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A New Outline of Temiar Grammar
Part 1
Geoffrey Benjamin
Linguistics and Multilingual Studies
School of Humanities
Nanyang Technological University
Singapore 639798
ben_geo@ethnographica.sg
Comments and feedback are welcome.
This draft should be cited by referring to the version downloadable from
This is a further revised version, 5 October 2022
©Geoffrey Benjamin 2022
i
Preliminary note
jɉʤy
j
haveə
slɔgsəlɔgsəlɔg
ii
Contents
i
bar-
rə-
1
A New Outline of Temiar Grammar, Part 1
Geoffrey Benjamin
1. Background
1.1 Population, geography, sociolinguistics, contacts
tea
Tmɛɛr
kuy srɔk hill-forest [ kuuy riiˀ
1
Temiars
Map 1
Map 2
This indicates the historically-known maximal distributions.
Most Orang Asli populations currently occupy smaller and
more discontinuous territories.
1
Kuuy riiˀ kuiri
2
2
1.2 Dialects
3
2
3
3
ˀ h
1.3 Previous research
4
Tmɛɛr
*tambir*tbiar
5
6
4
5
6
Lanɔh Jɛŋjɛŋ
4
about
7
8
9
1.4 Secondary (re-)analyses
7
Toolbox
8
9
5
tertiary
2. Phonetics and phonology
2.1 Word and syllable structure
Lexical words
Prosodic words
10
ˀ w y
əəə
wy
cə-wɛ-wɛ-bar-naar naar
wɛ-
10
6
Wɛ-wɛˀ
lah,
cə-wɛ-wɛ-bar-naar
naˀ.
2.1.2 Orthographic considerations
11
jɉyj
ɛʉəɔŋŊɲƝˀɁ
~
è ñ
single
non
ɛ
lyaakliyaakrwaayruwaay
əcə-na-naˀc-na-naˀbəˀ-deek
bˀ-deek
ə
kˀa-kəˀa-krum-kərum-
2.2 Syllables
2.2.1 Syllables in lexical words
11
Beds In The East
7
-n-
Table 1
gəlciib
slɔgsəlɔgrwaayruwaaylyaakliyaak
golapmamuug
gɛlgəlsɛglɔgsindulhɔrɲɔɔd
smaŋarcrehaaygnolap g<n>olap
slimpadsninduls<n>indul
lɛnˀɔsdɔktuwyuwyɛɛy
hu
alhwalri
ɛdryɛd
masi
ɛr ~masyɛr
tɛrhu
altɛrhwalgɛrci
ɛsgɛrcyɛs
Table 2
mɔɔj
a
ɛ
ɛn
nɛ
na
tɛr
trɛ
trɛn
mamɔɔj
mɛjmɔɔj
mɛjnɔɔj
nɛjmɔɔj
mnamɔɔj
tɛrmɔɔj
trɛjmɔɔj
trɛnmɔɔj
slɔg
a
ɛ
ɛn
na
ɛr
salɔg
sɛglɔg
sɛnlɔg
snalɔg
sɛrlɔg
rɛ
rɛn
ɛ
srɛglɔg
srɛnlɔg
sɛg-slɔg sɛgsəlɔg
-a-
8
-n-tr--r-
sɛg-slɔg
-wa--yɛ-
-u
a--i
ɛ
slɔghwal
slɔgsɛglɔgsɛrlɔgsrɛglɔghwal
hɛlwal
hu
altɛrhu
altrɛlhu
al*hɛrwal, *hrɛlwal
12
gɛrcyɛs gɛrci
ɛs gɛrciyɛs
gɛrcyɛs
-wa--yɛ-uəiə
hɛlwal
tɛrhwaltɛrhu
al
13
prosodic
2.2.2 Syllables in prosodic words
Wɛ-yɔɔs
ˀi-wɛ-bɛˀbooˀ
wɛ-naˀ
ma-bɛɛk.
Wɛ-hiit
la-ˀi-wɛ-kws
naˀ.
ptck
12
13
9
Table 3
ə-
bə-
ba-
bar-
kˀa-
kˀan-
cə-
ɲɔ-
ɲɔb-
kˀam-
ˀə-
ˀi-
ɲɔm-
klɔj-
mə-
ma-
num-
krum-
rə-
ha-
bəˀ-
grɛˀ-
ha-
yəˀ-
wɛ-
rɛˀ
ma-mə-kˀan-kˀa-ɲɔb-ɲɔ-
bar-ba-bə-
ə
əbə-
naar
nr
kˀan-kˀa-bar-ba-
cə-na-naˀca-naˀ
ɲɔm-kˀam-
(-)m-
2.2.3 Clitics or affixes? bar-
bar-ba-bə-
bə-
bgɛlgəl ba-
batrɛlgəl
14
Table 4bar-
mɔɔj
tɛrmɔɔj
mɛjmɔɔj
trɛjmɔɔj
bar-mɛjmɔɔj
bar-trɛjmɔɔj
bmɛjmɔɔjbə-mɛjmɔɔj
batrɛjmɔɔj ba-tərɛjmɔɔj
14
bar-
10
bar-
bar-
bar-
-m-
ˀəh
tɛrgəl
h
Thool
ˀi-pəˀ
ˀəh,
tɛrgəl
ˀə-ma-tɛˀ.
2.2.4 Phrase-final clitics
ˀunyehhahˀəh
doh naˀ
ˀəh
ˀə-naˀ
ˀi-pəˀˀəh
phrase
2.3 Phoneme inventory
2.3.1 Consonants
all
15
15
11
Table 5
16
p
t
c
k
ˀ
b
d
j
g
m
n
ɲ
ŋ
w
y
l
r
s
h
Table 6
p
t
c
k
ˀ
pɔɔc
tuh
ciib
kɛˀ
ˀaas
ˀoop
bɔt
rec
lɛk
lɛˀ
b
d
j
g
bəg
doh
juk
gool
ˀaab
sɛd
lʉj
lug
m
n
ɲ
ŋ
məəh
ney
ɲɔb
ŋaaw
nɔɔm
cɛn
mɔɲ
luŋ
w
y
waal
yɔh
tɔw
mɔy
l
lɛh
yɛl
r
rɛh
cɛr
s
h
suj
hɔɔd
giis
yah
2.3.2 Vowels
16
12
Table 7
Front
Central
Back
High
Mid
Low
i
ʉ
u
ii
ʉʉ
uu
ʉ
ʉʉ
e
ə
o
ee
əə
oo
–
–
–
–
–
–
ɛ
a
ɔ
ɛɛ
aa
ɔɔ
ɛ
ɔ
ɛɛ
ɔɔ
Table 8
tiiˀtaaˀtɛɛˀ
baˀbəˀbɔˀ
roh rɛhrɔh
tanigtanɛg
teektɛɛk
kareh
17
karɛh
tʉʉhtəəh
bʉdbəd
slʉʉdsloodsləəd
tehtuh
sʉʉˀsooˀ
slaay slooy
gagidgagiid
gejgeej
tɛˀtɛɛˀ
bʉdtʉʉh
kəhtəəh
yapyaap
tuhtuuk
soˀsooˀ
lɔylɔɔy
hiisna-hs hnum
wɛɛdwɛɛd
cɛɛdcɛɛd
lɛblɛɛblɛblɛɛb
tabtb
laasls
khɔlkhɔl
17
Kareh
13
2.4 Phonetics: consonants
2.4.1 The nasal release of stops
18
-bm -tn
2.4.2 Geminate consonants
lɛllɛɛdrɛnnɔnhɛhhɔɔh
ɛ.
kroop
kɛrloop
*kɛrrooprl
belajarberajar
2.4.3 Palatal consonants and i-glides cjɲs
i
laj kənuuɲ
ˀoos
19
2.4.4 Stops p tkbd jgcj
əə bbəəh
gatɛɛˀ
klaak
k
20
18
19
20
k xkˀ
x
14
ˀ
taaˀ ˀɔjˀ
bɛˀbəˀ
bəˀbɛˀbəˀ
kalar na-tgɔh, ˀɛ-tɛrgɔh ma-kalar
2.4.5 Nasals əəmməəh
r
ˀɛnrʉs rɛɲrec
ˀam-rik
21
smn
mɛstiiˀ
sɛnˀɔɔy
2.4.6 Approximants w
ɛˀawɛn
yw hɔyhɔiliiwliiu
-yɛ--wa-
-i
ɛ--u
a-
tɛrhwal
tɛrhu
al
2.4.7 Lateral, rhotic, fricatives l
r
r
s
h
məəh
təəhtɛhtəəhh
hup haheer u
tuh
2.5 Phonetics: vowels
2.5.1 Epenthetic transition vowels
ə
iu
21
15
22
s-slɔgsəlɔgskɛˀsikɛˀ
əis
ɔ sˀɔy
sɛyˀɔyisiˀɔy
23
wɲ u
rwaayruwaayˀɲɔɔnˀuɲɔɔn
rɛywaay ˀɛnɲɔɔn y
ilyaakliyaakpyɛd piyɛdbyɛrbiyɛr
lɛŋyaakpɛdyɛdbɛryɛr
-yɛ-*iə
i
ɛskɛˀsikɛˀhjɛˀhijɛˀ
tlɛktilɛktɛŋlɛktlɛk
tilɛk
i
2.5.2 Co-vowels: nasality, nasalisation, length tilde
nasalisation
eəɔ
24
slantab
ˀuuɲ
ɲɔɔˀ
mɔɲ
sɛnˀɔɔy
22
23
24
16
25
2.5.3 Front vowels igitii
baliik
e teh ee
, yeeˀc jɲse ee irec
ˀadees
ɛ
tɛˀ ɛɛ
tɛɛˀ
2.5.4 Central vowels ʉmʉnʉʉ
knʉʉhə
gəl
səluh
əə
cəəyməəh
a galag aa
ˀaal a
aa ic jɲslaj taac
2.5.5 Back vowels u lpud
uuuu
guulc jɲs u uu ihuj
ˀuuɲ
o bloˀ
u
golap oo
goolo ooi
cjɲs ˀooj
ɔ
blɔˀɔɔ
gɔɔl
2.6 Phonetics: overall speech features
2.6.1 Articulatory setting
ˀ
25
17
26
2.7 Phonotactics: consonants
2.7.1 Phonological differences between dialects
bɔtbɔdbcuucbcuuj
bɔdbɔtgabaggabak
-n-
pɛɲpɔɔcpɔɔcpɛjpɔɔjpɔɔjtɛŋtuuktɛŋnuuŋtuuk
tɛgtuugtɛgnuug ~ nɛgtuug tuug
2.7.2 Co-occurrence restrictions ˀˀɛˀˀɛɛˀ
2.7.2.1 In medial clusters
) .
27
ˀoopˀɛmˀoop*ˀɛpˀoopbɛrcɛtbrɛncɛt*brɛtcɛtlyaak
liyaaklɛŋyaaklɛkyaak
bɛɛkbɛŋ-deek*bɛk-deek
brɛdcɛdlɛgyaagbɛg-deeg
26
27
ˀoop
ˀoom
YuupTləp
18
2.7.2.2 In nasal syllables
ptck
ˀɲɔɔˀ
bɔpktrɛc
knoop
kəndoop
kəp -n-kɛmnəm kɛmnəp lɛk
-an-lanɛŋ*lanɛktɔptnɔm
*tnɔp
bɛnnɔtbɔttɛjnaac taac
tnɔpbɛnnɔntɛɲnaaɲ
cɛnnɛn cɛt cɛnnɛn
cɛn
bɛnnɔn tɛɲnaaɲ bɛdnɔdnɛdbɔd tɛjnaaj ~nɛjtaaj
2.7.2.3 Regressive nasal assimilations
krum-deek krun-deekˀun-bəˀ ˀum-bəˀ cɛnkʉb
cɛŋkʉbnot
pɛnpət
*pɛmpət
sɛŋlɔɔk
slɔɔksɛnlɔɔkslɔɔk-n-
gɛngitgɛŋgitgit
bɛŋ-deek mɛŋ-deek jɛnlap
ɲɛnlapgɛntɔkŋɛntɔk
2.7.2.4 Sesquisyllabic onset clusters
cɛnnɔn
19
28
m n ɲŋwymn-n
-n-
29
not
cə-ceeˀ
lexical*cceeˀ*cəceeˀ
30
preferably
cəc pəp- dəɗ- bəɓ-
ətd-
w-y-
2.7.3 Juncture
juncture
open transition
Within
phonetic
phonologically
28
29
30
20
31
rɛg-rweeg kɛd-krɛdld rɛgrəweeg
kɛdkərɛdld
2.8 Phonotactics: vowels
2.8.1 Co-occurrence restrictions
2.8.1.1 In prefinal open syllables aeəo
i ʉ u ɛ ɔ
ˀi-ciib mu-ciib
ɲɔ-ciibwɛ-ciibʉ
i
tilɛktɛŋlɛk
lɛklɛŋlɛk
ti-
tr-tɛr-
32
tilɛk
monoi litɔwlɛwtɔw
tɔw
lə-i
tinag
*tɛgnag*nag*nɛgnag
31
jět-jŏtjɛdjoodjɛdjootchěng-kolcɛŋkɔl
-əCC- -ɛCC-
32
êlˀɛl
tˀɛltɛlˀɛl t-
ˀɛl
21
ti-
33
i tiɲɔw tinjau
*tɛwɲɔwi
sirɔysiru
*srɔy *sɛyrɔy
siyrɔysirɔyi
34
a
-a-
-a-
solely e ə o
2.8.1.2 In prefinal closed syllables
e ə o
-ɛ--ə-
ɛciib cɛbciibɛslɔgsɛglɔg
-r-tɛr.trɛ
tɛrgəl trɛlgəlɛrɛsɛrlɔg srɛglɔg
əare
cɛbciibsɛrlɔgcəbciibsərlɔg
əɛ
2.8.1.3 In word-final syllables
kaaˀka-bɛɛk
bɛŋ-mɛŋ-cɛpcɛm-
hˀ ha-jhˀ jhuˀ-
bootbun- deekdiŋ-
2.9 Other phonological issues
2.9.1 Consonant-vowel interaction nɲ
-n-cookcanuuŋkooc
33
34
n
snirɔysniyrɔy
22
knuuɲ
2.9.2 Strange-looking words
saɲjwˀsaɲju
ˀsaɲjəwˀ
gajwj
barwɔypɔjlɔɔˀmarteyrosəwtɛljoopcarwas
35
hɔrɲɔɔd gintʉs tugrɔh jiŋwɛɛr
jawyɛrlɛnˀɔsdɔk
lɛnˀɔs dɔk
2.9.3 Loanword phonology
36
ˀ
jalajalaaˀ
wykalaukalɔwtuatwaaˀ
tuwaaˀsiapsyabsiyabsɛbyabkeruing
kɛrwiŋlauklawoˀbenuamɛnwaaˀ
37
(fla)shlightslahidchainsaw
siŋsɔɔhbulldozer bɛrdʉscheese cis
38
ktam
ketam
into
35
36
is
37
yw
kalautuasiapkeruing laukbenua
kalawtuwəsiyapkəruwiŋlawoˀbənuwə
38
23
ktap
Table 9
kirim
bidan
kuciŋ
kirip
bidat
kucik
Kinta
naŋka
Gɛntaaˀ
daŋkaaˀ
ubat
perak
ˀubad
perag
paŋgaŋ
tuŋgu
paŋak
tuŋuuˀ
bisiŋ
naga
pəndiŋ
misik
daŋgaaˀ
panik
ɲɛmɲɔm
Misikpanik
as
-bm
because
3 Word formation
3.1 Compounding
diŋ-yɛɛw diŋ-rəb
24
Table 10
Transparent
bɛɛkbɛŋ-deekmɛŋ-deek
bootbun-mɔɔŋ
cɛpcɛm-spadspadspad
deek→diŋ-yɛɛwdiŋ-rəb
diŋ-heˀ
jhˀjhuˀ-cahcahcah
kaaˀka-hɔɔˀ
kroopkrum-deekkrun-deekkrɛndeekkɛrdeek
kuuykuy-gɔbkuy-srɔk
laaklaŋ-tiwlaŋ-yəˀ
ˀɛn-laakˀɛnlɛŋ-deekˀɛnlɛŋ-juk
rɔprɔm-naˀ
Opaque, fossilised?
tɔpnum-tuuy
yəˀyəˀ-tiik
diŋ-yɛɛwdeek yɛɛwkrum-deek
kroop deek
krɛndeekkɛrdeek
rban
kɛrdeek
deek
ˀun
pəˀ-klooˀbar-pəˀ-kɛˀlooˀ
pəˀ klooˀ
bar-
ˀi-ciib juk
na-tŋɔr kuy nam-cook canuuŋ
na-səg bakɔɔˀ
ciib jukchiibjuq
not
25
ˀi- na-
ˀi-{ciib-juk}na-{tŋɔr-kuy}
juk ciib juk
3.2 Derivation
3.2.1 Deriving nouns from verbs
-n-
39
3.2.1.1 Verbal nouns
-n-
-n-
golapgnolapsindul
snindul
-n-
ɛn
slɔgsɛnlɔg
ɛ
nɛsɛglɔg snɛglɔg
ɛn
kɛnˀiiskˀiis
-n-ɛn
gəlgɛlnəlbɔtbɛnnɔtbɛnnɔn
-r- tɛr-
-a--n-
rɛnnasɛrlɔg
srɛnlɔgsalɔgsnalɔg
slɔg
trɛnnatɛrgəltrɛngəlgagəl
gnagəl
nɛ
hɔgkɔɔw
39
(-)n-
26
Ham-sooˀ
nɛghɔg hɛgnɔg
yeeˀ;
mɔn
ha-pkiˀ
nɛwkɔɔw kɛwnɔɔw
yeeˀ?
3.2.1.2 Object nouns
-n-
nɛncɛrcnɛrcɛrnɛrsɔlsnɔl
sɛlnɔl
-r-
ɛn ɛr
rɛnpyɛdpɛnyɛdcɛrkʉb
crɛnkʉbcrɛŋkʉb
ksugsɛgnug
pɛnyɛd
-a-
undergoing
cookcanuuŋn
lɛklanɛŋ
jroˀjnaroˀ
jɛnroˀ jroˀ
sluhsnaluh
3.2.2 Deriving nouns from nouns -n-
-n-(naar) tnɔm
(nɛˀ) sɛnmaˀtnɔmtɔpsɛnmaˀsmaˀ
-n- mɔɔˀ
mnɔɔˀ kooc knuuɲ
cɔɔˀ cnɔɔˀ
-n-mɛnsaaw
psaw mnaay maay
knaɲɔŋ
kaɲɔŋ
27
3.2.3 Deriving verbs from nouns
bar--r-bar-
3.2.3.1 Verbalisation with bar- bar-
Bar-
ber-
ber-
bar-bar-lɛhbar
bar-naar bar bar-deek
bar-bar-
ba-bə-bər-bar-bar-
-m-
Nam-bar-tɔw.
bar
-m-
kuy
Cɔɔˀ
bar-kuy
ˀɛn-rɛh?
bar
bar-
… dah
yaaj
bar-naar
naˀ.
bar-
… kmɔh
babəəh
bə-laˀəs.
bar
3.2.3.2 Verbalisation by causativisation
klɔɔj -r- kɛrlɔɔj
mɔɲtɛr-tɛrmɔɲ
sɔɔjtɛrsɔɔjbɛrsɔɔj
3.2.3.3 Verbalisation by incopyfixation
rwaayrɛywaaymnəəymɛynəəy
kwskɛswsslaay(bə)sɛylaay
28
beradik
bradeˀbrɛˀdeˀ
3.2.3.4 Human nouns used verbally ceeˀ ˀi-
papəəd
3.2.4 Deriving expressives
do
40
kyəəb!
kyəəbkɛbyəəbkɛryəəb
kyəəb!
Kyəəb!
wɛ-wɔg.
Kyəəb!
Kyəəb!
ɛ
rɛg-rweeg!
rweegrɛgweegsɛd-slood!sloodsɛdlood
-r- -a-
rarakrahab hab!
kɛrhabkralam lam!klam
3.2.5 Fossilised ‘affixes’
-r-btəd
təd tgɔɔs tɛsgɔɔs gɔɔsgɛsgɔɔs pnɛɛh
pɛhnɛɛhnɛɛhnɛhnɛɛhpjʉlpajʉlpɛljʉljʉljajʉljɛljʉl
pdoˀ padoˀ pɛˀdoˀ doˀ dadoˀ dɛˀdoˀ
tɛrdoˀtrɛˀdoˀ-a-
l-bəəclbəəcgejlgej
lɛjgejl-
callɛlcalciiblɛbciib
lCf-
40
29
pulɔw lulɔw l-
Jdɛk
3.3 Reduplication
hɔy→hɛyhɔy
3.3.1 Incopyfixation
-a-
Table 11mɔɔj
mɔɔj
mɛjmɔɔj
mɛjnɔɔjnɛjmɔɔj
mamɔɔj
mnamɔɔj
tɛrmɔɔj
trɛjmɔɔj
trɛnmɔɔj
Table 12slɔg
slɔg
sɛglɔg
sɛnlɔgsnɛglɔg
salɔg
snalɔg
sɛrlɔg
srɛglɔg
srɛnlɔg
41
41
30
ɛɛ
-r- tr- ɛr rɛ
tɛrtrɛ
-ɛ-
tilɛktɛŋlɛk
self-compounding
btulbɛltul steˀsɛˀteˀtwis
tɛswis
-a- -r- -n-
4 Phrase-, clause- and sentence-structure
4.1 Simple sentences
4.1.1 The noun phrase
deek
deek mnuuˀ
deek yeeˀ
deek rɛh
deek mnuuˀ yeh
deek mnuuˀ ˀi-rɛh
31
hˀ
ha-ˀajəg ~hˀ ˀajəg
hˀ doh ~ha-doh
hˀ ˀajəg doh
deek kɛlkəl
deek kɛlkəl yeh
deek kɛlkəl rɛh
deek kɛlkəl ˀi-rɛh
na-cɛˀcaaˀ
na-cɛˀcaaˀ tuuy
ma-num-ˀɛn-
rɛˀ-
num-deek kɛlkəl ˀi-rɛh
ma-na-cɛˀcaaˀ tuuy
4.1.2 The verb phrase
bar-m-tɔˀ
ma-
32
na-ciib gejgej na-ciib
ˀɛm-caaˀ mnuuˀ-
tɔˀ
mnuuˀ ˀəh
mnuuˀ deek rŋah ha-ˀɛn-tuuy
tɔˀtɔˀ mɛˀnuuˀ deek naˀ
mɔˀ mnuuˀ ˀəhis
tɔˀ-m--m-
na-ciib
hɔj na-ciib
mtiiˀ nam-ciibm
mna-ciib nam-nɛɛhm
tɔˀmmtɔˀ mɔˀ nam-ˀog kim-ciib
m
tɔˀ-m-m-
-m-m-ˀi-sluh ɲam ˀim-recm
tɔˀ-m-ma
-m-mahɔj mu-pluˀ ma-kanɛɛˀmma
tɔˀ | (ˀe-loˀ) tɔˀ ha-reɲrec sej mɛjmɛj naˀ
tɔˀ-m-bar-
-bar-tiiˀ na-bar-lɛhbar-
tɔˀ(jhˀ naˀ) tɔˀ na-bar-slaaˀ-bar-
4.2 Word-order(s)
ma-deek
deek mɛjmɛjciib gej
deek tuuy
deek hˀ
nɛˀ deek
deek tɛnˀɛl yeh
33
subject topic
4.2.1 The ‘double-subject’ construction – subject or topic?
42
ciib
yeeˀ ˀi-ciibˀun-naˀ mu-
ciib
golaphalab
bar- -m-third
naˀdoh
tɛɛˀ
42
34
Table 13
deek yeh
Person
Free
Proclitic
indicative
Proclitic
irrealis
Enclitic
(unaccented)
Singular
yeeˀ
ˀi-ciib
ˀim-ciib
yeh
hˀ
ha-ciib
ham-ciib
hah
na-
na-ciib
nam-ciib
ˀəhˀə-
Dual
ˀaar
ˀa-ciib
ˀam-ciib
ˀah
yaar
ya-ciib
yam-ciib
yah
kˀan
kˀa-ciib
kˀam-ciib
kˀan
wɛ-
wɛ-ciib
wɛm-ciib
wɛh
Plural
ˀɛɛˀ
ˀɛ-ciib
ˀɛm-ciib
ˀɛh
kanɛɛˀ
ki-ciib
kim-ciib
kanɛh
ɲɔb
ɲɔ-ciib
ɲɔm-ciib
ɲɔb
ˀun-
ˀun-ciib
mu-ciib
ˀunˀən
Interrogative
cɔɔˀ
rə-ciib
rum-ciib
ceeˀyi-ciibyim-ciib
kandeeˀ~kaneeˀkani-ciibkanim-ciib
cɔɔˀrə-
rum-rə-rum-cɔɔˀ
without
Jajaaˀ,
ham-kʉs
ham-rɛɲrec
hˀ.
Ceeˀ
ˀi-kalɔɔn.
youI
43
43
. Alves (2015 540541) discusses these proclitic pronouns as examples of subject agreement, observing that Aslian
languages possess the fullest such systems among the Mon-Khmer subgroup of Austroasiatic.
35
Ɂi-gɔb
ˀə-naˀ
na-piɲjam
motooh
klooˀ
ˀəh.
Na-piɲjam
motooh
klooˀ
ˀəh
ˀi-gɔb
ˀə-naˀ.
na-
Or
na-
na-
44
ˀi-
cə-
ˀi-
44
. label , as distinguished from simple (true) , nicely captures precisely this
ambiguity the so-called
construction of Classical Latin.
36
cə-ˀi-
ha-
45
46
view
standardised view
45
46
37
4.2.1 Word-order: discussion
na-piɲjam motooh
gɔb naˀ
cal
Sɛnˀɔɔy
ˀun-gagit
ˀɔɔk.
Wɛ-pˀɛh
kdeeg
wɛ-naˀ.
-m-
Ɂim-cal
cnal
Wɛˀwooˀ
Wɛˀwooˀ
Na-slɔg
gɛɛg
yah.
yeeˀ
Yeeˀ
ˀim-rik.
38
Mɛj
ˀolah
ˀəh.
Cɛp
babɔˀ
ca-naˀ
Rɛgweeg
ˀi-booˀ
dɔɔg
ˀəh
Lbeh la-
sɛnˀɔɔy
Ɂalʉj.
la-sɛnˀɔɔy
guuˀrɔh
Wɛ-rɔh,
guuˀ
ˀi-pəˀ
ˀəh,
rɔh
ˀi-klooˀ
ˀəh.
4.3 Questions and question-words
B||hiˀ
cə-hˀ
ha-caaˀ?
kahka-
kah
Ka-hˀ
ha-syɛj?
39
cɔɔˀloˀlɔɔˀrɔp
beel
ma-cɔɔˀnum-lɔɔˀ
cɔɔˀ
Cɔɔˀ
cɛˀcaaˀ
kway
doh
ˀa-tɛɛˀ?
cɔɔˀ
-m-
Cɔɔˀ
mu-tuh
ma-yeeˀ?
loˀˀeloˀ ~ ˀe-lo?
haloˀha-loˀlɛˀloˀ
loˀ
Loˀ
knʉʉh
hah?
loˀ
Loˀ
baraŋ
kˀan-ˀɛn
doh?
ˀeloˀi-loˀ
loˀloˀˀeloˀ
Ɂe-loˀ
kˀa-tuh
ˀa-tɛɛˀ?
Ɂe-loˀ
deh
kˀa-tuuk
ma-yeeˀ
doh?
ˀeloˀ
haloˀha-loˀhaloˀ
Ha-loˀ
lah
ˀim-kɛsbʉs
ˀa-naˀ?
40
loˀ lɛˀloˀ
Ha-mamɛɛŋ
lɛˀloˀ,
ha-tŋɔr
lɛˀloˀ?
mamɛɛŋ
lɔɔˀ loˀ
lɔɔˀ
num-ma-rɛˀ-ˀɛn-
Lɔɔˀ
ˀəh?
Num-lɔɔˀ
babooˀ
ha-slɔg
naˀ?
Ma-lɔɔˀ
ha-ciib?
Rɛˀ-lɔɔˀ
ˀam-rik
ma-tɛˀ
rɛh?
Ɂɛn-lɔɔˀ
ˀi-deek
un?
lɔɔˀ
Na-lɔɔˀ?
Na-doh?
rɔp
rɔm-
47
rɔpma-
Taliiˀ
ma-rɔp
kˀan-hɔɔd?
47
. This could be a loanword from Mon or Khmer, adopted during early trade relationsOld Mon rap /rp/ (?) to keep a
record of, Modern Mon ròp to keep [accounts], Khmer rɔ
əp to count, calculaterap to estimate (Shorto,
2014: 350).
41
Rɔp
cə-hˀ
kwɛɛs
hah?
you
ˀey
ˀey
Ɂəəˀ
tɔw,
ha-ˀey
bə-rɛˀ-naˀ?
bar
ˀey
-m-
4.4 Commands
-m-
-m-
Booˀ,
ham-siih
jawaˀ!
-m-
Tʉʉh
lah
naar
ˀwɔj!
Sŋeˀ
la-ham-sɛglɔg
ˀagɔˀjɛˀ ˀa-
ˀa-
-m-
Ɂagɔˀ
ha-ˀiid!
Ham-jɛˀ
ˀa-dadoˀ
Ɂa-dadoˀ!
4.5 Complex sentences
42
4.5.1 Coordination: chaining bɔˀ baruuˀ
Wɛ-cɔk
ha-ganas
ˀəh,
wɛ-lat
ganas
ˀə-naˀ,
wɛ-bəg.
na-
boot bɛdnɔd ˀəh
Na-kɔɔd
ˀi-lɛh
ˀə-naˀ
boot
bɛdnɔd
ˀəh,
na-dɔɔl
ˀɛn-bɛɛk
ˀəh …
pɛnlɔɔg
məəh
ˀəh,
dɔɔl
yəˀ
bɛɛk
ˀəh,
kɔɔd
sˀɔy,
dɔɔl
yəˀ
bɛɛk
ˀəh.
bood
because
Ɂadəəˀ!
ˀɛm-dadoˀ
ˀəh,
bood
na-yaap
doh.
4.5.2 Subordination: relative clauses rə-
solely
yaŋ
riiˀ
is
43
Na-maaˀ
ˀi-klooˀ
ˀə-naˀ
num-sɛnluh
ˀə-naˀ
Na-maaˀ
ˀi-pəˀ
ˀəh
sɛhluh
naˀ
sɛhluh
na-
in
4.5.2.1 Non-restrictive relative clauses
cɔh
cɛhcɔh
cɛhnɔh
cɛp
na-cɔh
kbəəˀ.
cɛp
cɛhcɔh
kbəəˀ
kbəəˀ
cɛhnɔh
cɛp
bar
bar-ba-
Cə-riiˀ
ˀə-doh
ba-trɛjsɔɔj
ˀɔɔk
ˀa-doh
44
ba-trɛjsɔɔj
na-na-ba-trɛjsɔɔj
sayɛɛk konal
babooˀ
snayɛɛk
kbəəˀ
knonal
yeh
4.5.2.2 Restrictive relative clauses
ˀun-sɛhsiih bə-jawaˀ na-
bar-yəˀ
ma-
Kmɔh
na-gɛlgəl
ma-ˀun-sɛhsiih
bə-jawaˀ.
naˀ
kayuuh
mnəəy
ˀəh
na-bar-yəˀ
naˀ
riiˀ ˀun-dɛˀdoˀ ˀa-tɛɛˀ
klooˀ
Jadiiˀ
na-wɛˀ
lah
ˀi-klooˀ
riiˀ
ˀun-dɛˀdoˀ
ˀa-tɛɛˀ.
Cɔɔˀ
canaaˀ
ha-bəˀ
naˀ?
45
klooˀ
na-
Na-nɛɛh
ctəəˀ
ˀi-kwaay
klooˀ
na-tɔɔd
naˀ.
ˀi-kway klooˀ na-tɔɔd naˀ
ˀi-
babooˀ
Num-lɔɔˀ
babooˀ
ha-slɔg
naˀ?
Babooˀ
na-ciib
num-deek
teh
ˀi-slɔg.
na-
Na-tibaaˀ
na-sɛnˀɔɔy
bidat
na-doh sɛnˀɔɔy bidat
*nam-sɛnˀɔɔy bidatna-sɛnˀɔɔy bidat
na-
Baruuˀ
na-kɔɔd
na-ˀamɛs
naˀ.
na-ˀamɛs naˀ
solely
also
4.5.2.3 A rare relative pronoun: rə-
cɔɔˀ
rə-
46
Cɔɔˀ
rə-tɛŋlɛk
yeh?
rə
Cɔɔˀ
rə-tˀɛl?
rə
rə-
rum-
cum-
Cɔɔˀ
rum-tɔɔd?
Cɔɔˀ
cum-tɔɔd?
cum-
nam-
rə-riiˀ
rə-
gerek kandeek hejek ki ampuni
Senoi rik eng terek seek ma kandeek
grɛˀ
kandeeˀ
hijɛˀ
ki-ˀampuniˀ
sɛnˀɔɔy
riiˀ
ˀun-trɛˀsɛɛˀ
ma-kandeeˀ.
riiˀ
rə-
rə-riiˀ
rə-
47
ʔe-loˀ
wɛ-ˀey
tɔˀ
wɛ-mɛˀmaaˀ
rə-bəəh
rə-kwa
a
s,
rə-
rə-
wɛ-kbʉs
lɛˀloˀ?
Acknowledgments
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