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251
Shell-midden sites are a common feature of the west Scot-
tish Mesolithic and Neolithic and are distributed along
mainland coasts and several of the Inner Hebridean
Islands. is chapter provides an overview of the shellsh-
ing practices of coastal foragers in the region. A compara-
tive analysis of the shellsh exploitation practices at four
midden sites, An Corran, Carding Mill Bay II, Raschoille
Cave, and Ulva Cave, is presented. More than species
of shellsh were represented in the middens. However,
only two genera were common: limpet (Patella spp.) and
periwinkle (Littorina spp.). Both species have been widely
used as food or as sh bait in recent times in this region.
Variation in species representation between the middens
is observed. is variation can be attributed in part to dis-
tinct sampling and/or recovery strategies, but also to local
dierences in shore substrate, topography, and exposure.
Certain species (e.g., European cowrie [Trivia spp.], edible
oyster [Ostrea edulis], and king scallop [Pecten maximus])
were specically collected for use as raw material in the
manufacture of utensils and adornments. e consistent
occurrence of incidental species provides insight into a
diverse range of economic activities conducted at the sites.
e Early to Middle Holocene shell middens of Scotland
have been the subject of archaeological enquiry since the
mid-th century. By the beginning of the th century
middens of potentially Early to Middle Holocene age had
been investigated at sites in almost all the coastal regions
of Scotland (e.g., Curle ; Dalrymple ; Grieve ;
CHAPTER NINETEEN
Mesolithic and Neolithic Shell
Middens in Western Scotland
A Comparative Analysis of Shellsh Exploitation Patterns
Catriona Pickard and Clive Bonsall
Tait ). Designated the “Scottish kitchen-middens” by J.
Brodie ( [], ), the shell mounds were described
as “refuse heaps” (Anderson ); their function was
assumed and their wider cultural meaning remained
largely unexplored. During the past years an upsurge
in research into the Scottish Mesolithic and the transition
from foraging to farming has led to renewed interest in
the shell middens of western Scotland in particular. Many
coastal midden sites on the west Scottish mainland and
on the islands of the Inner Hebrides have been systemat-
ically excavated and recorded (e.g., Bonsall, Sutherland,
and Lawson , ; Bonsall et al. , ; Connock,
Finlayson, and Mills ; Hardy and Wickham-Jones
; Mellars ; Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland ).
Excavations of the Oronsay shell middens were designed
to maximize recovery of economic and environmental
remains (Mellars ). More recently the wider cultural
signicance of these sites has been discussed (e.g., Bonsall
; Cobb ; Cummings ; Johnson and Bonsall
; Mellars ).
Faunal and oral remains recovered from the Scottish
middens reect signicant dietary diversity (Pickard and
Bonsall a). Remains of aquatic species—shellsh,
echinoderms, brachyurans, sh, and sea mammals—
invariably form the major components of the middens, but
carbonized plant remains, such as burdock seeds (Arctium
lappa) and hazelnut shells (Corylus avellana) and bones of
terrestrial mammals, most commonly red deer (Cervus
elaphus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa), are not infrequent.
is chapter presents a comparative analysis of the shell
assemblages from four midden sites to provide an over-
view of the shell-harvesting strategies practiced in western
Catriona Pickard and Clive Bonsall
Scotland during the Early to Middle Holocene ca. –
cal BC. Understanding the strategies employed can
provide information on the economic and cultural signi-
cance of shellsh for foragers and early farmers. Species
representation in the middens is compared in order to
determine whether specic shellsh species were targeted.
e harvesting strategies are reconstructed based on the
ecology and behavior of the shellsh species represented in
the midden, and based on ethnographic analogies with
recent and historic shellshing practices.
-
Of the four principal sites discussed in this chapter, An
Corran and Ulva Cave are situated on islands of the Inner
Hebrides, while Carding Mill Bay II and Raschoille Cave
are on the mainland coast. All four sites lie within caves or
rock-shelters (Figure .).
e An Corran rock-shelter is situated on the north-
east coast of the Isle of Skye, at °'"N, °'"W. A
salvage excavation in advance of road widening (Miket
and Saville ) revealed a complex sequence of depos-
its, which included distinct layers or lenses of shell-mid-
den material. e present authors studied the shellsh
remains and oered a provisional interpretation of the
site chronology (Pickard and Bonsall b). Radiocar-
bon and stratigraphic evidence was interpreted to indi-
cate that the midden deposits belong to several dierent
periods in the use of the site between ca. BP/
cal BC (Mesolithic) and ca. BP/ cal BC (Bronze
Age) or even later.
Ulva Cave (°'"N, °'"W) is an ancient sea cave
on the south side of the small island of Ulva, which lies just
o the west coast of the much larger island of Mull. e
site has been under investigation by the present authors
since (Bonsall, Sutherland, and Lawson , ;
Bonsall et al. , ; Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland
; Pickard and Bonsall ). A shell midden occupies
the entrance area of the cave. Radiocarbon dates on marine
shells, mammalian bone, and carbonized plant material
from the midden range between ca. and BP (ca.
– cal BC; Bonsall et al. , and unpublished
data), although the vast majority of the C dates are older
than BP ( cal BC), suggesting that the midden is
very largely of Mesolithic age. A large subsample of the
shell assemblage from Ulva Cave was analyzed by Nancy J.
Russell, Clive Bonsall, and Donald G. Sutherland (),
and we make use of their data in our consideration of the
Ulva Cave shell assemblage.
e two mainland sites, Carding Mill Bay II and
Raschoille Cave, lie within the town of Oban. ey are sit-
uated on opposite sides of a NE–SW–trending ridge, which
in the Middle Holocene (with a higher relative sea level)
was a rocky peninsula separating the ancient Oban embay-
ment from the Sound of Kerrera.
At Carding Mill Bay II (°'"N, °'"W), archaeo-
logical deposits inlled a narrow cle at the base of a for-
mer sea cli backing the Main Rock Platform, an ancient
shoreline that is extensively developed in central-west
Scotland. e site, which faces northwest toward the island
of Kerrera, was excavated by Clive Bonsall between
and . Two well-dened shell-midden layers were
recorded, separated by a thin layer of talus. No C dates
are available for Carding Mill Bay II, but the presence of
characteristic pottery and bones of domestic livestock
indicate a Late Neolithic date for the upper midden layer;
the age of the lower midden layer is uncertain (Barto-
siewicz, Zapata, and Bonsall ). e nearby site of
Carding Mill Bay I, excavated by Kenneth D. Connock in
the s, also contained a shell-midden deposit. Radio-
carbon dates for the midden at Carding Mill Bay I range
from ± to ± BP (ca. – cal BC), sug-
gesting an Early Neolithic context—possibly extending
back into the Final Mesolithic (Bonsall and Smith ;
Connock, Finlayson, and Mills ).
Raschoille Cave (°'"N, °'"W) lies ca. . kilo-
meter southeast of the Carding Mill Bay sites, at the edge
of the (former) Oban embayment, facing northeast. In two
brief excavation campaigns in the s (Connock ;
Sloan ), deposits containing marine shells, mamma-
lian and sh bones, and carbonized plant remains were
uncovered beneath stony deposits containing Neolithic
human remains. Bonsall () obtained AMS C dates on
various materials from the site. e dates from the shell-
rich deposits range between ca. and BP (–
cal BC), indicating a Late Mesolithic to Early Neo-
lithic context.
A number of other caves and rock-shelters containing
shell middens have been recorded in the Oban area since
the late th century, including MacArthur’s Cave and
Druimvargie Rockshelter excavated in – and ,
respectively (Anderson , ; Bonsall and Sutherland
). Although Armand D. Lacaille () published a
presence/absence list of the faunal remains from the sites,
few details of the middens and the shell assemblages
survive.
Mesolithic and Neolithic Shell Middens in Western Scotland
Identication
Shells were identied by comparison with reference col-
lections held by Archaeology at the University of Edin-
burgh and by the National Museum of Scotland. A total of
distinct species or genera of shellsh were identied at
the four midden sites (Table .). Some specimens could
not be attributed beyond the level of genus because of the
fragmentary and/or abraded condition of the shells. It is
likely, therefore, that the total number of species in the
shell assemblages is underrepresented.
Closely related species may be ecologically distinct, occu-
pying dierent habitats and exhibiting discrete patterns of
behavior (e.g., Williams b). Identication to species
level is thus potentially important for determining harvest-
ing strategies, which may in turn inuence interpretation of
the economic and cultural signicance of shell middens. For
example, Veneridae have been identied in three of the
assemblages analyzed: Carding Mill Bay II, Raschoille Cave,
and Ulva Cave. Eleven species of Veneridae are native to
British waters. ese species occupy either lower eulittoral
(e.g., Venerupis senegalensis) or sublittoral zones (e.g., Timo-
clea ovata). Generally, the Veneridae represented in the shell
Species/Genus Common Name
Aporrhais pespelecani Common pelican’s foot shell
Arctica islandica Icelandic cyprine
Bittium reticulatum Needle whelk
Buccinum undatum Buckie whelk
Calliostoma zizyphinum Painted topshell
Cerastoderma edule Common cockle
Cerastoderma glaucum Lagoon cockle
Chlamys opercularis Queen scallop
Cingula trifasciata n/a
Ensis ensis Common razor shell
Ensis siliqua/Ensis arcuatus Pod razor shell/Curved razor shell
Epitonium clathrus Common wentletrap
Gibbula cineraria Gray topshell
Gibbula umbilicalis Flat or purple topshell
Haliotis tuberculata Green ormer
Helcion pellicidum/Helcion laevis Blue-rayed limpet
Hinia reticulata (syn.Nassarius reticulatus) Netted dogwhelk
Littorina littorea Common periwinkle
Littorina mariae Flat periwinkle
Littorina neritoides (syn. Melarhaphe neritoides) Small periwinkle
Littorina obtusata Flat periwinkle
Littorina saxatilis species-complex Rough Periwinkle
Littorina spp. Periwinkles
Mimachlamys varia Variegated or black scallop
Modiolus modiolus Horse mussel
Mytilidae Mussel
Mytilus edulis Common mussel
Nucella lapillus Dogwhelk
Osilinus lineatus (syn. Monodonta lineata) Thick top-shell
Ostrea edulis Common oyster
Table .. Species and common name of shellsh identied in the four shell middens
Catriona Pickard and Clive Bonsall
Species/Genus Common Name
Patella spp. Limpet
Pecten maximus King scallop
Rissoa sp. Sea snail
Tapes decussatus (syn. Venerupis decussata) Chequered carpet shell
Trivia monacha/Trivia arctica Cowrie
Trocheridae Topshell
Turritella communis Auger shell
Veneridae Venus shell
Venerupis senegalensis (syn. Venerupis pullastra) Pullet carpet shell
Venus verrucosa Warty venus
assemblages were fragmented, with signicant surface abra-
sion that had removed the periostracum and distorted spe-
cies-specic surface sculpturing. Consequently, only three
species, Venerupis senegalensis, Venus verrucosa, and Tapes
decussatus, could be attributed with certainty. Each of these
species can occupy the low shore to the sublittoral (Fish and
Fish ). However, it is possible that specimens of sublitto-
ral species are also present.
ree species of Patella are native to British waters: the
black-footed limpet (P. depressa), the China limpet (P. u lys-
siponensis), and the common limpet (P. vulgata). Spe-
cies-specic attributes occur in the periostracum and/or
so tissues, rendering these species archaeologically indis-
tinguishable (Ebling et al. ). Russell, Bonsall, and
Sutherland () described P. vulgata and/or P. aspe ra as
present in the Ulva Cave midden. P. aspera , until recently
considered synonymous with P. ulyssiponensis, is now con-
sidered taxonomically and genetically distinct (Weber and
Hawkins ).
Morphometric analysis of Patella spp. specimens from
the shell assemblages (Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland
, and see below) demonstrates that limpet shells were
collected from all regions of the shore. Sympatric observa-
tions of the vertical distribution of P. ulyssiponensis and P.
vulgata have demonstrated that the former dominates
lower tidal populations, preferring continuous immersion,
whereas the latter, which exhibits greater tolerance of des-
iccation, is most frequent in mid- to high tidal regions
(Ebling et al. ; Moore ). It can be inferred from
this distribution that both P. vulgata and P. ulyssiponensis
are likely represented in the shell middens.
Although widely reported to be a southern species
reaching its northernmost distribution in Wales (e.g.,
Fretter and Graham ), recent records document the
occurrence of P. depressa populations on the west coast of
Scotland (Skewes ). It is therefore possible that all
three species, P. de pres sa, P. ulyssiponensis, and P. vulgata,
are present in the middens.
Similar problems of attribution apply to the two species
of Trivia, the Arctic cowrie (Tri v i a a r c t i c a) and the Euro-
pean cowrie (T. monacha), commonly found in British
waters, which are indistinguishable in the absence of so
tissues and where the periostracum is degraded (Lebour
). Although T. monacha is generally larger than T. arc-
tica (T. monacha grows to millimeters whereas T. arctica
reaches millimeters), “large” T. arcti ca specimens are a
regular component of southern populations (Vayssière
); that is, the two species are not morphometrically
discrete. Ecologically, however, the two species are dier-
ent. Both T. arc tica and T. monacha occupy the low shore
and sublittoral zone, but T. arctica occurs in higher densi-
ties in deeper waters (Lebour ).
Quantication
Shells and shell fragments identied to species level were
quantied by Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI), by
Number of Identiable Specimens (NISP), and by weight.
In this analysis of the shell assemblages, percentage rep-
resentation of species by MNI is utilized (Table .). e
shell assemblages vary signicantly in size with a relatively
small sample recovered from Raschoille Cave (n=,),
and larger samples from An Corran (n=,), Carding
Mill Bay II (n=,), and Ulva Cave (n=,). e occur-
rence of gastropod apices and whichever is the greater of
the le or right bivalve umbones were recorded. e pres-
ence of fragments of other species, not represented by apex
Mesolithic and Neolithic Shell Middens in Western Scotland
Species Representation
(MNI) An Corran Carding Mill Bay II Rascoille Cave Ulva Cave
Aporrhais pespelecani 1
Arctica islandica 1
Bittium reticulatum 1 1
Buccinum undatum 4 12 2
Calliostoma zizyphinum 1
Cerastoderma edule 7 28 1
Cerastoderma glaucum 1 1
Chlamys opercularis 3
Cingula trifasciata 11 1
Ensis ensis 2
Ensis siliqua/Ensis
arcuatus 2
Epitonium clathrus 1
Gibbula cineraria 1 1 21
Gibbula umbilicalis 13 6 1 14
Gibbula sp. 1 1
Haliotis tuberculata 1
Helcion spp. 1 253
Hinia reticulata 1
Littorina littorea 1,714 2,411 855 6,230
Littorina mariae 51 62 24 40
Littorina neritoides 1 2
Littorina obtusata 17 21 53 42
Littorina saxatilis
species-complex 25 4 10 25
Littorina spp. 1 150
Mimachlamys varia 1 1 4
Modiolus modiolus 2 3 10
Mytilidae 2 1 53
Mytilus edulis 53 1 30 12
Nucella lapillus 621 13 1 1,597
Osilinus lineatus 3
Ostrea edulis 4 62 6
Patella spp. 27,270 5,782 257 13,873
Pecten maximus 2 2 2 6
Rissoa spp. 2 4
Tapes decussatus 26 16
Trivia spp. 2 1 5
Trocheridae 23
Table .. Species representation by minimum number of individuals (MNI)
Catriona Pickard and Clive Bonsall
or umbo, was also noted. Dierential fragmentation and
preservation of the shells both within and between the
midden sites investigated, as well as dierent excavation
and recovery techniques, limit the usefulness of NISP
counts and shell weights for the purpose of comparative
analysis (see Marshall and Pilgrim and Claassen
for discussion of the analytical worth of the various quan-
tication methods used in archaeomalacology).
Morphometric analysis of the Patella spp. was con-
ducted following the procedures adopted by Russell, Bon-
sall, and Sutherland () to determine the shore regions
exploited. All measurements were taken with vernier calli-
pers to the nearest . millimeter.
Human Use of Shellsh
Ethnographic accounts suggest that, traditionally, shellsh
have been harvested for ve principal purposes, as food,
bait, raw material for tool/utensil manufacture, orna-
mentation, and currency (e.g., Meehan ; Stewart ;
Waselkov ). Generally, large common species are col-
lected for food and raw materials, with rarer and extra-lo-
cal species used for ornamentation and currency. Species
representation, harvesting strategies, processing methods,
and modication of shells may provide some insight into
the intended use of the shellsh recovered from the mid-
den sites.
Species Representation
Each of the assemblages analyzed comprised a similar range
of species (Table .), although there is some variation in
the occurrence of secondary species. Only two species/gen-
era were abundant, limpets (Patella spp.) and periwinkles
(Littorina littorea), the combined species representation
accounting for . percent of the assemblage at An Corran,
. percent at Carding Mill Bay II, . percent at Raschoille
Cave, and . percent at Ulva Cave. e greatest number
of distinct species/genera was identied at Ulva Cave (
Species Representation
(MNI) An Corran Carding Mill Bay II Rascoille Cave Ulva Cave
Turritella communis 3
Veneridae 1 101 17
Venerupis senegalensis 3 85 8
Venus verrucosa 1 2
TOTAL ASSEMBLAGE 29,774 8,341 1,556 22,437
species/genera are represented). is number may reect the
intensive recovery and processing methods used at this site,
as much as taphonomic or environmental factors. Virtually
all of the midden material excavated from Ulva Cave was
brought back to the laboratory for processing and analysis.
e material was wet-sieved through mesh sizes down to at
least one millimeter and the residues painstakingly picked
over for marine shells/fragments and other items of archae-
ological interest.
e relative abundance of the predominant species var-
ies both between and within assemblages (Figures .–
.). Patella spp. predominate at An Corran (. percent),
Carding Mill Bay II (. percent), and Ulva Cave (. per-
cent). is is a consistent feature of “Obanian” shell assem-
blages (cf. D. A. Jones ). However, although Patella spp.
are common in the Raschoille Cave assemblage, L. littorea
dominates (. percent).
Variation in secondary species representation is also
evident (Figures .–.). e assemblage at Raschoille
Cave is distinctive in the relative abundance of bivalves.
Ulva Cave is notable for the presence of two species that
have a southern distribution today. ick topshell (Osili-
nus lineatus) is a minor but consistent component of the
shell assemblage occurring throughout the lower part of
the midden (Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland ). Today
O. lineatus is restricted to waters south of Anglesey (Croth-
ers ; Kendall ). Another southern species identi-
ed in the midden, the European abalone (Haliotus tuber-
culata), currently reaches the northern limit of its
distribution in the Channel Islands. e presence of O.
lineatus and H. tuberculata indicates higher sea tempera-
tures in the Middle Holocene compared to today (Pickard
and Bonsall, unpublished data).
e Ulva Cave assemblage is also idiosyncratic in the
proportion of dogwhelk (Nucella lapillus) shells (> per-
cent). N. lapillus is present in very small quantities at An
Corran (ca. . percent) and virtually absent from
Raschoille Cave (. percent) and Carding Mill Bay II (.
percent). Ecologically, N. lapillus favors rocky shores
Mesolithic and Neolithic Shell Middens in Western Scotland
similar to those colonized by Patella spp. and L. littorea,
and as one of the most common species on intertidal
stretches of British shores (Freare ), N. lapillus might
be expected to feature in each of the middens. N. lapillus
was a signicant component of the shell assemblages from
the Oronsay sites (D. A. Jones ), Carding Mill Bay I
(Connock, Finlayson, and Mills ), and MacArthur
Cave (Anderson ). Changes in local shore ecology may
account for the signicant presence of N. lapillus at Card-
ing Mill Bay I and its rarity at Carding Mill Bay II, but fur-
ther discussion of the eect of ecological change on species
representation at the Carding Mill Bay sites is constrained
by poor chronological/stratigraphic resolution at Carding
Mill Bay I (Connock, Finlayson, and Mills ) and the
lack of C dates for Carding Mill Bay II. N. lapillus popula-
tions can be restricted on very sheltered shores through
predation by crabs (Hughes and Elner ). e scarcity
of N. lapillus at both Carding Mill Bay II and Raschoille
Cave may reect prevailing shore ecology at the time of
midden accumulation. However, predation by crabs is sel-
dom so heavy that N. lapillus is entirely absent. is leaves
open the possibility that some form of cultural selection
(resulting in avoidance or overexploitation) was responsi-
ble for the scarcity of N. lapillus at Carding Mill Bay II and
Raschoille Cave. N. lapillus is said to have a very distinc-
tive taste that many people today nd unpalatable (Croth-
ers ), and it is possible that some prehistoric groups
were similarly deterred from exploiting dogwhelks as a
source of food. Shell morphology in N. lapillus has been
demonstrated to vary with shore exposure, directly reect-
ing predation pressures. On sheltered shores, N. lapillus
populations have a relatively elongated shell and smaller
aperture; this form acts to exclude crab chelae, thereby
reducing predation (Hughes and Elner ). Associated
with shell elongation is an increase in wall thickness and
consequently a reduction in esh; these thick shells are
“less protable to crab predators” (Curry and Hughes ,
). is would also be true for human shellsh harvesters.
Reduction in animal size and the diculty of extracting
meat from a narrow aperture may have made the harvest-
ing of N. lapillus unprotable on certain very sheltered
shores. Since some birds, crustaceans, and sh are known
to feed on dogwhelks, it may be that the presence or
absence of N. lapillus in west Scottish shell middens is
related more to the use of this species as bait than as food,
reecting local dierences in shing customs and/or the
availability of sh and crustacean species that respond well
to dogwhelk bait. Dogwhelk exploitation was not neces-
sarily restricted to use as food or bait. A purple dye can be
obtained from the hypobranchial gland of N. lapillus, and
Table .. Species occurrence at the four shell-midden sites
Species/Genera
Aporrhais pespelecani
Arctica islandica
Bittium reticulatum
Buccinum undatum
Calliostoma zizyphinum
Cerastoderma edule
Cerastoderma glaucum
Chlamys opercularis
Cingula trifasciata
Ensis ensis
Ensis siliqua/Ensis
arcuatus
Epitonium clathrus
Gibbula cineraria
Gibbula umbilicalis
Gibbula spp.
Haliotis tuberculata
Helcion spp.
Hinia reticulata
Littorina littorea
Littorina mariae
Littorina neritoides
Littorina obtusata
Littorina saxatilis
species-complex
Littorina spp.
Mimachlamys varia
Modiolus modiolus
Mytilidae
Mytilus edulis
Nucella lapillus
Osilinus lineatus
Ostrea edulis
Patella spp.
Pecten maximus
Rissoa sp.
Tapes decussatus
Trivia spp.
Trocheridae
Turritella communis
Veneridae
Venerupis senegalensis
Venus verrucosa
An Corran
Carding Mill
Bay II
Raschoille
Cave
Ulva Cave
Catriona Pickard and Clive Bonsall
there was a small-scale dyeing industry in medieval Ire-
land based on dogwhelks (Cole , cited by Baker ).
However, there is no evidence for the use of such dyes in
Stone Age Scotland.
Harvesting Strategies
Detailed consideration of species ecology may indicate
harvesting practices. Shellsh collection strategies may
vary depending on:
. Horizontal distribution—e shore can be subdi-
vided into the littoral and the sublittoral based on
immersion. e littoral is the region between the limits
of high and low tides (also known as the intertidal
zone); the sublittoral is the region below the low-tide
level of the shore. Oen the vertical range of a species
found in the littoral zone will extend into the sublitto-
ral. However, a number of species occupy the sublitto-
ral zone exclusively and are never fully emersed. While
some of these sublittoral species may be collected by
hand in near-shore shallows, they oen inhabit deeper
waters. Systematic harvesting of sublittoral species
therefore involves dierent strategies from the gather-
ing of intertidal species. e latter can be hand-col-
lected in large quantities on the receding tide with little
or no specialized equipment, whereas the former would
require shellshing gear such as long-handled rakes or
nets, or could be gathered by divers.
. Vertical distribution—Shellsh can also be catego-
rized according to their vertical position: epifaunal
species lie on the substrate surface, infaunal species
burrow below the substrate, and semi-infaunal species
will be encountered partially buried. Harvesting of
infaunal species involves the greatest eort; rst, the
location of the shellsh must be established; then they
must be gathered by digging or dredging.
e ecological preferences of the species/genera identied
at the four sites under discussion are given in Table ..
Mesolithic and Neolithic Shell Middens in Western Scotland
Epifaunal, littoral species dominate the four assem-
blages analyzed. In spite of the variation in individual spe-
cies observed between the assemblages, consideration of
the ecological preferences of the most abundant species
(Patella spp., Littorina spp., N. lapillus, and Trochoidea)
indicates that the majority of the shellsh were harvested
from rocky shores (see Table .). Moreover Patella spp.,
Littorina spp., N. lapillus, and Trochoidea are among the
most abundant species on intertidal stretches of modern
shores (Little and Kitching ), suggestive of unselective
gathering of the shellsh readily available in the intertidal
zone. If shellshing was largely conned to the intertidal
zone, then the collection of cowrie shells from the shore at
low tide would likely preferentially select for T. monacha,
since T. arctic a occurs in higher densities in deeper waters
(Lebour ).
However, it is important to note that shell assemblages
may embody time-averaged accumulations; individual
shellshing expeditions may have been more selective
than suggested by the shell assemblages. Russell, Bonsall,
.. (opposite le) An Corran: relative abundance of species
by MNI.
.. (opposite right) Carding Mill Bay II: relative abundance
of species by MNI.
.. (above le) Raschoille Cave: relative abundance of spe-
cies by MNI—all species (top), minor species (bottom).
.. (above right) Ulva Cave: relative abundance of species by
MNI.
Catriona Pickard and Clive Bonsall
Species/Genus Position Substrate Vertical Distributiona
Chlamys opercularis epifaunal firm intertidal
Ostrea edulis epifaunal firm intertidal
Mimachlamys varia epifaunal firm sublittoral
Cingula trifasciata epifaunal mixed intertidal
Helcion spp. epifaunal mixed low littoral
Rissoa sp. epifaunal mixed mixed
Epitonium clathrus epifaunal mixed sublittoral/low littoral
Trivia monacha/Trivia arctica epifaunal mixed sublittoral/low littoral
Gibbula cineraria epifaunal rocky intertidal
Gibbula umbilicalis epifaunal rocky intertidal
Littorina littorea epifaunal rocky intertidal
Littorina mariae epifaunal rocky intertidal
Littorina neritoides epifaunal rocky intertidal
Littorina obtusata epifaunal rocky intertidal
Littorina saxatilis species-complex epifaunal rocky intertidal
Littorina spp. epifaunal rocky intertidal
Nucella lapillus epifaunal rocky intertidal
Osilinus lineatus epifaunal rocky intertidal
Patella spp. epifaunal rocky intertidal
Trocheridae epifaunal rocky intertidal
Calliostoma zizyphinum epifaunal rocky low littoral
Haliotis tuberculata epifaunal rocky low littoral
Hinia reticulata epifaunal sands/gravel intertidal
Buccinum undatum epifaunal sands/muds low littoral
Pecten maximus epifaunal sands/muds sublittoral
Veneridae infaunal mixed mixed
Turritella communis infaunal muds/gravels sublittoral
Tapes decussatus infaunal sands/gravel/mud low littoral
Cerastoderma edule infaunal sands/muds intertidal
Bittium reticulatum infaunal sands/muds low littoral
Cerastoderma glaucum infaunal sands/muds low littoral
Ensis ensis infaunal sands/muds low littoral
Venerupis senegalensis infaunal sands/muds low littoral
Venus verrucosa infaunal sands/muds low littoral
Aporrhais pespelecani infaunal sands/muds sublittoral from 10m
Arctica islandica infaunal sands/muds sublittoral from 10m
Ensis siliqua/Ensis arcuatus infaunal soft low littoral
Mytilus edulis semi-infaunal mixed intertidal
Mytilidae semi-infaunal mixed mixed
Modiolus modiolus semi-infaunal mixed sublittoral
a Vertical distribution refers to the highest point of the shore from which the species can be harvested, not the vertical range of the species
Table .. Summary of species ecology
Mesolithic and Neolithic Shell Middens in Western Scotland
and Sutherland () noted the presence of pockets of
shells of a single species in the Ulva Cave midden. Such
pockets may represent individual harvesting episodes.
is was also suggested by Joseph Anderson () to
account for the single-species concentrations of shells in
the MacArthur Cave midden. Targeted harvesting activi-
ties are consistent with ethnographic accounts of the shell-
shing practices of the Anbarra of Arnhem Land, north-
ern Australia. Betty Meehan () observed that shellsh
were gathered by women and children collecting a single
predetermined species on each expedition.
D. Aaron Jones () demonstrated that limpet shell
morphology (reected in the length/height ratio) is a use-
ful indicator of the shore zone from which the animal was
collected. Shell morphology varies with position on the
shore, reecting emersion time. When not immersed, lim-
pets attach strongly to rock to prevent desiccation and
reduce predation risk; in this process muscle exertion
causes shells in the upper shore zone to exhibit elongated
height relative to overall length.
Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland () established that
the morphology of limpets at Ulva Cave was consistent
with collection mainly from the middle and lower zones of
the littoral. However, further work on midden samples
from Ulva Cave indicates that there are areas within the
midden where limpet morphology is more heterogeneous
than in the samples examined by Russell, Bonsall, and
Sutherland ()—suggesting some harvesting from the
upper shore. Similar heterogeneity was apparent in some
samples from An Corran (Pickard and Bonsall ).
ese observations are reinforced by the pattern of occur-
rence of other shellsh species. A single occurrence of Lit-
torina neritoides at Ulva Cave and the more frequent pres-
ence of Littorina saxatilis at both An Corran and Ulva
Cave suggest harvesting of shellsh from the upper shore
zone. is is further supported by the co-occurrence of
four species of topshell in the Ulva Cave assemblage. Com-
petition for food results in a discrete vertical distribution
of the ecologically similar topshell species (Crothers ).
C. zizyphinum and G. cineraria inhabit the lower shore, G.
umbilicalis the middle shore, and O. lineatus the upper
zone.
It can be inferred from the dominance of epifaunal, lit-
toral species that little specialized technology would have
been required for shellshing, although a wide range of
expedient and specialized tools may have been utilized,
e.g., digging tools and collecting baskets. As Russell, Bon-
sall, and Sutherland () note, there has been discussion
about the need for some form of hammer to remove
limpets from rocks. Limpets attach strongly to rocks when
not feeding, making it dicult to pry them from the slight
depressions or “home scars” in which they sit. Hundreds
of bevel-ended bone and/or stone implements have been
recovered from sites such as MacArthur Cave and Caisteal
nan Gillean I (Anderson ). Anderson () noted the
similarity of the larger examples to “limpet hammers” tra-
ditionally used to harvest limpets. Experimental limpet
harvesting by Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland ()
found that removing limpets by direct percussion caused
damage to the shell and removal by indirect percussion
oen resulted in shellsh loss. Janet Gritts and Bonsall
() observed that it was easier to remove limpets when
they were just below the waterline or submerged in rock
pools. Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland () noted that
limpets are most readily gathered when they are feeding,
when it is oen possible to remove them by hand. At this
time they leave the safety of their home scars in search of
food and are only weakly attached to the substrate. Limpet
feeding behavior is not directly related to immersion;
rather it is temporally restricted to reduce risk of predation
by crabs and starsh at high tide and by birds at low tide
(Little ; Williams et al. ). Limpets in the upper
reaches of the shore generally feed at night, whereas those
occupying the lower shore tend to feed during the day (Lit-
tle ). Temporal variation in the feeding behavior of
limpets may have inuenced the scheduling of shellshing
expeditions, and nighttime gathering has been widely
reported among ethnographically known shellsh gather-
ers (e.g., Kennedy and Bouchard ; omas ).
Infaunal species and sublittoral species are a consistent
but secondary component of each of the middens. Infaunal
species comprise a small proportion of the shell assem-
blages at An Corran (. percent), Carding Mill Bay II (.
percent), Raschoille Cave (. percent), and Ulva Cave (.
percent). As noted above, the Raschoille Cave assemblage
stands out because of the relatively high proportion of
infaunal bivalves represented. e presence of signicant
quantities of these species in conjunction with the pre-
dominance of gastropods such as limpets and topshells
that have primitive gill systems and consequently are obli-
gate inhabitants of rocky substrates suggests that either ()
a mixed foreshore existed at Raschoille cave (i.e., a combi-
nation of so and rm substrates), or () shellsh were reg-
ularly harvested from dierent shores and then processed
and/or deposited at the site. Although Raschoille Cave is
now located some distance from the modern shore, in the
Middle Holocene the site would have been marginal to a
sheltered inlet where a variety of substrate types would
Catriona Pickard and Clive Bonsall
have existed near the cave, which favors the former expla-
nation. Although the proportions of shellsh species are
distinctive at Raschoille Cave, the harvesting strategy
adopted is essentially the same as that observed at the
other sites analyzed; in other words, there was an appar-
ently unselective gathering of the shells available in the
intertidal zone. is is suggestive of a “least eort”
approach to shellsh gathering.
A survey of the distribution and abundance of infaunal
bivalves conducted by the Marine Laboratory of Aberdeen
reinforces this hypothesis. On average the bivalves inhab-
iting the coastal waters of Scotland contain more meat per
individual than many gastropod species (although admit-
tedly the gastropod Buccinum undatum can grow very
large). Furthermore, bivalves are widely considered to be
more palatable than many gastropods and as such are the
primary focus of many modern commercial shellsheries
(e.g., Fernandez-Moreno et al. ). Bivalves might there-
fore be expected to be the target of prehistoric shellsh
harvesting strategies. e Aberdeen Marine Laboratory
survey recovered distinct species of bivalve in Scottish
coastal waters (McKay ). Surveys of the coastal waters
of southwest and northwest Scotland (regions incorporat-
ing the sites discussed in this chapter) indicate that several
of the most commonly occurring infaunal bivalves (e.g.,
Dosinia exoleta, Dosinia lupinus, Lucinoma borealis, and
Circomphalus casina), which occupy the lower littoral zone
and could have been harvested at low water with the aid of
digging sticks, rakes, or nets, are notable by their absence
from the middens. Combining the biology and behavior of
the species represented in the midden with information on
the species that are “missing” from the middens indicates
that shellshing was conducted expediently, with the most
accessible and abundant species being targeted.
Of the infaunal species identied at Carding Mill Bay II,
Raschoille Cave, and Ulva Cave, e.g., Cerastoderma spp.,
Tapes decussatus, Venerupis senegalensis, and Ve n u s ve rru-
cosa, most occupy habitats a short distance (ca. ve–ten
centimeters) beneath the substrate surface and can be
gathered relatively easily by shallow digging at low tide
(Fish and Fish ). Razor shells (Ensis spp.) may be the
exception to this. J. Holden () claims that harvesting
razor shells requires considerable skill. Although razor
shells can be readily located at low tide from the character-
istic keyhole-shaped cast of their burrows le on the sur-
face of the sand, this genus can descend to depths of up to
centimeters when disturbed (N. S. Jones ) and is
anecdotally reported to burrow faster than its pursuer can
dig. Traditional methods of collecting razor shells include
digging at low tide, salting shores (causing the razor shell
to emerge from its burrow), and spearing with a small
barbed projectile (Kenchington, Duggan, and Riddell ;
von Brandt ). However, as with other infaunal/sublit-
toral species, they can sometimes be collected in large
numbers on the shore following storms (Darling ).
A single specimen of Icelandic cyprine (Arctica
islandica) is the only infaunal species identied at An Cor-
ran, likely reecting the dominance of rocky and coarse
gravel shores in this region of Skye, again suggestive of
unselective gathering of intertidal shellsh available in the
vicinity of the site. It is conceivable that the A. islandica
specimen was collected empty from the shore or was trans-
ported to the site from elsewhere on Skye with a so-sub-
strate shore suited to its ecology.
Sublittoral species are surprisingly uncommon, com-
prising . percent of the total assemblage at An Corran,
. percent at Carding Mill Bay II, . percent at
Raschoille Cave, and . percent at Ulva Cave. Many sub-
littoral species are important commercially exploited
foods today and are observed ethnographically to be used
for food and raw materials.
Modiolus modiolus is generally reported to be a sublitto-
ral species and is abundant in waters deeper than ten
meters. However Modiolus modiolus does occupy the very
shallow sublittoral at low densities (Dinesen and Ockel-
mann ). e very small quantities of Modiolus modio-
lus recovered are not suggestive of systematic gathering of
even shallow sublittoral species.
Two sublittoral species of scallop, king scallop (Pecten
maximus) and black scallop (Mimachlamys varia), also
occur in small quantities in each of the shell middens (.
percent at An Corran, . percent at Carding Mill Bay II,
. percent at Raschoille Cave, and . percent at Ulva
Cave). As with Modiolus modiolus there is a widely held
perception that the distribution of adult P. maximus is
restricted to waters in excess of ten meters depth (Marshall
and Wilson ). e Ama of Japan, among the best
known traditional divers, regularly dive to collect shell-
sh, sea urchins, and octopus. Unassisted, the Ama gener-
ally dive to depths considerably less than ten meters (Hong
et al. ; Hong and Rahn ). Low temperatures and
limited visibility in Scottish coastal waters may have
placed further restrictions on free diving; diving for deep-
er-water scallops in the early to mid-Holocene in west
Scotland is unlikely. However, the current distribution of
P. maximus in British coastal waters may reect recent
overshing. Accounts by modern scallop divers suggest
that distributions have changed signicantly within the
Mesolithic and Neolithic Shell Middens in Western Scotland
last years in the British Isles. Until recently, large scal-
lops were reportedly harvested in waters considerably less
than . meters deep (Mason ). Although scallops may
have been available in the shallow sublittoral at the time of
midden accumulation, regular diving for sublittoral spe-
cies still seems unlikely. is is inferred from the relative
scarcity of scallop shells in the middens analyzed, rein-
forced by evidence that some of these at least were col-
lected as empty shells on the shore, presumably for use as
raw material (Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland ).
Other sublittoral and infaunal species are very rare in
the midden assemblages, which suggests that they were
not regularly exploited. Two specimens of common peli-
can’s foot (Apporhais pespelecani) and several tower shells
(Turritella communis) were identied at Ulva Cave. As
with the scallop shells it is possible that these species were
gathered empty from the shore. e lack of sublittoral and
infaunal species at each of the sites investigated further
supports the hypothesis of a “least eort” shellshing
strategy.
Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland () reported the pres-
ence of signicant numbers of very small shells at Ulva
Cave, including those of L. littorea, N. lapillus, and Helcion
pellucidum, which they argued were too small to have been
collected as food or bait and had probably been trans-
ported to the site attached to seaweed.
Helcion (rayed limpets) attach to laminarian species and
fucoid seaweeds (Graham and Fretter ). e form of
Helcion varies according to the part of the seaweed to
which it attaches. On the basis of this habitat-induced
morphological variation, Graham and Fretter () sug-
gested that Helcion should be attributed to two species: H.
pellucidum, which inhabits the fronds of seaweeds and has
an oval form with an o-center apex; while H. laevis,
which occupies the holdfasts of seaweeds, is atter and
more irregular in shape, with a roughly central apex. e
two species of Helcion also have distinctive shell coloring;
H. laevis has up to alternating red/brown and green
rays whereas H. pellucidum has up to blue rays (Graham
and Fretter ). Although the periostracum (and there-
fore distinguishing color) is absent, the specimens recov-
ered from Ulva Cave display variable form and both
morphs may be represented.
In addition to the incidental species identied by Rus-
sell, Bonsall, and Sutherland (), there are several other
economically unimportant species (i.e., small species or
specimens with little esh that are not particularly rare or
decorative) at Ulva Cave and the other sites included in
this study. Two species of at periwinkle (L. obtusata and
L. mariae) fall into this category and, like the rayed limpet,
may have found their way onto the sites attached to sea-
weeds. Small specimens (some as small as three millime-
ters in length) of at periwinkles occur consistently
throughout the midden deposits at An Corran, Carding
Mill Bay II, and Ulva Cave. Both species attach to brown
algae on which they feed (Williams a); however, they
occupy distinct micro-algal zones (Ekendahl ). L.
mariae attaches to toothed wrack (Fucus serratus), whereas
L. obtusata is found on knotted wrack (Ascophyllum nodo-
sum) or bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosis) (Reimchen ;
Williams b). At Raschoille Cave the relative abun-
dance of at periwinkle in certain contexts is suggestive of
episodic increase in seaweed exploitation. Generally
regarded as a species targeted for use as raw material
because of the perforated specimens found in abundance
at the Oronsay middens (D. A. Jones , ), Trivi a spp.
may also have entered the midden deposits on seaweeds;
the ascidians on which they feed oen attach to seagrasses
(Zostera spp.) (Lebour ). e sea snail Cingula trifasci-
ata and other members of the Rissoidae have been found at
Carding Mill Bay II, Raschoille Cave, and Ulva Cave.
ese species are associated with knotted wrack and other
algae (Viejo and Aberg ). A further small species, the
needlewhelk (Bittium reticulatum), which was identied at
Ulva Cave and Raschoille Cave, is commonly found on eel-
grass, Zostera spp., and knotted wrack. us, on this evi-
dence, a wide range of dierent seaweeds appears to have
been systematically harvested. Russell, Bonsall, and
Sutherland () suggested that the seaweed was collected
for use in food processing, either as fuel or for wrapping
around sh or shellsh prior to baking in open res. is
interpretation was supported by the presence of pieces of
vitreous slag in the Ulva Cave midden thought to have
resulted from the burning of seaweed.
Not all of the incidental species/specimens identied are
associated with seaweeds. Common wentletrap (Epito-
nium clathrus), for example, feeds on sea anemones such as
Anemonia sulcata (Gittenberger ). Generally sublitto-
ral, needlewhelks migrate to the lower shore in spring and
summer to breed. Large populations are frequently washed
ashore en masse and can be readily gathered in littoral
regions at this time (Billiau ). Needlewhelks seldom
exceed millimeters in length, and as such are economi-
cally unimportant; however, they may have been collected
for the purple dye they exude when distressed (Keen ).
Catriona Pickard and Clive Bonsall
Acorn barnacles, the calcareous plates of which are well
represented in each of the shell assemblages discussed, are
also likely to have been transported to the site uninten-
tionally, attached to a range of objects such as stones, sea-
weed, and driwood as well as shells.
Processing Strategies
Ethnographic and ethnohistoric accounts of process-
ing practices indicate that shellsh intended for human
consumption are oen cooked. Cooking may not relate
directly to palatability and is more oen undertaken to
extract the shellsh esh; the easiest way to obtain the
meat of bivalves is by heating the shellsh. Many gastro-
pod species (including limpets and periwinkles) are also
reported to be easier to remove from their shells if the
animal is rst killed by immersion in boiling water. e
large number of intact periwinkles recovered from each of
the assemblages analyzed may reect cooking to aid meat
extraction. Unfortunately the most common forms of
cooking recorded, for example boiling, steaming, or bak-
ing, are of short duration and generally leave little trace on
the shell (Waselkov ). Although cooking activities are
suggested by the presence of charred shells at An Corran,
Carding Mill Bay II, and Ulva Cave, burnt shell constitutes
only a very small proportion of the shell assemblages (<
percent by weight) and as such does not provide evidence
for the systematic cooking of shellsh. It is important to
note, however, that the majority of the burnt shell frag-
ments at Ulva Cave and Carding Mill Bay II were Littorina
spp. possibly reecting the widespread practice of heating
these gastropods to facilitate meat extraction. Multiple
hearths and burnt lenses of shells attest to cooking activi-
ties at the Oronsay shell middens dated to the Late Meso-
lithic, ca. – cal BC (Mellars ). Russell, Bonsall,
and Sutherland () reported a “Neolithic cooking pit” at
Ulva Cave containing carbonized cereal grains, charcoal,
and shell fragments, but new single-entity C dates on car-
bonized cereal grains conict with a previous radiometric
C date on charcoal and suggest the pit feature is probably
of Medieval date (Bonsall, unpublished data).
As at Ulva Cave (cf. Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland
), N. lapillus specimens from An Corran are more
fragmented than the shells of L. littorea. Oen the spires of
the N. lapillus specimens have been removed. Since dog-
whelks generally have thicker, more robust shells than per-
iwinkles, this evidence suggests deliberate breakage of
dogwhelks rather than post-depositional damage. D. A.
Jones () notes a similar pattern of damage to dog-
whelks in the Oronsay assemblages. Breaking the spire is
an eective way of accessing the shellsh meat. is is
demonstrated on sheltered shores by the approach taken
by crabs to exploiting N. lapillus; rather than trying to
fracture the aperture with their chelae, the crabs attempt
to crack open the top of the shell (Hughes and Elner ).
Food versus Bait
Shellsh are widely exploited today as both food and bait.
Many of the most commercially valuable food species (e.g.,
Ensis spp., Ostrea edulis, and Pecten maximus) are widely
considered to be the most eective baits. Ensis spp. are
particularly prized for their ecacy in catching a wide
range of sh species (Darling ). By contrast, the pre-
dominant shellsh in Early-Middle Holocene middens in
western Scotland, Patella spp., are widely perceived today
as poor tasting and useful only as sh bait. In traditional
Scottish sheries, limpets and periwinkles are reported to
have been commonly used as bait (Fenton ), but they
are also widely documented to have been used as food (e.g.,
Fenton ), and modern informants who have actually
tasted limpets oen nd them to be very palatable, espe-
cially when baked.
Margaret R. Deith () argued that shells intentionally
broken to extract the meat were likely to have been used as
bait, whereas shells that had been heated were human
food. It might be inferred from such a statement that many
of the shells found in the middens, such as the fractured
dogwhelks at Ulva Cave, were collected for use as bait for
sh and crustaceans. As Russell, Bonsall, and Sutherland
() point out, recent shellsh processing strategies oen
involve shucking or breaking of shells to extract meat for
human food. Gregory A. Waselkov () noted that shell-
sh are oen consumed with shell fragments le in the
meat. Patterns of fracture are therefore not a reliable indi-
cator of intended use.
Two things follow from this: one is that ethnocentric
evaluations of shellsh palatability should be treated with
caution; the other is that it would be dicult to distinguish
intended use on the basis of species representation alone.
ere are few features that distinguish food assemblages
from bait assemblages. Arguably, the shell assemblage
from Ulva Cave is more consistent with food use given the
evidence for collection of potential fuels (e.g., seaweeds)
for on-site cooking activities and the recovery of burnt
shells at the site. Moreover, during the Early-Middle Holo-
cene, Ulva Cave was at least meters from the shoreline
in very rugged terrain, and it seems improbable that shell-
sh intended for bait would have been transported to the
cave for processing prior to use, and much more likely that
Mesolithic and Neolithic Shell Middens in Western Scotland
they would have been processed and the shells discarded
on the shore.
Use of Shellsh as Raw Material and
the Manufacture of Artifacts
Many coast-dwelling communities, both archaeologically
and ethnographically documented, made use of shells for
the manufacture of artifacts (Stewart ; Waselkov ).
e collection of shells for raw material rather than food
or bait can be established in archaeological assemblages by
the presence of () encrustation of the interior surface of
the shell or perforation by carnivorous gastropods, both
of which would indicate that the shell had been collected
empty, () use-wear, and () manufacturing traces reect-
ing deliberate modication for use as utensils or decorative
objects. Such evidence occurs relatively infrequently in the
shell assemblages analyzed.
It may be inferred from the presence of true sublittoral
species (as discussed above) that certain shells were col-
lected empty from the shore. Fragments of common peli-
can’s foot (A. pespelecani) were identied in the Ulva Cave
assemblage. is species has two subspecies, one of which,
A. pespelecani pespelecani, is more abundant in southern
European waters today; the other, A. pespelecani bilobatus,
is more commonly found in Boreal Atlantic waters. Both
subspecies have been found in the oshore waters of the
west coast of Scotland. e remains from Ulva Cave are
too fragmentary to identify to subspecies level, particu-
larly given the morphometric variation observed within
each subspecies. It is likely, given the species ecology
(infaunal at depths of greater than meters), that this
shell was collected empty on the shore and may have
attracted the attention of prehistoric beachcombers
because of its unusual, highly decorative form.
At An Corran two Triv i a spp. shells were recovered; nei-
ther of these specimens was perforated, but it is likely they
were collected for use as raw material or introduced attached
to seaweed. Perforated examples of Trivia spp. were found in
the Ulva Cave assemblage. A single example with a double
perforation was recovered from the upper part of the mid-
den and a further example with quadruple perforations was
identied in the lower midden deposits. Unperforated Tr iv ia
spp. shells were also present. e quantities of Tr ivia spp.
from An Corran and Ulva Cave are insignicant when com-
pared to the much larger numbers reported from the Oron-
say sites (Bishop ; Mellars ), perhaps reecting dif-
ferences in behavior patterns between sites.
A. Henderson Bishop () reported the presence in a
Mesolithic shell midden on Oronsay of P. maximus shells
with edges that were worn by use, and interpreted them as
having served as scoops or ladles. Similarly, Paul A. Mel-
lars () reported nds of P. maximus shells with edge
wear and manufacturing traces from other sites on Oron-
say; while Anderson () described nds of P. maximus
shells from MacArthur Cave, which were thought to have
been used as scoops. Shells of P. maximus were recovered
in small quantities from An Corran, Carding Mill Bay II,
and Raschoille Cave; however, they are not obviously mod-
ied and there is no indication that they were used as tools
or utensils. P. maximus was more abundant at Ulva Cave
but the shells are highly abraded, although several frag-
ments have wear and polish on the edge that may have
resulted from use. Similar wear has been observed on the
lower valves of Ostrea edulis shells at Ulva Cave. A more
detailed study of these nds involving microscopic exam-
ination of the edges will be necessary in order to deter-
mine if and how the shells were used.
As noted above, the single valve of A. islandica from the
midden deposits at An Corran may also have been col-
lected as raw material. e edges of this specimen are
highly abraded, and no obvious traces of use or manufac-
turing are evident.
Our synthesis of the data from four coastal shell middens
in western Scotland has provided new insights into the
human use of shellsh by Mesolithic and Neolithic groups
and into the cultural signicance of the middens.
e relative abundance of the species identied at each
of the four sites analyzed suggests that the focus of shell-
shing activities was epifaunal species, unselectively har-
vested from the intertidal zone of the shore in the vicinity
of the site. e rarity of infaunal and sublittoral species at
each site analyzed further suggests that shellshing was a
“least eort” foraging strategy.
e systematic collection of seaweeds is suggested by
the consistent occurrence of incidental species. Evidence
for the use of seaweed as fuel and the presence of charred
shells is consistent with heating shellsh to extract meat.
Although shellsh may have been collected as sh bait,
it is likely that shellsh transported back to sites such as
Ulva Cave, which was located some distance from the con-
temporaneous shoreline, were collected as food. Process-
ing of shellsh for bait is likely to have taken place at sh-
ing grounds, namely, close to the shore.
Several species of sublittoral shellsh appear to have
been collected in small numbers for use as raw material.
Catriona Pickard and Clive Bonsall
Only a small proportion of these shells bears traces of
modication. None of these species appears to have been
systematically harvested, and they were most likely oppor-
tunistically gathered during shellshing expeditions along
the foreshore, reinforcing the impression of a least eort
gathering strategy.
. Caution must be exercised in the use of shell morphology as
an absolute marker of shore position. Populations of P. ulyssipon-
ensis and juvenile P. vulgata may permanently inhabit rock-pools
in mid- and upper-shore regions (Delany, Myers, and McGrath
, Noël et al. ). In such locations limpets are continuously
submerged, and shell morphology might be expected to mimic
that of low-shore populations. Moreover, prolonged periods of
storminess and strong wave action have elongating eects on
shells from the lower- and mid-shore zones (Yonge ). Martha
V. Andrews and colleagues () identied changes in N. lapillus
morphology in the Oronsay shell assemblages that were linked to
variations in storm frequency during the Holocene, suggesting
that shell morphometry may not be a straightforward measure of
shore position.
301
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355
Myrian Álvarez (PhD in archaeology, Universidad de Bue-
nos Aires, Argentina) is a researcher of Centro Austral de
Investigaciones Cientícas (Ushuaia) of the Consejo Nacio-
nal de Investigaciones Cientícas y Técnicas of Argentina
(CONICET). She is a specialist in use-wear analysis in
lithics and in shell middens, and she is working on hunt-
er-sher-gatherer societies from the Beagle Channel, Tierra
del Fuego, Argentina. myrianalvarez@gmail.com.
Pedro Alvim (PhD candidate, University of Durham;
MA, archaeology: University of Évora, Portugal) is an
archaeologist member of CHAIA research center (Univer-
sity of Évora) and has been researching prehistoric mon-
uments and architecture for een years. pdro.alvim@
gmail.com.
José Antonio Anacleto has worked at the Geological
Museum, Lisbon, since 2000 and is studying environmen-
tal sciences at the Open University, Lisbon. jose.moita@
lneg.pt.
Célia Helena Cezar Boyadjian (PhD in biology [genetics],
Universidade de São Paulo [USP], Brazil) is a researcher
at Laboratorio de Antropologia Biologica, in USP and
a visiting researcher at Max-Planck-Institute for Evo-
lutionary Anthropology. She specializes in the analysis
of modern and ancient plant micro-remains (pollen
grains and phytoliths but mainly starch grains), and
also of dental calculus contents. Her research interests
include reconstruction of ancient diets and food process-
ing, use of plants in the past, subsistence changes, and
origins and dispersion of agriculture in South America,
CONTRIBUTORS
shell-mound-builders subsistence, and studies of paleopa-
thology and paleoparasitology.
Clive Bonsall is a professor of early prehistory at the
University of Edinburgh, Scotland. His research inter-
ests include hunter-gatherer societies, the transition to
farming in Europe, the reconstruction of ancient diets,
and human-environment interactions. He has conducted
eldwork in northern Britain, Romania, and Slovenia, and
is a corresponding member of the Romanian Academy of
Scientists. Clive.Bonsall@ed.ac.uk.
Todd J. Braje (PhD, anthropology, University of Oregon,
USA) is an assistant professor of anthropology at San
Diego State University. His research interests include the
historical ecology of coastal hunter-gatherers and the
application of deep historical data to modern sheries
management. tbraje@mail.sdsu.edu.
Meghan Burchell (PhD, anthropology, McMaster Uni-
versity, Canada), is an assistant professor at Memorial
University of Newfoundland. Her research interests include
improving seasonality methods for archaeological interpre-
tation thorough high-resolution stable isotope sclerochro-
nology and the archaeology of hunter-gatherer settlement,
and subsistence strategies. mburchell@mun.ca.
Aubrey Cannon (PhD, archaeology, University of Cam-
bridge, UK), is a professor in the Department of Anthro-
pology, McMaster University. His research areas include
hunter-gatherer settlement and subsistence and marine-
based economies in British Columbia and Tonga, as well
Contributors
mortuary practices and material fashion in both the
prehistoric and Victorian eras. cannona@mcmaster.ca.
António Faustino Carvalho (PhD, archaeology Universi-
dade do Algarve, Portugal), is an assistant professor at the
Universidade do Algarve. Research interests include the
origins of the early farming societies in the Mediterranean
world and their development. afcarva@ualg.pt.
Terence N. Clark (PhD, anthropology, University of
Toronto, Canada) is curator of western Canadian archae-
ology at the Canadian Museum of Civilization, and a
research associate at the Institute of Archaeology, Uni-
versity College London. He has extensive archaeological
eld experience across the Northwest Coast, Plateau, and
Western Subarctic culture areas. His current research
projects focus on the rise of intensive shellshing, the
development of social complexity, contact-period archae-
ology, and statistical methods. terence.clark@civilisations.
ca.
Phoebe S. Daniels received her PhD in anthropology
from the University of Washington, USA, and cur-
rently works for the University of Washington Press.
Her research is focused on three interrelated themes in
archaeology: adapting foraging models to include gender,
explaining the eects of human foraging and Holocene
climate change on shellsh populations in the central
Northwest Coast, and applying the archaeological record
to contemporary issues.
phoebesdaniels@gmail.com.
Rebecca Dean (PhD, anthropology, University of Ari-
zona, USA) is an associate professor at the University
of Minnesota, Morris. She specializes in the analysis of
animal bones from archaeological sites, and her research
is focused on early farming societies in southern Ari-
zona and the Mediterranean, particularly the spread and
development of farming and the impact that agricultural
societies had on their landscapes. rdean@morris.umn.edu.
Paulo DeBlasis (Post-PhD, archaeology, University of
Arizona, USA; DSc archaeology, University of São Paulo,
Brazil) is a professor at the University of São Paulo and a
researcher associated with the Museum of Archaeology and
Ethnology. In addition to conducting research on a variety
of topics in Brazilian archaeology, he has vast experience in
cultural heritage management. deblasis@usp.br.
Sabine Eggers (PhD in medical genetics, University of
São Paulo [USP], Brazil; MSc in human biology, Univer-
sity of Vienna, Austria) teaches at the USP, Brazil. Her
main research interests are biocultural and evolutionary
causes (and eects) of disease patterns in past and present
populations; and diverse trajectories to social complexity
and subsistence change in ancient South American coastal
groups. saeggers@gmail.com.
Jon M. Erlandson (PhD, anthroplogy, University of Cali-
fornia–Santa Barbara, USA) is the director of the Univer-
sity of Oregon Museum of Natural and Cultural History.
His research interests include the historical ecology of
hunter-gatherers, the history of maritime migrations, and
the peopling of the New World. jerland@uoregon.edu.
Patrick A. Faulkner (PhD, archaeology, Australian
National University) is a lecturer in the Department of
Archaeology, School of Philosophical and Historical
Inquiry, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University
of Sydney, Australia. His research focuses on human-en-
vironment interactions in coastal environments and
hunter-gatherer palaeoeconomies.
Levi Figuti (PhD, prehistory, geology, and paleontology,
Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, France; BA,
biology, University of São Paulo, Brazil) is an archaeolo-
zoologist who has worked for years in faunal remains of
shell mounds. He is a senior researcher at the Museu de
Arqueologia e Etnologia da USP. lguti@usp.br.
Maria Dulce Gaspar (PhD, University of São Paulo,
Brazil) is a professor at the National Museum, Federal
University of Rio de Janeiro, and a CNP researcher. She
works on shell-matrix sites in Brazil and is directing a
study on their dimensions and social signicance, funded
by FAPERJ. madugaspar@terra.com.br.
Ivan Briz i Godino (PhD, prehistorical archaeology,
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain) is an ICREA
researcher at Institució Milà i Fontanals-Spanish Council
for Scientic Research (CSIC) and associated researcher
in the Department of Archaeology, University of York.
He is a specialist in form-function analysis in lithics as
well as in shell-midden archaeology. At the moment he is
working on new archaeological methods from ethnoar-
chaeology. ibrizgodino@gmail.com.
Contributors
Ricardo A. Guichón (PhD, biological anthropology,
Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina), is a CON-
ICET independent researcher and director of the project
Paleopathology and Paleopidemiología of Southern
Patagonia. He is a member of the Human Evolutionary
Ecology Laboratory of Quequen (Facultad de Cs. Sociales
de la Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de
Buenos Aires, Argentina), and the Department of Bio-
logy (Facultad de Cs. Ex. y Naturales de la Universidad
Nacional de Mar del Plata, Argentina). ricardoguichon@
hotmail.com.
Nadine Hallmann (PhD, paleontology, University of
Mainz, Germany) is a postdoctoral researcher at the
Centre Européen de Recherche et d’Enseignement de
Géosciences de l’Environnement in Aix-en-Provence,
France. Her research interests include the reconstruction
of Late Holocene sea-level changes in French Polynesia,
South-Central Pacic, based on coral reef records. hall-
mann@cerege.fr.
Mary Jackes (PhD, University of Toronto, Canada) is an
adjunct associate professor at the University of Waterloo,
Ontario, and has been studying Portuguese human skele-
tons since 1984. mkjackes@uwaterloo.ca.
Daniela Klokler (PhD, anthropology, University of
Arizona, USA) is a professor in archaeology at the Uni-
versidade Federal de Sergipe, Brazil. She has worked in
Brazilian shell middens since 1996. Her main research
interests are zooarchaeology and the formation processes
in sambaquis, coastal adaptations, and ritual practice.
dklokler@gmail.com.
Marco Madella (PhD, archaeology, University of Cam-
bridge, UK) is an ICREA research professor in environ-
mental archaeology at the Spanish Council for Scientic
Research (CSIC, Institució Milà i Fontanals-Barcelona).
He is the coordinator of the SimulPast ConsoliderIn-
geni02010 project of the government of Spain. marco.mad-
ella@icrea.es.
Mercedes Okumura (PhD, University of São Paulo,
Brazil) is a former curator in the Leverhulme Centre of
Human Evolutionary Studies, University of Cambridge,
UK, and now a postdoctoral fellow at the Museu de
Arqueologia e Etnologia, University of São Paulo. Her
main research interests are the biological and cultural
diversity of past populations in Southern Brazil explored
through the application of evolutionary theory. okumu-
ram@usp.
Trevor J. Orchard (PhD, anthropology, University of
Toronto, Canada) is a lecturer in the Department of
Interdisciplinary Studies, Lakehead University, Orillia,
Canada. He has been actively involved in eld and labora-
tory research in the northeastern Pacic Rim for approxi-
mately 14 years with a particular focus on zooarchaeology.
trevorjorchard@gmail.com.
Catriona Pickard (PhD, archaeology, University of
Edinburgh, Scotland; BSc, Physics, University of Aber-
deen, Scotland) lectures in archaeological science and
manages the laboratory facilities of the School of History,
Classics and Archaeology at the University of Edinburgh.
Her research interests focus on early prehistory, coastal
archaeology, palaeodietary reconstruction, and archaeo-
genetics. Catriona.Pickard@ed.ac.uk.
Claudia Plens (PhD and MSc, archaeology, Museu de
Arqueologia e Etnologia da USP, Brazil; BA, archaeology,
Universidade Estácio de Sá, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) does
research and teaching at the Universidade Federal do
Estado de São Paulo.
Torben C. Rick (PhD, anthropology, University of Ore-
gon, USA) is a curator of North American Archaeology
at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian
Institution. Dr. Rick’s research focuses on the interactions
of ancient people with coastal and terrestrial ecosystems,
from California’s Channel Islands to the Chesapeake Bay.
rickt@si.edu.
Mirjana Roksandic (PhD, Simon Fraser University, Can-
ada) is an associate professor and coordinator of biolog-
ical anthropology, University of Winnipeg. Her research
attention is divided between the human evolution in
Pleistocene Europe and burial ritual among sedentary
hunter-gatherers in Southern Europe and the Caribbean.
m.roksandic@uwinnipeg.ca.
Michael Russo (PhD, anthropology, University of Florida,
USA) is an archaeologist with the U.S. National Park
Service, Southeast Archeological Center, Tallahassee,
Florida. Russo’s research has included the development of
shell seasonality metrics and distributional mapping as
Contributors
related to social, cosmologic, and environmental compo-
nent analysis. He is currently working on growth analysis
of the Banded Mystery Snail (Viviparus georgianus) and
development of wireless digital penetrometry for record-
ing the depth and density of shell deposits. mike_russo@
nps.gov.
Rebecca Saunders (PhD, University of Florida, USA) is an
associate professor in the Department of Geography and
Anthropology, Louisiana State University, and curator of
anthropology at the Louisiana State University Museum
of Natural Science. Her research interests include pre-
historic and early historic Native American sites in the
southeastern United States, coastal adaptations, pottery
technology and style, and forensic archaeology. rsaunde@
lsu.edu.
Rita Scheel-Ybert (PhD, biology of populations and
ecology, Université Montpellier-II, France) is an associate
professor of archaeology at the Federal University of Rio
de Janeiro State, Brazil. She is an archaeobotanist, the rst
specialist in anthracology for tropical regions. scheely-
bert@mn.ufrj.br, rita@scheel.com.br.
Bernd R. Schöne (PhD, University of Göttingen, Ger-
many) is a professor in the Department of Applied and
Analytical Paleontology, University of Mainz, and is the
director of the INCREMENTS (International Center for
the Reconstruction of Environmental Conditions archived
in Marginal-growing Biological Entities) research group.
His research focuses on high-resolution climate and
seasonality reconstructions from mollusk shells using
sclerochronology, trace elements, and stable isotopes.
schoeneb@uni-mainz.de.
Henry Schwarcz (PhD, geology, California Institute of
Technology, USA) is university professor emeritus in the
School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster Uni-
versity and fellow of the Royal Society of Canada (FRSC).
His research interests include stable isotope geochemistry,
paleodiet, and the ultrastructure and mineralogy of bone.
schwarcz@mcmaster.ca.
Sheila Maria Ferraz Mendonça de Souza (PhD, Uni-
versity of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) was born and educated
in Rio de Janeiro, and worked part time as a physician.
She has been teaching for 20 years in the rst faculty of
archaeology in Brazil, doing research in bioarchaeology in
dierent museums and institutions inside and outside the
country. She is now a senior researcher in ENSP/Focruz.
sferraz@ensp.ocruz.br.
Jorge A. Suby (PhD and BA in biological sciences, Mar
del Plata University, Argentina) is a researcher of the
National Research Council (CONICET-Argentina), work-
ing in paleopathology of human populations of Southern
Patagonia. He is a member of the Laboratorio de Ecología
Evolutiva Humana, Archaeology Department, Universi-
dad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires,
Argentina. jasuby@hotmail.com.
Maria João Valente (PhD, archaeology and zooarchae-
ology, Universidade do Algarve, Portugal) is an assistant
professor at Universidade do Algarve. Her research is
focused on subsistence studies and animal resources
(mammals and mollusks) in several periods from the
Paleolithic to the Medieval. mvalente@ualg.pt.
Randolph J. Widmer (PhD, anthropology, Pennsylvania
State University, USA) is an associate professor of anthro-
pology at the University of Houston. His research interests
include coastal adaptation along the U.S. Gulf Coast
and cra specialization in Mesoamerica with emphasis
on their roles in sociocultural development. rwidmer@
uh.edu.
Débora Zurro (PhD, prehistorical archaeology, Universi-
tat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain) is a specialized tech-
nician at Institució Milà i Fontanals-Spanish Council for
Scientic Research (CSIC, Institució Milà i Fontanals-Bar-
celona). She is specially focused on the visibility of plant
resources consumption in hunter-gatherer contexts.
debora@imf.csic.es.
