Content uploaded by Anir Upadhyay
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Anir Upadhyay on Feb 04, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
sb08
From the Proceedings of the World Conference SB08 - ISBN 978-0-646-50372-1 www.sb08.org
2652
Back
<Forward
>
Home
•Authors Index
•Program Index
•
Contents
•
CLIMATIC DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR SYDNEY, ADELAIDE AND PERTH: A STUDY OF
BUILDING CODE OF AUSTRALIA’S CLIMATE ZONE 5
Anir UPADHYAY
Architectural Researcher, Kogarah, NSW, Australia, anirupadhyay@yahoo.com
Keywords: Climate, climate classification, climate analysis, building design, design strategies
Summary
Building Code of Australia (BCA) has been developed and maintained by the Australian Building Codes
Board (ABCB) on behalf of the Commonwealth, States and Territory Governments. BCA has identified eight
different climate zones within Australia. This paper discusses climate conditions of the state capital cities of
Sydney, Adelaide and Perth that belong to the same climate zone 5 of the BCA. This comparative study
aims to identify the similarities and the differences in climate conditions in these cities, as a result of
microclimatic features. Temperature, humidity, sky conditions and, wind intensity and directions are different
in Sydney, Adelaide and Perth. Perth experiences higher summer maximum temperature than Sydney and
Adelaide. Sydney is warm and humid in summer while Adelaide and Perth are hot and arid. Winter sky
condition is clear in Sydney while it is overcast in Perth and Adelaide. Wind intensity and directions are
varied during the day and seasons in all the three cities.
This paper outlines a few design strategies; some are same for all the cities while others are different. Street
and building orientation, outdoor space planning are specific to the locations while winter heating
requirement and necessity of thermal mass are prerequisite to all the cities.
1. Introduction
Global climate classifications basically use prominent climate data to form climate zones of similarity
especially useful in agricultural study. Climate zone classifications to describe appropriate building design
should be different from those invented for agriculture (Cook 1996). In the context of building regulations,
climate zones are regions which are of sufficient similar climate such that, a common solution for energy
efficiency measures is possible and justifiable (AGO, 2000).
Climate across Australia is very diverse. Diversity is huge such that even in a metropolitan scale, one can
experience differences in the climate (Upadhyay 2008). However, there still is a need to generalise climate
to define climate zones using variety of criteria depending on the purpose. Various organisations have
classified the whole of Australia into number of climatic zones. The Bureau of Meteorology has six zones
while Building Code of Australia (BCA) has eight zones and NatHERS (Nationwide House Energy Rating
Scheme) has 69 climate zones for the Australian continent (NatHERS 2008). The six climatic zones
developed by Bureau of Meteorology are based on dry-bulb temperature and humidity. Other climate
determining elements such as, the wind and solar radiation are not considered because of the complexity
arising with the inclusion of those parameters. However, the effect of wind, sky condition and rainfall pattern
can not be ignored when considering climate for building design purposes.
This study has considered three state capital cities of Sydney, Adelaide and Perth which belong to the same
climate zone 5 of BCA. Sydney Metropolitan has diverse climate conditions. This study has considered only
the eastern part of Sydney and has used climate data from the Sydney airport. Climate zone 5 resembles
the temperate climate zone of Bureau of Meteorology (BOM 2008). This study has summarised climate
information from the three locations; and detailed climate analysis is carried out to understand the prevailing
climate characteristics in these cities. Climate analysis is then used to come up with practical design
recommendations for the three state capitals Sydney, Adelaide and Perth.
2. Methodology
This paper is a part of a larger study, which aims to develop design guidelines for planners, designers/
builders to help them in selecting the planning/ design options and building elements that are climatically
suitable, as well as, energy efficient. The study will cover the major population locations within Australia,
such that, it covers all the states and major cities, which are distinctly different in climate conditions. The
study is carried out in two steps: climate analysis, and formulating recommendations for planning and
building design. In climate analysis, climate data from the Bureau of Meteorology, Australia for each of the
locations is summarised in a graphical format. Comfort condition for each location is investigated using
Building Bioclimatic charts; and wind roses are prepared to understand the wind flow at different times
sb08
From the Proceedings of the World Conference SB08 - ISBN 978-0-646-50372-1 www.sb08.org
2653
Back
<Forward
>
Home
•Authors Index
•Program Index
•
Contents
•
across different seasons. Final design guidelines are based on preliminary recommendations from Mahoney
tables, which formulate design strategies using temperature, humidity and rainfall; and detailed climatic
analysis. This paper undertakes the same process of climate analysis and will provide location specific
recommendations.
3. Climate study
3.1. Sydney
Climate data over a period of 78 years (1929 – 2007) from Sydney airport has been used for this study.
Sydney experiences a hot and humid summers and mild winters. Autumn and spring months are transitional
periods between the two main seasons. Mean monthly air temperature ranges from 26°C in February to
18°C in July. The average minimum temperature ranges from 7°C in July to 17°C in December. Humidity in
Sydney is high for two months in summer; otherwise it remains within a comfortable range. Requirements of
heating or cooling are best described by heating/ cooling degree hours. Cooling threshold temperature is
determined by the neutral temperature (Szokolay, 1982) for each month. Heating threshold temperature has
been taken as 18°C for the year round (Hart and de Dear, 2004). In Sydney, summer requires cooling, but
from mid autumn to spring, heating is required. In total, 3% of the time has cooling demand and 97% of time
has heating requirements. Summer and autumn months get substantial rain; the sky is overcast in summer
and autumn. In winter, the sky is clearer. The annual mean rainfall of 90 mm, which is approximately 95 days
of rainfall, is distributed fairly across all the seasons. It rains more frequently during autumn while least
during spring months. Wind changes its direction in each season. Generally, the morning wind comes from
the north-west. The afternoon wind blows from the east to the south and the evening wind from the north and
south. In summer and spring, wind comes from the north-east to the south directions. Autumn and winter
morning wind comes from the west and north-west and afternoon wind comes from the south.
3.2. Adelaide
Climate data from Kent town, Adelaide over a period of 30 years (1977 – 2007) has been accessed for this
study.
Adelaide experiences hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Mean monthly air temperature ranges from
29°C in February to 17°C in August. The highest temperature ever recorded is 44.3°C in February 2004. The
average minimum temperature ranges from just 7°C in July to 17°C in January. The lowest temperature ever
recorded is –0.4°C in June. The morning and afternoon humidity levels in Perth are within the comfort zone.
Summer months are hot and winter months are cold but humidity levels are always in the acceptable range
across seasons. Of the annual mean rainfall of 550 mm, which is approximately 84 days of rainfall, about
60% usually fall between May and September. It rains more frequently during winter with 75 mm rainfall in
an average of 12 rainy days in a month. In contrast, the total summer rainfall is just 61 mm with an average
of 3 rainy days in a month. As winter months get substantial rain, the sky in winter is overcast for about 15
days in a month. Summer months require cooling; but from autumn to spring, heating demand is very high in
Adelaide. In total, 93% of the time has heating demand and 7% of cooling demand. The wind is mainly from
the south west and west in the afternoon. Prevailing wind in summer is from the south. In winter, morning
wind is primarily from the north.
3.3. Perth
Climate data from Perth Airport is accessed which is averaged for a period of 63 years (1944 – 2007).
Perth experiences a Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Mean
monthly air temperature ranges from 32°C in February to 18°C in July. The highest temperature ever
recorded is 46.7°C in February 1991; however, the temperature exceeds 40°C only three days per year on
an average. The average minimum temperature ranges from just 8°C in July and August to 17°C in January
and February. The lowest temperature ever recorded is –1.3°C in June. The morning and afternoon humidity
levels in Perth are found within the comfort zone. Summer months are hot and winter months are cold but
humidity levels are always in the acceptable range across seasons. Of the annual mean rainfall of 767 mm,
which is approximately 87 days of rainfall, about 70% usually fall between May and September. It rains more
frequently during winter with 150 mm rainfall in an average of 14 rainy days in a month. In contrast, the total
summer rainfall is just 35 mm with an average of 2 rainy days in a month. Hence, it is not unusual in Perth to
have extended dry periods during summer. Perth is one of the sunniest Australian cities and enjoys an
annual average of 8.8 hours of sunshine per day. In predominantly clear days of summer, the average daily
sunshine duration exceeds 11 hours. As winter months get substantial rain, the sky in winter is cloudy for
about 12 days in a month. Summer and early autumn months require cooling; from mid autumn to spring,
heating demand is very high in Perth. In total, 85% of the time has heating demand and 15% of time has
cooling requirements. The wind is mainly easterly in the morning due to the effect of land mass; and south
westerly in the afternoon due to afternoon sea breezes. Winter morning wind comes from the north and
changes its course towards the west and south-west in the afternoon. The westerlies are associated with the
bulk of the annual rainfall in Perth. The average wind speed in winter is considerably lower than in summer.
sb08
From the Proceedings of the World Conference SB08 - ISBN 978-0-646-50372-1 www.sb08.org
2654
Back
<Forward
>
Home
•Authors Index
•Program Index
•
Contents
•
Table1: Climate comparison between the three locations
Climatic parameters Sydney Adelaide Perth
Air Temperature
Extreme maximum 45.20C 44.3
0
C 46.7
0
C
Mean daily maximum
summer 26.40C 29.30C 31.80C
winter 18.20C 16.70C 18.90C
Mean daily minimum
summer 17.40C 15.50C 14.80C
winter 7.00C 7.40C 8.00C
Extremely minimum -0.10C -0.40C -1.30C
Mean diurnal range 7.3 – 10.2 degC 7.9 – 12.2 degC 9.7 – 14.7 degC
Heating degree hours
(base 180C)
97%
93%
85%
Cooling degree hours
(base neutral temperature) 3% 7% 15%
Humidity Humid for two months (Jan and Feb) Always within comfort range of 4-12g/kg
Sky Condition
Winter months have clearer days while
rest of the seasons are prevalently cloudy
Summer months have more clear days
while rest of the year is prevalently cloudy
Summer months have clear sky while
winter months have the cloudy conditions.
Rainfall
Summer and autumn months receive
substantial rainfall and winter receives the
lowest rainfall
Winter and spring months receive
substantial rainfall and summer receive
the lowest
Winter months receive the highest rainfall
and summer months receive the lowest
Wind
In summer, southerly wind is prevalent
while in winter, wind comes from the west
except wind from the south in the
afternoon.
Wind is mainly from the south west and
west in the afternoon. Summer wind is
predominantly from the south while winter
morning wind is primarily from the north.
Perth experiences three distinct wind
patterns. Morning wind comes from the
east, afternoon wind comes from the
south-west and evening wind comes from
the south.
sb08
From the Proceedings of the World Conference SB08 - ISBN 978-0-646-50372-1 www.sb08.org
2655
Back
<Forward
>
Home
•Authors Index
•Program Index
•
Contents
•
4. Climate comparison
The table above illustrates the differences in climate of these three locations, although, they are in the same
climate zone in BCA. The differences of the parameters are discussed in detail below.
4.1. Temperature
Temperature profile of Sydney, Adelaide and Perth looks similar at first. Temperature usually surpasses the
comfort zone in summer while it drops below the comfort zone in winter. These locations experience very
similar extreme maximum temperature, within the range of 2.5 degC. The striking difference however is
observed in mean daily maximum temperature in summer, which increases from the east coast to the west.
The difference between Sydney to Adelaide is around 3 degC and from Adelaide to Perth, is around 2.5
degC. Winter maximum temperature in Adelaide is the lowest. Perth has got the lowest mean daily minimum
temperature among the three. As a result, mean diurnal temperature in Perth is the largest which is in the
range of 9.7 to 14.7 degC while it is the lowest of 10 degC for Sydney. The daily temperature fluctuation also
increases moving from the east coast to the west. The requirement for heating is the highest in Sydney while
Perth needs more cooling than rest of the locations.
4.2. Humidity
Sydney experiences humid condition for two months during summer, while Adelaide and Perth do not
experience humid conditions. In general, humidity is not a problem for all the three locations.
4.3. Sky conditions and rainfall
Sydney enjoys winter sunshine while Adelaide and Perth have overcast sky in winter months. Consequently,
winter months receive the lowest rainfall in Sydney but other two locations receive the highest in winter
months.
4.4. Wind
Wind pattern is completely different from one location to the other. Sydney experiences wind coming from
the south and north-east. Adelaide and Perth have three distinct wind directions for the morning, afternoon
and the evening. Adelaide and Perth both have afternoon wind from south-west and the evening wind from
south while the morning wind in Adelaide is from north and in Perth, it is from the east.
5. Climate analysis
Climate Analysis has been done using Building Bioclimatic Chart and Mahoney tables.
5.1. Building Bioclimatic chart
The Building Bioclimatic chart derived by Givoni (1976)
provides suggestions for building design considering the
local climatic conditions. Various control strategies,
which ultimately lead to a climate-sensitive design, are
suggested. Szokolay (1986) defined control- potential
zone to describe the range of outdoor atmospheric
conditions within which indoor comfort could be achieved
by the various passive control techniques. In the
Psychrometric chart, different zones are plotted to
indicate different strategies depending upon the monthly
temperature–humidity relationships. To identify the
comfort conditions, the climatic data of all the months are
plotted in Building Bioclimatic chart, as shown in Figures
1-3. Two points of each line represent mean minimum
temperature with the 9 AM relative humidity and the
mean maximum temperature with the 3 PM relative
humidity.
Temperature – humidity relationships for Sydney
suggest having thermal mass and ventilation
arrangement to counteract the summer hot conditions.
Adelaide and Perth experience hot but arid conditions,
so thermal mass is required to moderate the climate in
summer. For the majority of the time, temperature drops
below the comfort range for all the locations, making
recommendations for passive solar heating strategies.
Figure 1. Building Bioclimatic chart
(
S
y
dne
y)
sb08
From the Proceedings of the World Conference SB08 - ISBN 978-0-646-50372-1 www.sb08.org
2656
Back
<Forward
>
Home
•Authors Index
•Program Index
•
Contents
•
5.2. Mahoney tables
The Mahoney tables (Koenigsberger, et al., 1973) provide results of thermal comfort analysis using primarily
the temperature and humidity data, and make recommendations for pre-design guidelines.
These pre-design conditions are classified under certain climatic groups or indicators. The Mahoney tables
have six indicators (i.e. three ‘humidity indicators’, H1- H3, and three ‘arid indicators’, A1 –A3). The Mahoney
tables indicate remedial action involving air movements for humid conditions in H1 and H2. Excess
downpours may affect the building structure, so adequate rain protection is advised in H3. Similarly, for hot
and arid conditions, thermal capacity (A1) is one of the options for making the indoor space comfortable.
When the temperature range is more than 10 degC with relative humidity up to 70%, thermal mass is
recommended. Climatic zones with night time temperature above the comfort limit and relative humidity less
than 50%, are advised to make provisions for outdoor sleeping (A2). A building with the temperature below
comfortable range needs protection from cold wind (A3). Indicators and recommendations from Mahoney
tables for Sydney, Adelaide and Perth are presented in table 2.
Table2: Indicators and recommendations from Mahoney tables
Building layout with long axis towards east and west is best suitable for all the three locations and favours
compact layout of estates without mandatory air movement across buildings. Recommendation for Sydney is
larger opening area than Adelaide and Perth. Openings need to be protected from the direct sunlight.
Mahoney tables suggest having heavy walls, floors and roof for Adelaide and Perth while light structures for
Sydney. The arid indicator (A1) recommends use of thermal mass. Building in Perth should have outdoor
sleeping space for summer
Sydney Adelaide Perth
Indicators A1, 2 months and A3, 5
months
A1, 7 months and
A3, 5 months
A1, 10 months; A2, 2
months and A3, 4 months
Recommendations on
1. Layout North and south (long axis east – west)
2. Spacing Compact layout of estates
3. Air movement No air movement requirement
4. Openings Medium openings 20-40 % Small openings 15-25 %
5. Protection of openings Exclude direct sunlight
6. Walls and floors Light walls, short time lag Heavy external and internal walls
7. Roof Light, insulated roof Heavy roofs, over 8 h time lag
8. Outdoor sleeping N/A Space for outdoor sleeping
required
Figure 2. Building Bioclimatic chart
(
Adelaide
)
Figure 3. Building Bioclimatic chart
(
Perth
)
sb08
From the Proceedings of the World Conference SB08 - ISBN 978-0-646-50372-1 www.sb08.org
2657
Back
<Forward
>
Home
•Authors Index
•Program Index
•
Contents
•
Mahoney tables do not consider night time wind movement to cool the thermal mass, which has been
already proved effective in different climate conditions (Givoni, 1994). Even if compact layouts of estates are
recommended due to arid characteristics of the places, the need of breeze penetration across buildings are
still necessary to cool off the thermal mass in the evenings and at nights. Provision of securing afternoon
wind movement can not be overruled as the daytime cooling can be met with the afternoon breezes.
6. Formulating the design strategies
These climatic differences do have implications in building design and planning. The large diurnal
temperature range with higher summer mean temperature in Perth needs special care, in comparison to
Sydney. Requirement of thermal mass is significant when the diurnal temperature range is more than 10
degC. Sydney needs design response to address humid conditions in summer months, while Perth and
Adelaide need different strategies for the arid conditions. Free flow of air through interior is important in
Sydney while water bodies in and around the building is advantageous to balance humidity level in Adelaide
and Perth. There is an opportunity for passive solar heating strategies for all the three locations. Winter clear
sky in Sydney is the most favourable for the use of passive solar heating techniques while it is not the same
for Adelaide and Perth due to prolonged overcast conditions in winter. In the local level, wind needs to be
attended to, and it has a great influence in street layout, building orientation and the window placement in the
buildings. In Perth, rooms that can be extended in covered semi open space are advantageous, as the
outdoor sleeping condition is favourable for some months. Some of the design strategies are elaborated to
make a clear understanding of the differences.
The design strategies are formulated based on the climate analysis. Design strategies are meant to be
comprehensive and schematic to be helpful in the design process so that no major opportunities are missed.
At the same time, they have to be few such that they can be easily memorized to be used effectively.
6.1. Building orientation and Street layout
Building orientation and layout of streets have significant effect on accessing sun and wind in the buildings.
To maximize solar access and air movement in streets, primary avenues in Sydney, Adelaide and Perth
should be oriented some angles west of south. To be more precise, this angle is 20 degree for Sydney, 25
degree for Perth and 30 degree for Adelaide. It helps to secure both prevailing afternoon wind and night
breezes in summer; and winter solar exposure on the north facade. Major street orientation within the angle
of approximately 20-30 degree on either direction of the prevailing breezes is highly recommended (Brown
and DeKay, 2001). The figures below show the preferred wind direction along with the street layout at
different locations.
Table3: Building orientation and Street layout considering sun and wind movement
6.2. Securing neighbourhood sunshine
Buildings in Sydney, Adelaide and Perth require solar radiation in the winter months. An ideal organization of
streets, open spaces, and building for solar utilization is to elongate buildings in the east – west direction and
spacing in the north – south direction. This placement allows buildings facing north to collect sun, and at the
same time they are far enough apart not to shade each other. However, because of the topography or pre-
existing conditions, many streets do not have an east west orientation so the figures 4-6 show several
possible options of buildings and open space layout, along with opportunities for solar access. The previous
strategy already recommended non –cardinal street arrangement for all the three locations considering the
summer wind movement along with winter solar access.
sb08
From the Proceedings of the World Conference SB08 - ISBN 978-0-646-50372-1 www.sb08.org
2658
Back
<Forward
>
Home
•Authors Index
•Program Index
•
Contents
•
6.3. Outdoor spaces
In summer months, outdoor spaces towards south are very useful as prevailing evening breeze comes from
the south west in Perth. Outdoor sleeping is recommended in Perth for two months in summer. Winter
months require sun tempering, as daytime temperature remains below the comfort range. Outdoor space
towards the eastern part of a building, securing solar access from north and protecting it with westerly
breezes is very useful.
Table4: Probable location of outdoor space for summer and winter in Sydney, Adelaide and Perth
(Source: Brown and Dekay, 2001, modified)
Figure 4. East
–
west lot
arrangements
Figure 5. North
–
south lot
arrangements
Figure 6. Non cardinal streets, lot
arrangements
sb08
From the Proceedings of the World Conference SB08 - ISBN 978-0-646-50372-1 www.sb08.org
2659
Back
<Forward
>
Home
•Authors Index
•Program Index
•
Contents
•
6.4. Building structure
Sydney, Adelaide and Perth require cooling in summer months and heating in winter months. The large
range of thermal conditions requires utilization of both radiation and wind effects, as well as, protection from
them. Hence, dual role is required of the structure. Thermal mass helps to store daytime heat during the day
and releases it at night to balance room temperature in winter months. Thermal mass can be used to absorb
heat from a room during the day and to cool off the radiated heat at night with ventilation in summer months.
For this, there must be enough mass in the building to absorb the heat gain, and the mass must be
distributed over enough surface area so that it can absorb the heat quickly and keep the interior air
temperature comfortably low. The opening must be large enough to allow cool outside air to flow past the
mass to remove the heat accumulated during the day and carry it outside the building.
The diurnal temperature range, and summer mean maximum temperature, is higher in Perth than other two
locations indicating the requirement of greater area of thermal mass for Perth. Similarly, evening wind
movement to cool the thermal mass is also equally important for Perth.
7. Conclusion
The climate of a place is influenced by various micro-climatic features. The climate classification of Bureau of
Meteorology Australia has Sydney, Adelaide and Perth in the same temperate climate zone. Similarly,
Building Code of Australia has them together in zone 5. However, the rigorous climate analysis of these
locations revealed differences in climate conditions among these locations. This study identified differences
in temperature, humidity, sky condition and wind intensity and its directions. All these features are major,
considering the climate as an integral parameter in urban planning and building design.
Winter heating and summer cooling requirements together with available solar radiation and wind suggest for
different orientations of building and streets in all the three locations. High heating degree hours for all the
locations suggest securing sunshine in site and lot planning. Wind directions in different seasons and time
are crucial to plan the outdoor open space for summer and winter months. Thus, the variation in summer and
winter open space is observed in all the cities. The higher summer mean temperature along with higher
diurnal temperature range in Perth require special attention in comparison to Sydney and Adelaide. Sydney
has got warm and humid summer while it is hot and dry in Perth and Adelaide. Larger area of thermal mass
in building is required in Perth and Adelaide along with evening or night ventilation which can ensure
comfortable condition indoors. The winter clear sky condition in Sydney encourages the use of passive solar
heating techniques while it is not so in Adelaide and Perth due to overcast conditions.
Acknowledgement
This paper is an outcome of ongoing research on “Climate and design guidelines for major locations in
Australia”. I would like to thank Think Brick Australia for funding this research.
References
ASHRAE, 2001, Handbook of Fundamentals. Chapter 6: Psychrometrics.
Australian Greenhouse Office, 2000, Feasibility study- A national approach to energy efficiency measures for
houses.
Brown, G. Z. and Dekay M., 2001, Sun, Wind and Light: architectural design strategies 2nd Ed. USA: John
Wiley and sons, Inc
Bureau of Meteorology, 2008, online, http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/environ/design/austcol.shtml (accessed
March 2008).
Bureau of Meteorology, Australia. Climate statistics for Australian locations. For Sydney, accessed online on
March 2007 at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_066037.shtml. For Adelaide, accessed
online on December 2007 at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_023090.shtml. For Perth,
accessed online on July 2007 at http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_009021.shtml
Cook, J., 1996, Architecture indigenous to extreme climates. Energy and Buildings 23, pp 277-291.
Fi
g
ure 8. Use of thermal mass in winter
and summer months
Fi
g
ure 7. Effective ventilation helps to cool
off thermal mass in summer
sb08
From the Proceedings of the World Conference SB08 - ISBN 978-0-646-50372-1 www.sb08.org
2660
Back
<Forward
>
Home
•Authors Index
•Program Index
•
Contents
•
Givoni, B., 1976, Man, Climate and Architecture. 2nd Ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Hart, M. and de Dear, R., 2004, Weather sensitivity in household appliance energy end-use. Energy and
Buildings 36, pp.161–174.
Koenigsberger, O. H. et al., 1973, Manual of Tropical Housing and Building: Climatic Design. India: Orient
Longman.
NatHERS, 2008, online, http://www.nathers.gov.au/about/climate-zones.html (accessed April 2008)
Szokolay, S.V., 1982, Climatic data and its use in design. Australia: RAIA Education Division.
Szokolay, S.V., 1986, Climate analysis based on the psychrometric chart. International journal of Ambient
Energy, 7(4), pp.171-182.
Upadhyay, A., 2008, Climate responsive design strategies for Sydney Metropolitan Region. In proceedings
of the International Conference of the Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Construction Innovation, 12-
14 March 2008.
