained through extraction from plants or algae. Con-
sidering the fact that there is a high demand and consumer
preference for natural compounds, there is a global trend in
increasing the use of products made with natural ingredients.
Natural alternatives of production/attainment are being
studied. e main subjects of these works are the investiga-
tion of vegetal sources containing high carotenoids concen-
trations and producer microorganisms and their optimum
conditions for bioproduction. Many organisms produce
carotenoids, but not all are industrially interesting. Yeast is
distinguished for its use as a protein source and growing
ability on low cost substrates with high sugar content, but the
amount and type of carotenoids produced by their microor-
ganisms can vary according to the operational conditions of
growth.
In order to be able to separate these compounds, feasible
extraction methods to obtain them from natural sources or
microorganisms are being intensively investigated in order
to determine the optimum conditions to have better perfor-
mance and stability. e extraction of pigments from plant
tissues and microbial biomass, especially made of fat-soluble
pigments (such as carotenoids), usually uses vegetal oils and
organic solvents. In contrast, the negative impact of most
organic solvents on the environment and human health is
known. us, supercritical technology emerges as an alterna-
tive technique for the carotenoids recovery from microorgan-
isms’ producers or directly from vegetal sources, and its study
is in widespread development.
In this context, the objective of this study was to investi-
gate the occurrence, extraction, and production of pigments
from natural or bioproduced sources, doing a literature
review of the technological and nutritional status of the
currently known major carotenoids.
2. Carotenoids Definition and Structure
“Carotenoids” is a generic term used to designate the majority
of pigments naturally found in animal and plant kingdoms.
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Journal of Chemistry
Volume 2016, Article ID 3164312, 16 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/3164312
Journal of Chemistry
Mevalonic acid
Geranylgeranyl diphosphate
Initial steps
Phytoene
Lycopene
Phytoene formation
Xanthophylls
Desaturation
Cyclization
Hydroxylation and so forth
𝛽-carotene
F : Flowchart summary of the carotenoidsbiosynthesis stages.
Reference: Britton et al. [].
is group of fat-soluble pigments comprises more than
compounds responsible for the red, orange, and yellow colors.
Most carotenoids are hydrocarbons containing carbon
atoms and two terminal rings [].
All photosynthetic organisms (including plants algae and
cyanobacteria) and some nonphotosynthetic bacteria and
fungi synthesize the carotenoids. Two classes of carotenoids
arefoundinnature:(a)thecarotenessuchas𝛽-carotene,
whichconsistoflinearhydrocarbonsthatcanbecyclizedat
one end or both ends of the molecule, and (b) the oxygenated
derivatives of carotenes such as lutein, violaxanthin, neoxan-
thin, and zeaxanthin, known as xanthophylls [].
Most carotenoids are tetraterpenoids (C) consisting
of units isoprenoids linked so that the molecule is linear
andsymmetrical,withtheorderreversedinthecenter.e
basic cyclic structure can be modied by hydrogenation,
dehydrogenation, cyclization, and oxidation, as shown in Fig-
ure . e system of conjugated double bonds gives these pig-
ments high chemical reactivity that can be easily isomerized
and oxidized []. Figure shows the structure of some
carotenoids.
3. Carotenoids Properties and Functions
Duetothecoloringpropertiesofcarotenoids,theyareoen
used in food, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and animal feed
industries. In addition to their extensive use as colorants, they
arealsousedinfoodforticationbecauseoftheirpossible
activity as provitamin A and their biological functions to
health benet, such as strengthening the immune system,
reducing the risk of degenerative diseases [], antioxidant
properties [, ] and antiobesity/hypolipidemic activities [].
From several hundred naturally occurring carotenoids,
only have signicant biological activity and they can be
divided into two groups, with and without the provitamin A.
e carotenoids that are precursors of vitamin A should have
at least one ring of 𝛽-ionone not replaced and side polienic
chain with at least carbons [].
Vitamin A is important for growth, development, main-
tenance of epithelial tissues, reproduction, immune system,
and, in particular, visual cycle acting in the regeneration
of photoreceptors []. Its deciency is a serious problem of
public health, being the major cause of infant mortality in
developing countries. A prolonged deciency can produce
changes in the skin, night blindness, and corneal ulcers.
Besides, it leads to blindness, growth disorders, and learning
diculties in childhood []. On the other hand, vitamin A in
excess is toxic and can cause congenital malformation during
pregnancy, bone disease in patients with chronic renal failure,
xerophthalmia, blindness, and death [, ].
Carotenoids are converted to vitamin A as the body
needs, with varying degrees of conversion eciency. e
forms of provitamin A carotene are found in dark green and
yellow-orange leafy. Darker colors are associated with higher
levels of this provitamin [].
Carotenoids, along with vitamins, are the substances most
investigated as chemopreventive agents, acting as antioxi-
dants in biological systems []. Antioxidants can act directly
in the neutralization of free radicals, preventing or reducing
damage caused by these compounds in cells, or indirectly
involved in enzyme systems that have antioxidant activity
[].
From the nonenzymatic compounds, on antioxidant
defense, some minerals (copper, manganese, zinc, selenium,
and iron), vitamins (ascorbic acid, vitamin E, and vitamin
A), carotenoids (𝛽-carotene, lycopene, and lutein), bioavon-
oids (genistein, quercetin), and tannins (catechins) can be
detached [].
Studiesshowtherelationshipbetweenincreasedcon-
sumption of foods rich in carotenoids and the risk reduction
of various diseases. According to Olson [], carotenoids
quench singlet oxygen, remove peroxy radicals, modulate
carcinogen metabolism, inhibit cell proliferation, stimulate
communication between cells (gap junctions), and increase
the immune response. Tests in vitro and in vivo suggest that
carotenoids are excellent antioxidants, scavenging and inac-
tivating free radicals [].
Both carotenoids that are precursors of vitamin A and the
nonprecursors, such as lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene, have
protective action against cancer []. Still, from the important
biological activities of these compounds, the inhibition of
other diseases is detached where free radicals play role as
atherosclerosis, cataracts, macular degeneration, multiple
sclerosis, degenerative diseases, and cardiovascular diseases
[–].
Due to the high unsaturation rate, factors such as heat,
light, and acids cause trans-isomerization of carotenoids,
which is the most stable form in nature, for the cis-form,
promoting a slight loss of color and provitamin activity.
Carotenoids are also susceptible to enzymatic or nonenzy-
matic oxidation, which depends on the carotenoid structure,
Journal of Chemistry
OH (A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
O
OH
OH
(a)
(E)
(F)
(G)
(H)
(b)
F : Carotenoids structure: (a) xanthophylls: (A) zeaxanthin, (B) lutein, (C) beta-cryptoxanthin, and (D) astaxanthin; (b) Carotenes:
(E) neurosporene, (F) lycopene, (G) 𝛽-carotene, and (H) 𝛼-carotene. Reference: Britton et al. [].
Journal of Chemistry
the oxygen availability, enzymes, metals, prooxidants and
antioxidants, high temperature, and light exposure [].
Carotenoids are hydrophobic compounds, lipophilic,
insolubleinwater,andsolubleinsolventssuchasacetone,
alcohol, and chloroform []. Because carotenoids are fat-
soluble pigments widely distributed in nature, they have
broad utility because of their coloring power [].
In food industries, the carotenoids are mainly used as
restoring colorants, used in products submitted to intense
processing/storage (which lost part of their natural color),
or in order to standardize the food products color, such as
in fruit juices, pasta, beverages, candies, margarines, cheeses,
and sausages. ey are also precursors of many important
chemicalcompoundsresponsiblefortheavorofsomefoods,
such as alkaloids and volatile compounds, and fragrances of
some owers and staining of photoprotection []. Indirectly,
through their application in feed, these pigments serve to
intensify the color of egg yolk, chicken skin, sh, and milk
[]. Astaxanthin, the main carotenoid found in crustaceans,
is an eective agent pigment when incorporated in salmonids
and crustaceans diets [–].
More recently, with the growing interest in maintaining
health through natural products, carotenoids have also been
added to foods due to their biological activities listed above,
in order to enrich the food product. Furthermore, in the cos-
metic and pharmaceutical industries, they can be used only
for the purpose of coloring medicine capsules, supplements,
and cosmetics [].
In commercial formulations, the carotenoids used may
be of two types: natural extracts or synthetic colors identical
to natural ones. e great demand generated by industries
andthegrowingdemandfornaturalproductshaveresulted
in an increase in research concerning the bioproduction and
extraction of carotenoids. In addition to the connotation
“natural,” the products are simply obtained by extraction
from natural sources or through microbial production fol-
lowed by extraction, which can be achieved in a short period
at any time of year [].
e pigments can absorb light in particular ultraviolet
(UV) and visible spectrum, showing color. e structure
responsible for light absorption is the chromophore group,
which in carotenoids is characterized by conjugated double
bonds. Each carotenoid is characterized by an electronic
absorption spectrum. us, absorption spectroscopy is an
important technique in the analysis of carotenoids [].
3.1. 𝛽-Carotene. e 𝛽-carotene is a thermolabile orange
pigment, light, and oxygen sensitive, and it is associated with
protection against heart disease and cancer [, ], due
to its potential protection mechanisms already cited. Still,
the oxidation of LDL-cholesterol is a crucial factor for the
atherosclerosis development and 𝛽-carotene acts by inhibit-
ing the lipoprotein oxidation [].
AstudyconductedattheStateUniversityofNewYork
showed that the consumption of vegetables rich in 𝛽-carotene
more than once a week signicantly reduces the lung cancer
risk in relation to individuals who did not consume these
vegetables [].
3.2. Lycopene. e pigment lycopene belongs to the subgroup
of nonoxygenated carotenoids, being characterized by a sym-
metric structure containing conjugated double bonds [].
Due to its chemical structure, lycopene stands as one of the
best biological suppressors of free radicals [–]. Among a
series of measured carotenoids, lycopene was shown to be one
of the most eective antioxidants and may donate electrons to
neutralize the singlet oxygen molecules and other oxidizing
molecules before they aect the cells [, ], with twice the
antioxidant activity when compared to 𝛽-carotene [, ].
Clinical and epidemiological studies have conrmed that
diets rich in lycopene are associated with reduced risk of
developing prostate lung and ovary cancers and a lower
incidence of chronic degenerative diseases and cardiovascu-
lar diseases [, , ]. It is interesting to note that some
more recent studies indicated that lycopene intake present in
tomato fruit is more eective in preventing certain types of
cancer than the administration of puried lycopene by
capsules [].
3.3. Lutein and Zeaxanthin. Lutein and zeaxanthin are caro-
tenoids stored in our body in the retina and lens eyes [].
Some studies have shown that high lutein and zeaxanthin
intake, particularly from foods rich in xanthophylls such
as spinach, broccoli, and eggs, are related to the signicant
reduction of cataract (over %) and macular degeneration
related to age (over %) [].
3.4. Astaxanthin. Astaxanthin is a pigment found in aquatic
animals, such as lobster, crab, and shrimp. A growing interest
in the use of astaxanthin for poultry and sh-farming has
beendeveloped[–,],oncethispigmentisnotsynthe-
sized by animals and must be added to the diets in order to
obtain a color attractive to consumers.
is xanthophyll has antioxidant power times greater
than 𝛽-carotene and times higher than vitamin E []. In
addition, this pigment has been important in some diseases
treatment and prevention, with antitumor properties and
protection against free radicals, lipid peroxidation, oxidative
damage to LDL-cholesterol, oxidation of essential polyunsat-
urated fatty acids, and the UV light eects on cell membranes
and tissues [].
e incorporation of astaxanthin in feed for aquaculture
is eective for salmonids and crustaceans pigmentation, so its
presence in shrimp, lobster, crab, and other shellsh exoskele-
tons has been investigated [, –]. Wathne et al. []
and Pangantihon-K ¨
uhlmann et al. [] observed increase of
color intensity in salmon and shrimp, respectively, using diets
containing astaxanthin in the diet.
4. Carotenoids Occurrence and
Natural Production
Carotenoids are natural pigments that occur widely in nature.
Plants and some microorganisms produce these pigments;
however, animals must obtain them through diet []. e
carotenoids market is in full progress and most of these pig-
ments used industrially are synthesized chemically, for exam-
ple, astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, and 𝛽-carotene []. us,
Journal of Chemistry
natural alternatives are being studied because of growing
concerns about food safety and the negative aspects of the
coloring production, such as carotenoids, by chemical syn-
thesis [].
4.1. Natural Sources. All color fruits and vegetables are good
carotenoids sources, but because they are fat-soluble sub-
stances, the absorption largely depends on their preparation
with oils or fats. e forms of carotene provitamin A are
found in dark green and yellow-orange leafy. Darker colors
are associated with higher levels of provitamin [].
Among the carotenoids, the 𝛽-carotene is the most
abundant in foods that has the highest activity provitamin A.
Itcanbefoundinlargequantitiesinburiti(Mauritia vinifera
Mart.) [], tucum˜
a(Acrocomia mokay´
ayba Barb. Rodr.),
bocai´
uva [], acerola, mango [], some varieties of pump-
kin [], carrot [], nuts [], camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia)
[], carrot noodles [], rose hip fruits [], and oil palm
[], which is an excellent source due to being free from any
barrier of vegetal matrix and thus has increased bioavailabil-
ity of this pigment “beta-carotene” [].
Lycopeneisaredpigmentthatoccursnaturallyonlyin
vegetablesandalgaetissues.Currently,themostcitedsources
of lycopene are the tomato and its derivatives, such as juices,
soups, sauces, and ketchup [], including the processing
waste[,]andpeel[].However,itcanbefoundineven
higher concentrations in cherry, guava, and guava products
[], at similar concentrations in watermelon [] and ai
papaya, and in lower quantities in Solo and Formosa cultivars
of papaya [].
Both lutein and zeaxanthin are present in green and dark
greenleafyvegetables,likebroccoli,Brusselssprouts,spinach,
and parsley []. Some varieties of pumpkin [], acerola
[], and leafy vegetables in general [] are also good lutein
and 𝛽-carotene sources. e Tropa e olum ma jus L. edible
ower is also a rich lutein source and it still appears in good
quantity in caja (Spondias lutea)[]andcamu-camu(Myr-
ciaria dubia) []. Some microalgae also produce lutein, such
as Chlorella vulgaris [], Chlorella sorokiniana MB- [],
and the indigenous microalga Scenedesmus obliquus CNW-
N []. Zeaxanthin is found in high concentrations in pequi
(Caryocar villosum) [] and also the native marine microalgae
Chlorella saccharophila [].
Astaxanthin is a reddish-pink pigment found in aquatic
animals, such as lobster, crab, and shrimp [], including
their processing waste [, ]. In addition, the microalgae
Phaa rhodozyma,Chlorella vulgaris,andHaematococcus
pluvialis synthetize large amount of astaxanthin [, ].
4.2. Bioproduction. According to Silva [], the biotechno-
logical production of carotenoids has been increasing due to
factorssuchastheusingpossibilityoflowcostsubstrates;des-
ignation of natural substances; small area required to biopro-
duction; being not subject to environmental conditions such
as climate, season, or soil composition; and control of culture
conditions.
Carotenoids may be biosynthesized by photosynthetic
organisms, as, for example, algae and cyanobacteria (blue and
green), and nonphotosynthetic microorganisms such as bac-
teria, fungi, and yeasts [].
e carotenoids production by biotechnological process
has been widely investigated, dethatching the commercial
production of 𝛽-carotene by the fungus Blakeslea trispora
[], the marine microalgae Dunaliella [], the astaxanthin
production by the freshwater microalga Haematococcus sp.,
and the yeast Phaa rhodozyma [].
e Dunaliella microalgae are rich in 𝛽-carotene and
other large application carotenoids. India has the largest
manufacturing industry of these microalgae, where the 𝛽-
carotene is intended for pharmaceutical use. Other major
producers are located in Australia, United States, China,
Mongolia, and Japan; small plants are also found in Mexico,
Chile, Cuba, Iran, and Taiwan [].
e industrial production of astaxanthin by Haematococ-
cus also presents great interest due to its high commercial
value of this pigment and the high market growth of aqua-
culture. e world’s major producers are located in the United
States, Japan, and India [].
e production of natural pigments in industrial scale
and the high value of the products make the biotechnological
process of carotenoids an area of intense study. e bioprocess
productivity in a given system depends on the nutritional and
physical conditions of the microorganism, aecting not only
cell growth as the pigment production. erefore, microor-
ganisms accumulate dierent carotenoids in response to the
stress of environmental conditions [].
Improving the eciency of carotenoids biosynthesis can
increase production. In addition to growing conditions, the
carotenoids biosynthesis is controlled by the biosynthetic
enzymes level and activity, beyond the total carbon ow of
the synthesizing system [].
AccordingtoBhosale[],wecanachieveabetter
carotenoids production with low cost using stimulants in
the culture medium and adjusting the external conditions of
cultivation. Silva [] studied the eects of various chemicals
(acid, 𝛽-ionone, mevalonic acid, diphenylamine, and other
amino acids) in the carotenoids biosynthesis by Rhodotorula
yeasts in order to increase and direct the carotenogenesis.
Acetic acid had no eect on growth and production of pig-
ment, but the 𝛽-ionone inhibited the growth and caroteno-
genesis. e mevalonic acid stimulated the carotenoids for-
mation in % for R. mucilaginosa and % for R. glutinis,
without aecting the cells production of these microorgan-
isms.
e cultivation ability of yeast in media with high sugar
content makes these microorganisms industrially interest-
ing. Yeasts such as Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous [],
Rhodotorula glutinis [], Rhodotorula mucilaginosa [],
Sporobolomyces [], and Phaa [] are being studied in
order to maximize the carotenoids bioproduction, aiming at
the industrial use.
Microorganisms that are technologically interesting and
withhighpotentialtobeusedincarotenoidsbioproduc-
tion are the cyanobacteria Anabaena variabilis,Aphani-
zomenon os-aquae,andNostoc commune in the production
of canthaxanthin []; algae Chlorella pyrenoidosa,Dicty-
coccus cinnabarinus,Dunaliella salina,Dunaliella tertiolecta,
Journal of Chemistry
Haematococcus pluvialis,andSpongiococcum excetricum in
the production of lutein, canthaxanthin [], 𝛽-carotene
[], 𝛽-carotene [], astaxanthin [], and lutein [],
respectively; fungi and Blakeslea trispora yeasts in the pro-
duction of 𝛽-carotene and lycopene []; Dacrymyces deli-
quescens in the production of lutein []; Phaa rhodozyma
in the production of astaxanthin and 𝛽-carotene [];
Rhodosporidium sp., Rhodotorula glutinis,andRhodotorula
graminis to produce torulene and 𝛽-carotene []; Sporid-
iobolus salmonicolor in production of 𝛽-carotene []; and
the Mycobacterium brevicaie,Mycobacterium lacticola,Strep-
tomyces chrestomyceticus, and Rhodococcus maris bacteria in
the production of canthaxanthin, astaxanthin, canthaxan-
thin, and xanthophylls [], respectively.
5. Carotenoids Extraction and Recovery
e industrial bioproduction of carotenoids is well estab-
lished and has been expanding commercially. However, the
operations of product extraction and recovery and direct
extraction from marine or vegetal sources are still under
development in the literature. Moreover, the extraction pro-
cesses contribute to increasing production costs, emphasizing
the need for detailed research in this area.
e main techniques of extraction used in studies of
carotenoids recovery are the conventional technique using
organic solvents or vegetal oils and supercritical uid extrac-
tion. Each of these techniques is based on dierent funda-
mentals, according to the main mechanism responsible for
the extraction, as it will be explained below.
5.1. Raw Material Pretreatment before Extraction. Kaiser et al.
[]evaluatedamethodonasmallscalecombininghydroly-
sis technique, in order to facilitate the carotenoids extraction
bioproduced by Micrococcus luteus and Rhodotorula glutinis,
with minimum degradation. e methodology was evalu-
ated by combining two enzymes (lysozyme and lipase or
lyticase and lipase), followed by mechanical treatment with
freezing and ultrasonic cycles followed by chemical treat-
ment with dimethylsulfoxide. For the extraction, they used
a methanol/chloroform mixture, stabilized with butylated
hydroxytoluene (BTH) and 𝛼-tocopherol. For the recovery
and reproducibility evaluation of the extraction method,
carotenoids internal standard was used. e extraction
method proved to be a sensitive tool in the carotenoids
determination derived from microorganisms.
Perdig˜
ao et al. [] studied the pigments extraction from
lobster, shrimp, and crab shells. e raw materials were or
were not subjected to cooking by immersion in boiling water,
drying in an oven with air circulation at ∘C during hours,
and crushing to a particle size of mm. en, the samples
wereaddedtorenedsoybeanoilona:(w/v)ratioand
heated at ∘Cinawaterbathduringmin.ecarotenoid
enriched oil was separated from the matrix by centrifugation
and the carotenoids levels were measured. Pretreated samples
using cooking presented the highest pigment content, which
meansthatthispretreatmentcancauseabreakonthe
carotenoid-protein complex, facilitating extraction. e red
lobster (Panulirus argus) showed the highest concentration
of astaxanthin (. mg/ g) when compared to the green
lobster (Panulirus laevicauda) (. mg/ g); the pink
(Penaeus (Farfantepenaeus) subtilis)andwhite(P. ( L i t o p e -
naeus) schmitti) shrimp showed carotenoids content of .
and . mg astaxanthin/ g of pigmented oil, respectively;
and the aratu crab (Goniopsis cruentata)showedacon-
siderable astaxanthin content (. mg/ g), followed by
the uc¸´
acrab(Ucides cordatus cordatus) (. mg/ g) and
guaiamum crab (Cardisoma guanhumi) (. mg/ g).
Mezzomo et al. [] evaluated the use of isolated or
combined pretreatments in order to break the carotenoid-
protein complex from pink shrimp (P. b r a s i l i e n s i s and P.
paulensis) processing residue, simplifying the carotenoid
extraction. e pretreatment processes evaluated were quick
cooking during min, drying at ∘Cduringh,andmilling
in domestic blender. e results indicated that the best raw
material pretreatment, in terms of extraction yield and total
carotenoid content, is the combination of the three proce-
dures tested.
Gu et al. [] compared three previous treatments to the
extraction (ultrasound, grinding, and addition of HCl), and
in order to optimize the extraction process, they evaluated
the temperature ( to ∘C), solute/solvent ratio ( to
v/m), and time ( to min) eects on extraction yield
of carotenoids from R. sphaeroides.eresultsprovedthat
thepretreatmentusingHClwasthemosteectivemethodfor
the carotenoids extraction. In the optimizationstage, the best
results of carotenoids extraction from R. sphaeroides were
found when they used ∘C of temperature and optimum
solute/solvent ratio of , and maximum carotenoids extrac-
tion was obtained at the time of min.
Guillou et al. [] armed that, according to the lit-
erature, total extraction of the carotenoids from crab shell
can be only achieved using acetone or methanol, aer shell
decalcication with acetic acid. Omara-Alwala et al. []
reported that the use of propionic acid increased by % in the
astaxanthin recovery from lobsters waste. Guillou et al. []
obtained a % higher extraction of astaxanthin in shrimp
(Pandalus borealis) waste subjected to silage when compared
with the “in natura” (crude) extraction residue.
Enzymatic hydrolysis has been considered a viable
method as pretreatment for the astaxanthin recovery [,
]. Holanda [] performed organic solvent extraction of
carotenoids from shrimp waste and obtained an extraction
two times more ecient than using oil, in both untreated
waste and soluble and insoluble fractions obtained aer enzy-
matic hydrolysis. In the solvent extraction, the recovery was
to % higher aer enzymatic hydrolysis. e best recovery
was . mg astaxanthin/ g dry residue, when hydrolysis
is done with alcalase. Most of astaxanthin (approximately
%) was from the insoluble fraction and the authors found
that the orange color of the pigment still stood in the matrix,
indicating that both the oil and the solvents used were not
able to extract the total astaxanthin present in the insoluble
fraction.
Chen and Meyers [] observed a slight increase (from
to %) in the astaxanthin extraction with an increase of the
hydrolysis time for shrimp (Solenocera melantho)wastewith
several commercial proteases. Still, extraction dierences
Journal of Chemistry
were observed when distinct proteolytic enzymes were used.
According to the authors, the increase in extraction, observed
with increasing time of hydrolysis and the enzyme used, is
probably due to a break in carotenoid-protein link that would
allow the recovery of oil or solvent.
Due to the strong association of carotenoids with the
cells of the producers’ microorganisms and in order to
maximize the extraction of the pigments, Valduga et al. []
tested dierent methods of cell disruption and solvent
extraction. It was found that when using a liquid nitrogen
and dimethylsulfoxide combination for cell disruption and
extraction with acetone and methanol ( : , v/v) mixture,
they obtained the highest carotenoids recovery from the S.
salmonicolor yeast grown on agar YM (Yeast Malt Extract
Agar).
Rawson et al. [] studied the eect of ultrasound and
blanching pretreatments on carotenoid compounds of hot
air- and freeze-dried carrot discs. Ultrasound pretreatment
followed by hot-air-drying at the highest amplitude and
treatment time investigated resulted in higher retention of
carotenoids in dried carrot discs than blanching followed by
hot-air-drying. In addition, the freeze-dried samples had a
higher retention of carotenoid compounds compared to hot
air dried samples. is study showed that ultrasound pre-
treatment is a potential alternative to conventional blanching
treatment in the carrots drying.
eeectofenzymaticpretreatment,usingpectinase
on the carotenoids content from Gac fruit (Momordica
cochinchinensis Spreng) aril, was evaluated by Kha et al. [].
e results indicated the highest oil extraction and enhance-
ment of the carotenoids content, specially the 𝛽-carotene
concentration, when using the enzyme concentration at
.% (w/w) for pretreatment before air-drying.
Strati et al. [] also studied the use of pectinase and
cellulase enzymes to assist the high-pressure extraction of
carotenoids from tomato waste. As a result, authors proved
that the total carotenoid and lycopene extraction yields were
increased by the use of the enzymes before the extraction,
when compared to the nonenzyme process.
5.2. Conventional Technique of Extraction. e extraction
and recovery of carotenoids, either from bioproduction or
directly from plant and animal sources, can conduce using
vegetable oils or organic solvents.
e extraction with organic solvents is based on using
high operating temperatures and demonstrates solvent-
components interactions, which is a function of chemical
anity between the species in the system []. Carotenoids
are compounds of low polarity and therefore soluble in sol-
vents of low polarity such as hexane. However, these organic
molecules have also a polar part, soluble in polar sol-
vents, increasing the range of organic solvents useful in the
carotenoids extraction.
When an organic solvent is used in its boiling tempera-
ture, the solvent surface tension and viscosity are very small
when compared to a lower temperature. us, the solvent can
reach easily the solute on certain matrix spaces, solubilizing
a greater amount and variety of solutes [].
e solvent recovery is a crucial period in the extraction
process with organic solvents, mainly due to environmen-
tal and economic problems. us, extraction with organic
solvents has other major disadvantages, that is, the possible
thermal degradation of the extract and the incomplete solvent
removal; it is a lazy process and has low selectivity [].
Nevertheless, the extraction with organic solvents is
eective in the extraction of carotenoids [, ]. However,
as previously reported, the high temperatures required for the
removal of the solvents can result in degradation of pigment,
and the nal product may contain trace amounts of solvent
and, consequently, reduce their potential for use in food
products [].
Vegetableoilshavebeenusedasasolventforextractionof
carotenoids. e advantage of using vegetable oils is that they
are considered a good barrier against oxygen, slowing oxi-
dation processes, in addition to being used as energy source
in the subsequent application in foods [, , , ]. e
solvent removing step is not used when using vegetable oil,
and the resultant product consists in a mixture of oil/extract
rich in carotenoids, and the process may not present the
drawbacks of extracts thermal degradation.
Gildberg and Stenberg [] used extraction with organic
solvent (HCl and water) of shrimp (Pandalus borealis)waste
and found concentration of . mg astaxanthin/ g of
residue, and this value was times higher than the values
found in literature for oil extraction. Chen and Meyers []
found . mg astaxanthin/ g of craysh waste, using
solvent, against .mg astaxanthin/ g with oil extraction.
Meyers and Bligh [] achieved concentration of . mg
astaxanthin/ g of residue in craysh waste with extraction
using organic solvent. ese dierences are due to distinct
available quantities of carotenoids in feed, environmental
conditions and species [], and the method used for extrac-
tion and quantication of astaxanthin. Variables such as the
particle size of the waste, temperature, and residue/solvent
ratio can also lead to dierences in extraction.
Shahidi and Synowiecki [] and Saito and Regier []
used shrimp (Pandalus borealis)wasteandcrab(Chionoecetes
opilio) shell for astaxanthin and chitin extraction. In the
extraction of carotenoids, they used cod liver oil ( amounts
of oil : part of residue, v/m) at ∘C during min. en,
the mixture was ltered and dried under vacuum at ∘C,
separating the water from the carotenoids extract. e results
indicated % of astaxanthin extraction from shrimp waste
(. mg/g dry residue) and % of the crab shell
(. mg/ g dry weight).
Sachindra and Mahendrakar [] determined the extrac-
tion yield of carotenoids from shrimp waste, extracted using
dierent vegetable oils (sunower oil, groundnut oil, gingerly
oil, mustard oil, soy oil, coconut oil, and rice bran oil). e
methodappliedconsistsinthehomogenizationandmixing
of shrimp waste with the selected oil, followed by heating,
ltration, centrifugation, and separation of pigmented oil.
e results of the carotenoid yield (spectrophotometrically
determined) indicated superiority of the sunower oil and
were signicantly inuenced by level of oil to waste, time, and
temperature of heating before centrifugation to separate pig-
mented oil. e best conditions for extraction of shrimp waste
Journal of Chemistry
carotenoids in sunower oil were determined to be oil level to
waste of , temperature of ∘C, and heating time of min.
Taungbodhitham et al. [] evaluated a carotenoids
extracting method in order to be used by a wide variety of
vegetal sources. As representative sample was used tomato
juice and to the extraction method were selected low envi-
ronmental impact solvents (ethanol and hexane). ey used
mixtures of these solvents, with a : (v/v) ratio, respectively,
of ethanol and hexane, resulting in good conversions of
carotenoids in juice (% of lycopene, %𝛼-carotene, and
% of 𝛽-carotene). In order to evaluate the method appli-
cability to other kinds of fruits and vegetables, the authors
used carrots, spinach, and tomato juice added to carotenoids.
e added carotenoids recovery was, respectively, for tomato
juice, carrot, and spinach as follows: %, %, and .%
for 𝛼-carotene and .%, .%, and .% for the 𝛽-
carotene. ese results indicated that the extraction method
for dierent vegetal matrixes was established.
5.3. Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE). e supercritical
technology using carbon dioxide (CO2)nearthecritical
point as a solvent in the extraction of compounds such as
carotenoids has been considered as an alternative to employ-
ment in food and pharmaceutical industries []. e use
of supercritical uid extraction (SFE) in industrial processes
has been increasing, mainly due to the environmental and
quality factors involved: it is a process free of toxic waste, does
not require extracts postprocessing to solvent removal and
does not cause thermal extracts degradation, allows the low
temperatures use, and prevents oxidation reactions, due to
the light and oxygen absence on extraction column. Further-
more, it is a exible process due to the continuous adjustment
possibilityofthesolventsolvationpowerandselectivity
[–].
e supercritical CO2is an essential nonpolar solvent and
its solvation power varies with its density. It permits extract-
ing a large variety of lipophilic compounds depending on the
pressureapplied[],suchascarotenoids.esolutesolubil-
ity in the supercritical uid increases with the operating pres-
sure at a constant temperature by increasing the density of the
solvent. When increasing the pressure, the solute solubility
also increases, but solvent selectivity is reduced [].
e supercritical extraction can be an alternative to con-
ventional methods for carotenoids extraction [] and can
be used with the pure supercritical solvent, usually CO2,or
with addition of a cosolvent.
5.3.1. SFE with Pure CO2.De Franc¸a et al. [] performed the
extraction of 𝛽-carotene from buriti (Mauritia exuosa)pulp
with supercritical CO2to obtain high-concentrated oil frac-
tions in this carotenoid. e results indicated that the super-
critical CO2at MPa of pressure and temperature of ∘Cis
capable of removing approximately % of the beta-carotene
content in relation to the total amount extracted with hexane.
Mendes et al. [] performed the SFE of lipids and
carotenoids of microalgae Chlorella vulgaris in temperatures
of and ∘CandpressuresfromtoMPa.Boththelipid
contents such as carotenoids increased with elevating pres-
sure. A few years later, the authors [] expanded the research
for microalgae (Botryococcus braunii,Chlorella vulgaris,
Dunaliella salina,andArthrospira maxima)withtheobjective
of maximizing the extraction of carotenoids and other lipids
by SFE with CO2. SFE experiments were conducted at
temperatures of and ∘C and pressures from to MPa.
As a result, the authors reported that at ∘CandMPa
the microalgae Botryococcus braunii produced a supercrit-
ical gold and clear extract when compared to the extract
obtained by conventional extraction. For the microalgae
Chlorella vulgaris, the SFE produced extracts composed by
canthaxanthin and astaxanthin, and the carotenoids yield was
higher when increasing pressure. As for the algae Dunaliella
salina,whichproduces𝛽-carotene in high yields, the results
indicate that the cis-isomerofthiscarotenoidismuchmore
solubleinsupercriticalCO
2at MPa and ∘C. Finally, for
the cyanobacteria Arthrospira maxima,themainlipidwas
identied as 𝛾-linolenic acid.
Mac´
ıas-S´
anchez et al. [] conducted the SFE of caroten-
oids and chlorophyll from marine microalgae Nannochlorop-
sis gaditana.Forthis,theyevaluatedtheinuenceoftempera-
ture ( to ∘C) and pressure (from to MPa), obtaining
empirical relationships between carotenoids and chlorophyll
yields, according to the operational parameters. e results
showed that it is necessary to work in pressure of MPa at
∘Ctoobtainasignicantyieldofthepigmentsevaluated.
Mac´
ıas-S´
anchez et al. [] carried out the extraction with
supercritical CO2from dry biomass of the cyanobacterium
Synechococcus sp., in order to concentrate carotenoids and
chlorophyll. e experiments conduced from to MPa
of pressure and from to ∘C of temperature. e highest
concentration of carotenoids was obtained at MPa and
∘C, while the highest carotenoids/chlorophyll ratio was
obtained at MPa and ∘C, due to the highest selectivity
achieved by facilitating the separation and purication of two
pigments groups. According to the authors, the supercritical
CO2is an adequate solvent for carotenoids extraction due to
the low polarity of these components and, then, the process
becomes more selective in the presence of more polar
pigments such as chlorophyll.
Machmudah et al. [] performed the SFE of the rose fruit
(Rosa canina) at pressures from to MPa, temperatures
from to ∘C, and CO2ow rate from to mL/min,
in order to optimize the carotenoids extraction. e total
carotenoids concentration from the rose fruit was from .
to . mg/g of fruit, and the maximum concentration
was obtained at ∘C, MPa, and mL/min. e main
carotenoids present in the extracts were lycopene (.–
. mg/g), the 𝛽-carotene (.–. mg/g), and lutein
(.–. mg/g). Optimization results showed signicant
eects: the temperature in the total carotenoids yield; the tem-
perature, pressure, and CO2ow rate in the lycopene yield;
and pressure and CO2ow rate in the 𝛽-carotene and lutein
yields.
Filho et al. [] performed the carotenoids extraction
using supercritical CO2from pitanga (Eugenia uniora L.).
e conditions evaluated were two levels of temperature (
and ∘C) and seven levels of pressure (, , , , ,
, and MPa). e major carotenoids identied in the
supercritical extracts were lycopene, the rubixanthin, and
Journal of Chemistry
𝛽-cryptoxanthin, and the maximum carotenoids recovery
(%) was obtained at ∘CandMPa,focusingmainlyon
lycopene (%) and rubixanthin (%). e dierent oper-
ating conditions established dierent extracts composition
according to the SFE yield and carotenoids concentration,
indicating that supercritical CO2is selective depending on
the temperature and pressure.
de la Fuente et al. [] studied the lycopene and
astaxanthin solubility in supercritical CO2as a function of
temperature ( to ∘C) and pressure ( to MPa). e
results indicated that, in general, both the lycopene and
astaxanthin solubilities in supercritical CO2were higher
when pressure and temperature were elevated, varying from
. to . ×−6 for lycopene and from , to . ×−6 for
astaxanthin.
Mezzomo et al. [] studied the technical and the econom-
ical viability to concentrate the carotenoid components by
means of SFE from pink shrimp (P. p a u l e n s i s and P. p a u l e n s i s )
processing waste. e variation of raw material moisture
content(.and.%),thesolventowrate(.and
. g/min), and the conditions of temperature ( and ∘C)
and pressure (–MPa) were evaluated. e results, repre-
sented by total carotenoid content, carotenoid prole, astax-
anthin yield, and UV-Vis scanning spectrometry of extracts
indicated that the SFE was favorable at . g/min of CO2ow
rate and at .% of raw material moisture content. e high-
est astaxanthin yield was obtained by pure CO2at bar/
. K, and the cost analysis suggested a more lucrative
process.
Kha et al. [] evaluated the particle size of the raw mate-
rial and SFE time, aer an enzymatic pretreatment, on the oil
yield and carotenoids content in the resultant oil using super-
critical CO2extraction from Gac fruit (Momordica cochinchi-
nensis Spreng) aril. e authors conclude that the carotenoids
contentenhancedbysuitableparticlesizeof.mmand
extraction time of min, as well as the Gac oil, contains
high amount of carotenoids, specially the beta-carotene
and lycopene.
Espinosa-Pardo et al. [] evaluated extracts obtained
from peach palm fruit (Bactris gasipaes)usingSFE,in
terms of yield, total phenolic content, total avonoids, total
carotenoids, and antioxidant activity by 𝛽-carotene bleaching
method. e authors concluded that supercritical CO2allows
for obtaining rich extracts in carotenoids and although it
presents lower yield than conventional extraction, the SFE
represents a technique with greater advantages. e best
operation condition for SFE was bar/∘C, given that the
highest concentration of carotenoids was obtained.
Goto et al. [] developed a wet extraction process using
liqueed (subcritical) dimethyl ether (DME) as solvent at
around MPa. ey applied liqueed DME for the extrac-
tion of lipids and functional compounds, such as carotenoids,
from various kinds of algae. e results indicated that since
the water content of biomaterials was very high, drying
process was necessary. Moreover, the subcritical (liqueed)
DME is unique and suitable for extraction of water and oily
substances from biomaterials with high water content. In
addition, it can eliminate the process for cell disruption and
solvent evaporation and, then, has potential to cut energy
consumption of extraction procedures.
Algae contain lipids and functional compounds such as
carotenoids. Particularly, microalgae are recently focused as
a source of biofuel. To extract these components, organic
solvent or supercritical carbon dioxide has been used.
5.3.2. SFE with CO2+Cosolvent. One of the main character-
istics of supercritical CO2is that it presents a limited solvation
power when used to polar solutes. e addition of an organic
solvent as a modier can enhance the CO2eciency by
increasing the compound’s solubility, reducing its interac-
tions with the matrix, or changing it to simplify the extraction
[]. Hawthorne and Miller [] stated that an eective
cosolvent must be more polar than the supercritical solvent
andagoodsolventintheliquidstateforthesolutefocused.
Lim et al. [] studied the separation of astaxanthin from
Phaa rhodozyma by SFE with CO2supercial ow rate
varying from . to . cm/min, pressure from . to
MPa, temperature from to ∘C, and use of ethanol
ascosolventatconcentrationsfromto%.ebest
carotenoids recovery (%) and astaxanthin (%) using pure
CO2at . cm/min were obtained at ∘CandMPa.
e % ethanol showed an increase of astaxanthin yield of
and % at and ∘C, respectively, when operated at
MPa. When using two subsequent steps with pressures
ranging from to MPa, the astaxanthin concentration on
high pressure increased by times at ∘C and times at
∘C, and the astaxanthin concentrations were . to times
greater than those obtained in conventional extraction using
acetone.
Katherine et al. [] conducted a study of supercritical
CO2as solvent and ethanol as cosolvent aiming to establish
conditions to obtain maximum extraction of lycopene from
frozen watermelon by varying the operating temperature
(–∘C), pressure (.–. MPa), and the ethanol con-
centration ( to %). e results had the highest lycopene
concentration obtained at lower temperature (∘C) and
pressure (. MPa) and using the highest concentration of
cosolvent (%). However, this extraction yield was . times
lower than that obtained with fresh fruit, indicating that the
storage of the watermelon in the studied conditions causes a
signicant loss of lycopene. e temperature was the param-
eter that showed the greatest eect on lycopene yield and,
considering the storage losses, the authors followed the study
evaluatingthelycopeneyieldontheSFEtemperature(from
to ∘C), pressure of . MPa, and the ethanol addition
of %, obtaining a lycopene yield at ∘C of % higher than
∘C.
L´
opezetal.[]madeacomparisonbetweenthecon-
ventional extraction with acetone and supercritical uid
extraction, with pure CO2or adding ethanol (–%), of
astaxanthin from crustaceans, at conditions of to MPa
and to ∘Cinadynamicextractionduringtomin.In
a subsequent step, the column was depressurized and ushed
with . mL of acetone. e highest astaxanthin yield was
obtained at MPa and ∘C, and the SFE time of min
was considered ideal to remove this pigment. e range of
ethanol content studied was chosen according to the polarity
Journal of Chemistry
of the component and determined by the SFE data from the
literature. According to the authors, the ethanol addition was
necessary to ensure a signicant astaxanthin extraction, being
that the optimum concentration was %. Still, according to
the authors, the SFE is simpler and faster than the conven-
tional techniques of extraction, as well as being more ecient
and accurate, and does not need to use large amounts of toxic
solvents. In addition, the SFE extract can be obtained at low
temperatures and, then, it is not exposed to thermal degrada-
tion.
Liau et al. [] investigated cosolvent modied supercrit-
ical carbon dioxide extraction of lipids and carotenoids from
the microalgae species of Nannochloropsis oculata.Continu-
ous modication by ethanol of supercritical carbon dioxide
extractions showed that the addition ratio was important for
extraction eciency of lipids and carotenoids. e extraction
conducted at MPa, ∘C, and .% of ethanol addition
yielded . mg/g of carotenoids.
As observed, ethanol, a polar solvent, has been used to
increase the polarity of supercritical CO2on the extraction of
a wide variety of compounds. However, when the compounds
to be extracted are nonpolar, as most carotenoids, this
cosolvent is not the best option for increasing the solubility of
CO2. In addition, the ethanol must be removed from the nal
product, requiring the use of heat and, thus, having the same
disadvantages mentioned in the conventional extraction:
postprocessing need and possible thermal degradation of the
extract [].
Otherwise,Bambergeretal.[]reportedthatthesolu-
bility of less volatile lipids in supercritical CO2is signicantly
increased by the presence of more triglycerides species on the
system. According to Mendes et al. [], to increase the extrac-
tion yield and protect the carotenoids from degradation, the
addition of vegetable oil as cosolvent is an interesting alterna-
tive. Besides all the above advantages, Krichnavaruk et al. []
cited that using vegetable oil as a modier makes a subsequent
separation of the oil product unnecessary. According to
these considerations, the vegetable oil seems to be a good
cosolvent in the SFE of carotenoids.
Vasapollo et al. [] performed the lycopene extraction
from tomato with supercritical CO2added or not by vegetable
oil (almond, peanut, hazelnut, and sunower seed). e
experiments were conducted evaluating the temperature
(fromto
∘C), pressure (from . to MPa), and CO2
ow rate (from to kg/h). e hazelnut oil presented
higher yields when compared to other oils and pure CO2;
beyond that, it is cheaper and has less acidity, preventing
the lycopene degradation during extraction. e highest
lycopene concentration (%) of tomato was obtained at
MPa and ∘C with the addition of hazelnut oil at a
concentration of % and CO2ow rate of kg/h.
Sun and Temelli [] evaluated the SFE eciency on
carotenoids extraction from carrot using canola oil as cosol-
vent, compared with conventional extraction using hexane
and acetone. SFE experiments were conducted evaluating
the eect of raw material moisture (.–.%), particle
size (.– mm), temperature (–∘C), pressure (–
bar), concentration of canola oil (–%), and CO2ow rate
(.– L/min). When canola oil was added, the extraction
yields of 𝛼-and𝛽-carotene increased more than twice those
of lutein, and more than four times compared to the yield
obtained with pure CO2. e increase of both temperature
and pressure had a positive eect on carotenes yield, while
larger particle sizes had a negative impact on carotenes yield.
𝛼-Carotene and 𝛽-carotene yields decreased with increasing
raw material moisture, while the lutein yield increased. e
highest carotenoids yield was obtained in superior CO2ow
rate, but a greater variety of carotenoids was solubilized when
the supercritical CO2was used in the lower ow rate. us,
the highest carotenoids yield was obtained at ∘C, bar,
% canola oil, particle diameter of .–. mm, .% raw
material moisture, and L/min CO2ow rate.
e eects of dierent modiers on the compositions,
yield, and antioxidant activity of carotenoid by SFE of pump-
kin (Cucurbita maxima) were studied by Shi et al. []. e
dierent concentrations of single, mixed binary or ternary
modiers were designed as follows: () single modiers:
ethanol (%, % or %), water (%, % or %), or oil (%,
% or %) and () mixed binary modiers: ethanol (% or
%) + water (% or %), water (% or %) + oil (% or
%), or ethanol (% or %) + oil (% or %). e combina-
tion of ethanol and water, or ethanol and oil, or water and oil
in SFE showed that the yields of carotenoids were higher than
the single modier with equal amount. Finally, authors con-
cludedthatthemodierandoperatingtemperatureofSFE
notably inuenced the selectivity of carotenoids, especially
the ratio of cis-b-carotene/total carotenoids.
Krichnavaruk et al. [] investigated the use of ethanol,
soybean oil, or olive oil as cosolvents to the supercritical CO2
extraction of astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis,in
comparison with SFE using pure CO2. Without the addition
of cosolvents, only % of astaxanthin was extracted under
the conditions of ∘C and MPa, whereas with the use
of soybean oil and olive oil as cosolvent at a concentration
of % achieved an increase of % and %, respectively,
of the eciency of astaxanthin extraction. As the authors
conclude, the results of their study clearly demonstrated the
superiority power of extraction when using cosolvents, such
as soybean oil and olive oil, in the high-pressure extraction of
astaxanthin from H. pluvialis.
Table summarized the information of mentioned works
that applied the SFE for carotenoid extraction.
6. Final Comments
Brazil has an underused agricultural potential with a variety
of fruits and vegetables species low or inadequately investi-
gated. is could potentially demonstrate an increase in the
range of possible sources of carotenoids with broad utility in
food, cosmetics, and medicines.
Dierent microorganisms and bioproduction techniques
are being developed, as well as extraction methods of these
compounds, aiming to improve the process by the determina-
tion of ideal operating conditions to reach an optimum yield
of carotenoids depending on the matrix.
More optimization studies and also validation methods
are required to pursue the performance of technical studies to
Journal of Chemistry
T : Information about recent studies focusing on the supercritical uid extraction of carotenoids from natural materials.
Raw material Solvent applied Pressure and temperature applied Carotenoid of interest Reference
Buriti (M. exuosa) pulp Carbon dioxide andMPa,and
∘C𝛽-Carotene []
C. vulgaris Carbon dioxide and MPa, and ∘CCanthaxanthin and
astaxanthin []
C. vulgaris,D. salina,and
A. maxima Carbon dioxide – MPa, and ∘CTotalcarotenoidcontent,
𝛽-carotene []
Nannochloropsis gaditana Carbon dioxide – MPa, –∘CTotal carotenoid content []
Synechococcus sp. Carbon dioxide – MPa, – ∘CTotal carotenoid content []
Rose fruit (R. canina) Carbon dioxide – MPa, –∘C
Totalcarotenoidcontent,
lycopene, 𝛽-carotene, and
lutein
[]
Pitanga fruit (E. uniora L.) Carbon dioxide – MPa, and ∘C
Totalcarotenoidcontent,
lycopene, rubixanthin and
𝛽-cryptoxanthin
[]
Gac fruit
(Momordica cochinchinensis
Spreng) aril
Carbon dioxide MPa, ∘C𝛽-carotene, lycopene []
Peach palm pulp
(Bactrisgasipaes)Carbon dioxide – MPa, –∘CTotal carotenoid content []
Japanese algae
(Chlorella vulgaris,
Undaria pinnatida)
Dimethyl ether – MPa, –∘CFucoxanthin []
Phaa rhodozyma Carbon dioxide + ethanol .– MPa, –∘CTotalcarotenoidcontent,
astaxanthin []
Frozen watermelon Carbon dioxide + ethanol .–. MPa, –∘CLycopene []
Crustaceans Carbon dioxide + ethanol – MPa, –∘CAstaxanthin []
Nannochloropsis oculata Carbon dioxide + ethanol MPa, ∘CTotal carotenoid content []
Tomat o Carbon dioxide + several
vegetal oils .– MPa, –∘CLycop ene []
Carrot Carbon dioxide + canola oil .–. MPa, –∘CTotal carotenoid content, 𝛼-
and 𝛽-carotene, and lutein []
Haematococcus pluvialis
Carbon dioxide, carbon
dioxide + ethanol, and
carbon dioxide + vegetal
oils
MPa, ∘CAstaxanthin []
Pink shrimp (P. p a u l e n s i s
and P. p a u l e n s i s ) processing
waste
Carbon dioxide, carbon
dioxide +
hexane/isopropanol
mixture, and carbon
dioxide + sunower oil
– MPa, and ∘C
Totalcarotenoidcontent,
carotenoid prole, and
astaxanthin
[]
Pumpkin
(Cucurbita maxima)
Carbon dioxide + ethanol,
water and/or olive oil MPa, and ∘CTotalcarotenoidcontent,
carotenoid prole []
scale up the processes and the determination of their eco-
nomical viability, which are essential to reach industrial
production and, thus, the consumer.
us, the functional and nutritional benets of these nat-
ural pigments (such as precursors of vitamin A in the treat-
ment of diseases like cancer through its antioxidant activity,
among others) and their coloring properties must be eec-
tively achieved and applied.
Competing Interests
e authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Acknowledgments
e authors wish to thank CNPq, Project no. /-
, and CAPES, Project no. ./- (AUXPE:
/), Brazilian funding agencies, for the nancial sup-
port and scholarships that sustain this work.
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