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Effects of Supervisor and Supervisee Theoretical Orientation and Supervisor-Supervisee Matching on Interns' Perceptions of Supervision
Abstract
Effects of supervisor and supervisee theoretical orientation on supervisees' perceptions of supervisors' models, roles, and foci were studied, as were variables influencing quality of supervision and supervisee autonomy. Interns (N = 84) from 32 nationwide training sites were surveyed. Cognitive-behavioral supervisors were perceived to be in a consultant role and to focus on skills and strategies more than were humanistic, psychodynamic, and existential supervisors, who were perceived more as using the relationship model, playing the therapist role, and focusing on conceptualization. Supervisors were not perceived to differ in their use of growth and skill development models, teacher role, and focus on the supervisee. Women were perceived as more effective supervisors than were men. Perceived effectiveness was predicted by theoretical match and similarity. Supervisee autonomy was predicted by theoretical similarity, low supervisor adherence to theory, and unmatched gender.
... For example, Friedlander and Ward (1984) found that trainees rated their humanistic and psychodynamic supervisors as being more interpersonally sensitive and less task oriented than were their cognitive-behavioral supervisors. Putney, Worthington, and McCullough (1992) found that psychology interns perceived their cognitive-behavioral supervisors as taking on a consultant role and a skill focus more often than did their humanistic, existential, and psychodynamic supervisors, who were perceived as more often playing the role of psychotherapist and focusing on client psychodynamics. Similarity in supervisor-supervisee theoretical orientation has also been found to be related to supervisees' positive impressions of supervision (Kennard, Stewart, & Gluck, 1987;Putney et al., 1992;Schacht et al., 1989). ...
... Putney, Worthington, and McCullough (1992) found that psychology interns perceived their cognitive-behavioral supervisors as taking on a consultant role and a skill focus more often than did their humanistic, existential, and psychodynamic supervisors, who were perceived as more often playing the role of psychotherapist and focusing on client psychodynamics. Similarity in supervisor-supervisee theoretical orientation has also been found to be related to supervisees' positive impressions of supervision (Kennard, Stewart, & Gluck, 1987;Putney et al., 1992;Schacht et al., 1989). ...
... In addition, the proportions of interns identifying with the various theoretical orientations were as follows: 44% psychoanalyticpsychodynamic (n = 47), 37% cognitive/cognitivebehavioral (n = 39), 10% humanistic/client-centered (n = 11), 7% behavioral (n -7), and 1% experiential (n = 1). We assigned interns to one of two groups on the basis of the extent to which their identified theoretical orientation emphasized behavior (see Putney et al., 1992). The more behavioral group consisted of 46 interns who identified with cognitive/cognitive-behavioral or behavioral theoretical orientations, and the less behavioral group consisted of 59 interns who identified with psychoanalytic-psychodynamic, humanistic/client-centered, or experiential theoretical orientations. ...
This study (
N = 106) investigated the effects of cognitive style and theoretical orientation on psychology interns' judgments about the type of supervision they find most beneficial. Preferences for task-oriented and relationship-oriented supervision have been hypothesized to indicate lower and higher levels of professional development, respectively. This study, however, found that trainees' cognitive styles and the behavioral emphasis of their theoretical orientations were also significantly related to their preferences for these two types of supervisory environments. Individual-difference variables in addition to developmental level may need to figure more prominently in future models of psychotherapist training and supervision. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Organizational effectiveness is possible when there is a positive relationship among employees and ensuring that employees are not involved in negative behavior (Nurmaya, 2012). Employees with negative behavior can affect the organizational goals of achieving the effectiveness and moreover, it can be risky for the wellbeing of shareholders (Pulich & Tourigny, 2004;Putney et al;1992;Nurmaya, 2012). There are different kinds of negative behaviors that employees show at the workplace but deviant behavior has gained much attention from researchers and practitioners. ...
... Organizational effectiveness is possible when there is a positive relationship among employees and ensuring that employees are not involved in negative behavior (Nurmaya, 2012). Employees with negative behavior can affect the organizational goals of achieving the effectiveness and moreover, it can be risky for the wellbeing of shareholders (Pulich & Tourigny, 2004;Putney et al;1992;Nurmaya, 2012). There are different kinds of negative behaviors that employees show at the workplace but deviant behavior has gained much attention from researchers and practitioners. ...
... The literature review yielded scholarly material relating to three component parts of this study; a) use of WebCT tools (Auyeung, 2004;Chan, Tsui, Chan, & Hong, 2008;Nicholson & Bond, 2003;Phillips, 2006;Redmond, 2010;Roberts-DeGennaro, Brown, Min, & Seigel, 2005;Rovai, 2002;Scherff & Paulus, (2006); b) practicum related issues (Ewart & Straw, 2005;Hughes, 1998;Hutchings, Williamson, & Humphries, 2005;Ladany, Constantine, Miller, Erickson, & Muse-Burke, 2000;Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992;Ralph, Walker & Wimmer, 2007;Ryan et al., 1996;Sorin, 2004); and c) online learning communities (Brook & Oliver, 2003;Ebenezer, Lugo, Beiracka, & Puvirajah, 2010;Edelstein & Edwards, 2002;Kruger & Struzziero, 1997;Lim, 2007;Moore, 2008;Nicholson & Bond, 2003;Perry & Edwards, 2004;Rovai, 2002). Each of these studies focuses on a specific facet of the current study, providing depth and background to inform its design. ...
... of these problems were core issues in most of the studies examined, including Ewart and Straw (2005); Gresty and Cotton (2003); Hutchings et al., (2005); Ladany, Constantine, Miller, Erickson, and Muse-Burke(2000);Putney et al., (1992);Ralph et al. (2007); andSorin, ...
... Ex post facto designs were the most commonly used, relying on nonrandom and nonmanipulated variables. Four studies examined two groups or two levels of an independent variable, and 15 additional studies looked at multiple groups or levels (e.g., Borders, 1989;Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992). Five other studies used a combination of nonrandom, nonmanipulated, and manipulated variables (Hillerbrand & Claiborn, 1990;Robyak, Goodyear, Prange, & Donham, 1986;Schiavone & Jessell, 1988;Tracey, Ellickson, & Sherry, 1989;Winter & Holloway, 1991). ...
... In a subsequent follow-up study, Thyer, Sowers-Hoag, and Love (1988) found that same gender combinations produced the most favorable ratings of field instruction, but only accounted for 5% of the variance in student satisfaction. Other recent research, however, does not support the superiority of gender matching in ratings of supervisor expertness (Schiavone & Jessell, 1988), analysis of supervision discourse (Nelson & Holloway, 1990), and in fostering supervisee autonomy (Putney et al., 1992). Nelson and Holloway (1990) did, however, find differential treatment of male and female supervisees by all supervisors (both male and female), suggesting that gender matching may have no effect. ...
Considerable research relevant to counselor and therapist development has been done since E. L. Worthington's (see record
1988-21517-001) review. Additional support has surfaced for Worthington's conclusions: There is support for general developmental models, perceptions of supervisors and supervisees are consistent with developmental theories, the behaviors of supervisors change as counselors gain experience, and the supervision relationship changes as counselors gain experience. Although the types of research used and the sophistication of data analysis have improved somewhat, too few studies directly address changes over time for trainees in supervision. Suggestions are given for future research in supervision to reflect the level of specificity necessary to investigate developmental models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... On the other hand, some researchers shared the view that men are less likely to be successful as supervisors because they are sometimes seen as less nurturing, socially oriented, assertive, independent as well as more task-driven than the female supervisors. [15][16][17] It would be interesting to investigate in future studies whether performances of supervisees are equally better or worse under the same or different gender supervisor. ...
Background/Aim: This study aimed to evaluate supervisors’ perceptions of the attitudes and behaviour of undergraduate dental students to
their dissertation projects.
Materials and Methods: A questionnaire survey of all academic staff of the Faculty of Dentistry, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile‑Ife, Nigeria,
who were involved in the training and supervision of final‑year dental students’ dissertations between 2013 and 2017 was carried out to record
the supervisors’ perceptions of their supervisees’ behaviour, performance, preparedness and the challenges encountered during their research
work. Data were analysed using descriptive and analytical statistics with SPSS version 16. Statistical significant level was set at P < 0.05.
Results: Seventeen of the 19 eligible academic staff participated in the study. Most supervisors (70%) especially of the male gender and the
senior supervisors perceived the supervisees as inexperienced and lacked good understanding of the dissertation process even though majority
of supervisees(58.8%) were motivated. Nevertheless, more than one‑half (52.9%) were perceived to have improved in the course of the project.
The perception of male supervisors with regards to the importance attached to dissertation process by supervisees was significantly ranked
low (3.8+0.7) when compared to the female supervisors (5.6+0.5) (P<0.05). The supervisees’ challenges were in the domain of understanding
the research process and meeting deadlines.
Conclusion: Supervisees were perceived to be motivated, but majority of the supervisors, particularly, the male and senior supervisors, felt
that the supervisees were inadequately prepared and lacked good understanding of dissertation process as a result of limited academic research
experience, poor supervision and guidance
... There appeared to be a scientific basis for developmental trends and patterns in supervision [6]. Women were perceived as more effective supervisors than the men [7]. Considering the different levels in the development model, one is bound to assume that the learning process may take un-identified period of time, to shift from one level to another, and hence a lethargic process adopted if the supervisee does not learn soon enough, to graduate to the next level. ...
... Contextual variables have to be considered when determining the satisfaction of trainee counsellors during supervision process including the counselling orientation of both parties, supervisors and trainee counsellors. The interaction of counselling orientation also affects the perceptions of supervisors [19]. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of the supervisory relationship and contextual supervision factors on the supervision outcomes among trainee counsellors. Respondents were 120 trainee counsellors and 18 supervisors from four public universities in Malaysia. Eight instruments were used in measuring the variables. The Supervisory Working Alliance Trainee Inventory (SWAI-T) was administered to measure the supervisory working alliance among trainee counsellors and the Role Conflict Role Ambiguity Inventory (RCRAI) was administered to measure the role conflict among trainee counsellors. Meanwhile, the Supervision Interaction Questionnaire – Supervisee and Supervisor Inventory (SIQ-S) was used to measure the interaction between trainee counsellors and supervisor and the Counsellor Rating Form – Short (CRF-S) was used to measure the characteristics of the supervisors in supervision. The Selective Theory Sorter (STS) inventory was used to measure the counselling orientations among the trainee counsellors and supervisors whereas the Multicultural Counselling Knowledge and Awareness Scale (MCKAS) measures the knowledge and awareness toward multicultural counselling among trainee counsellors. The Supervision Outcomes Survey (SOS) and the Counsellor Performance Inventory (CPI) were utilized to measure the satisfaction and performance among trainee counsellors. Results have revealed that there was a significant correlation between the supervisory relationship (supervisees’ working alliance, supervisees’ role conflict, supervision interaction, supervisors’ attributes) and supervision outcomes, r (118) = .53; p < .05. Other factors that have contributed to the significant correlations of supervision outcomes were supervisees’ working alliance, supervisees’ role conflict, and supervisors’ attributes, r(120) = .55; p < .05; r (120) = .21; p < .05; and r (116) = .50; p < .05 respectively. However, the result has shown that there was no significant correlation between the supervision contextual factors (supervisees’ and supervisors’ counselling orientation and supervisees’ cultural knowledge and awareness) and supervision outcomes. The Multiple Regression analyses reported that the supervisory relationship had an influence on the supervision outcomes, R2 = .28, F (1,105) = 40.2, p < .05. Meanwhile, the supervision contextual factors had no influence on the supervision outcomes. Based on the research findings, the model signified that the supervision process could bring out changes in the supervisees. Practically, the supervisees’ working alliance was a significant factor that has influenced the supervisees’ development. Therefore, the academic supervisor should consider the supervisees’ role conflict, supervision interaction, and supervisors’ attributes during supervision. It is recommended that the differences between supervision interaction of the supervisors and the supervisees are to be examined in the future research.
... The literature on the key components of formal supervision shows that trainees value formal supervisors who provide common relational factors-i.e., empathy, validation, a nonjudgmental stance, and respect for personal autonomy (Henderson, Cawyer, & Watkins, 1999;McCarthy, Kulakowski, & Kenfield, 1994;Nerdrum & Rønnestad, 2002)-and specific knowledge, such as specialized expertise and tools, that can be used in the service of clinical work (Bernard & Goodyear, 2013;McCarthy et al., 1994;Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992;Watkins, 1995). The present study indicated that beginning therapists perceive and value many of these same qualitiesespecially the relational qualities-in their informal supervisory experiences. ...
Objective:
This study investigated how, when, why, and with whom therapists in training utilize "informal supervision"-that is, engage individuals who are not their formally assigned supervisors in significant conversations about their clinical work.
Method:
Participants were 16 doctoral trainees in clinical and counseling psychology programs. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed using the Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) method.
Results:
Seven domains emerged from the analysis, indicating that, in general, participants believe that informal and formal supervision offer many of the same benefits, including validation, support, and reassurance; freedom and safety to discuss doubts, anxieties, strong personal reactions to patients, clinical mistakes and challenges; and alternative approaches to clinical interventions. However, several differences also emerged between these modes of learning-for example, formal supervision is seen as more focused on didactics per se ("what to do"), whereas informal supervision is seen as providing more of a "holding environment."
Conclusions:
Overall, the findings of this study suggest that informal supervision is an important and valuable adjunctive practice by which clinical trainees augment their professional competencies. Recommendations are proposed for clinical practice and training, including the need to further specify the ethical boundaries of this unique and essentially unregulated type of supervision.
... Bernard (1997) described the three primary roles that supervisors enact as those of teacher, consultant, and counselor or therapist; these roles correspond roughly to Friedlander and Ward's (1984) task-oriented, attractive, and interpersonally sensitive styles, respectively. The supervisors' or consultants' theoretical model will affect which of these roles and styles they emphasize more (Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992). In the case of the Expertise-Development Model, the supervisor or consultant would rely heavily, but not exclusively, on the teacher role and a task-oriented style. ...
This chapter examines the functions of both supervision and consultation and the roles each plays in facilitating a person's development as a psychotherapist as she or he moves first toward competence and then toward expertise. It describes the Expertise-Development Model of supervision and consultation. The chapter begins by differentiating between the similar functions of supervision and consultation. It then distinguishes between competence and expertise as training goals and discusses the importance of both competence and expertise. The chapter focuses on how supervisors and consultants can implement the Expertise-Development Model in order to help foster the continuing development of therapists. It suggests that those who provide supervision and consultation will commit not only to their own expertise development as therapists but also as supervisors or consultants who themselves should be working to become every day a little better as supervisors or consultants.
... Bernard (1997) described the three primary roles that supervisors enact as those of teacher, consultant, and counselor or therapist; these roles correspond roughly to Friedlander and Ward's (1984) task-oriented, attractive, and interpersonally sensitive styles, respectively. The supervisors' or consultants' theoretical model will affect which of these roles and styles they emphasize more (Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992). In the case of the Expertise-Development Model, the supervisor or consultant would rely heavily, but not exclusively, on the teacher role and a task-oriented style. ...
... The supervisions' video footage was necessary to get some aspects about the practices of the AIGAM "trainees", then followed by a comment on the experience given by the supervisor, in line with the literature. (Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992;Worthington, 1984Worthington, , 1987Worthington & Roehlke, 1979;Worthington & Stern, 1985;Ebmeier, 2003). ...
This paper analyzes the supervision activity, to which educators and teachers enrolled with AIGAM (Gordon Italian Association for the Musical Learning) are subject to every year and intends to verify the application of those principles expressed in the learning model of the MLT (Music Learning Theory) developed by educational psychologist E. Edwin Gordon () and promoted internationally by various institutions and organizations specifically accredited. It describes the influence of the videotaped supervision on the process, functions of monitoring, and evaluation of educational practices, starting with an empirical model that has guided the interventions in a study of supervision on training aimed at consolidating and developing professional skills in music education in early childhood. This paper sought to understand: the kind of practices, interactions, communications developing during an educational actions, the existence of a consistent relationship between the principles expressed in the MLT and their application, the type and benefits of supervision performed by of video recording on stakeholders in terms of change in professional behavior, and finally whether the active supervision could be comparable with other kinds of approaches.
... The supervisions' video footage was necessary to get some aspects about the practices of the AIGAM "trainees", then followed by a comment on the experience given by the supervisor, in line with the literature. (Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992;Worthington, 1984Worthington, , 1987Worthington & Roehlke, 1979;Worthington & Stern, 1985;Ebmeier, 2003). ...
This paper analyzes the supervision activity, to which educators and teachers enrolled with AIGAM (Gordon Italian Association for the Musical Learning) are subject to every year and intends to verify the application of those principles expressed in the learning model of the MLT (Music Learning Theory) developed by educational psychologist E. Edwin Gordon () and promoted internationally by various institutions and organizations specifically accredited. It describes the influence of the videotaped supervision on the process, functions of monitoring, and evaluation of educational practices, starting with an empirical model that has guided the interventions in a study of supervision on training aimed at consolidating and developing professional skills in music education in early childhood. This paper sought to understand: the kind of practices, interactions, communications developing during an educational actions, the existence of a consistent relationship between the principles expressed in the MLT and their application, the type and benefits of supervision performed by of video recording on stakeholders in terms of change in professional behavior, and finally whether the active supervision could be comparable with other kinds of approaches.
... Unfortunately, the empirical research on orientation matching and supervision outcomes is paltry and preliminary, and the results have been inconsistent. Perceived theoretical similarity yielded higher perceived supervisor effectiveness for a group of counselling interns in one study (Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992), but the superiority of such matching has not been demonstrated in relation to the supervisory working alliance or the supervisees' developmental progress (Blaisdell, 2000). Also, any observed advantages for matched orientation may be mediated by working alliance or by the way these differences are handled, rather than whether any such differences were present (Dodds, 1986). ...
This chapter serves an information-disseminating function, by unpacking for supervisors how a competency-based paradigm might influence key aspects of supervision. It serves a reflective function, by inviting and challenging supervisors to carefully consider the merits and demerits of the paradigm. The chapter also serves a supportive function by providing guidelines, templates, and resources that may help supervisors adopt the paradigm. It focuses on designing a competency-based developmental plan (CDP) for supervision. Designing a CDP has many similarities with goal-setting in supervision. The chapter discusses the overarching considerations of different supervisory tasks. It also focuses on establishing a supervision agreement or contract. The ability to formulate SMART competencies and the ability to formulate a holistic program of competencies are two essential hallmarks of an adequate CDP for supervision. The chapter talks about these two essential hallmarks.
... Although models may appear sound intuitively, they are greatly enhanced by empirical evidence of their viability. The discrimination model has received some support, either through explicit study of the model or research efforts that used the model to frame hypotheses (e.g., Ellis & Dell, 1986;Ellis, Dell, & Good, 1988;Glidden & Tracey, 1989;Goodyear, Abadie, & Efros, 1984;Goodyear & Robyak, 1982;Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992;Stenack & Dye, 1982Yager, Wilson, Brewer, & Kinnetz, 1989). ...
... Conversely, for those for whom the content and focus in the DMPs were completely new, often the supervisors held primarily a behavioral or cognitive behavioral theoretical orientation. Putney, Worthington and McCullough (1992) found that theoretical orientation can influence the supervisory relationship. They discovered that supervisors who espoused humanistic, psychodynamic, and existential orientations were perceived by supervisees as being more relational and focusing on case conceptualization. ...
... This decision has implications when considering the male gender of the supervisor and female sex of the trainees included here. Research findings point to conflicting results of same-sex and cross-sex supervision dyads (McCarthy, Kulakowski, & Kenfield, 1994;Behling, Curtis, and Foster, 1988;Thyer, Sower-Hoag and Love, 1988;Putney, Worthington, and McCullough, 1992). ...
... Gender of supervisor has also been studied. Putney, Worthington, & McCullough (1992) found that women were perceived as more effective supervisors than men. Nelson et al. (1996) found that female supervisors used more minimal encouragement, whereas male supervisors used more self-enhancing and critical messages ...
This chapter provides an overview of key supervision models in counselling, particularly developmental models. We also review the development of professional supervision standards and supervisor competencies for counselling supervisors. Current issues facing counsellor supervision in Australia are discussed with reference to the development of the Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation of Australia (PACFA).
... In addition, supervisors' theoretical orientations have been suggested to affect supervision process and outcome (Falender & Shafranske, 2004). Scholars have argued that theoretical orientation may af fect the supervisor-trainee relationship; furthermore, theoretical orientation has been shown to influence valued supervision skills (Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992). Fouad et al. (2009) stated that those supervisors who are competently practicing supervision should be able to articulate a philosophy or model of supervision and reflect how this model applies to practice (e.g., legally , ethically, developmentally) with trainees; yet, there is little research that articulates empirical support for models of supervision using a theoretical orientation (Ladany & Inman, 2008). ...
Using a qualitative research design, this study investigated how three supervision groups, each led by a counseling supervisor with a feminist theoretical orientation, understood process variables of feminist group supervision. Participants each completed one semi-structured individual interview and engaged in one of three respective focus groups to talk about their experiences in group supervision. Data from these interviews were analyzed using constructivist grounded theory; standards of trustworthiness were accounted for using multiple tools. A supervision model emerged from the data, representing various clusters of process variables that affected how the participants understood the process and outcome of their supervision experiences. Implications of the model on theory, research, practice, and advocacy are discussed.
... In the counseling profession, Putney, Worthington and McCullough (1992) found that interns in training sites perceived their supervisors as more effective dependent upon a match with their own theoretical styles that were either of a cognitivebehavioral orientation or a humanistic orientation. ...
... A predominant theme in the empirical literature is that male and female differences do exist in supervision and that these differences follow traditional stereotypes. Although another conclusion is drawn by Putney et al. (1992), who suggested that gender in supervision is extremely complicated and needs to account for several interacting variables (i.e., gender, sex role beliefs, gender match, theoretical orientation), the field has not yet achieved the level of methodological sophistication or theoretical development necessary to address this level of complexity. ...
Uses a systemic cognitive-developmental framework to critique integration of gender issues into marriage and family counseling and therapy (MFC/T) supervision. The MFC/T field constructs its gender perspectives by oscillating between system exploration (challenging the predominant frame) and system consolidation (verifying and disseminating concepts scientifically). To develop unified theories, MFC/T supervisors need to have collaborative dialogs promoting multiple conceptualizations and approaches to gender within alternative and expanded formulations of supervision which can be operationalized and investigated. A systems enhancement orientation will occur when integrative dialogs among subgroups with permeable boundaries promote integrative dialog generating multiple perspectives which enhance each subgroup's assumptions. This will lead to system transformation, entailing reexamination of basic assumptions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Theoretical similarity has also predicted perceived supervisor effectiveness (Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992), suggesting that theoretical influence and matching may play some role in satisfaction ...
Previous research regarding the supervision of psychotherapists has been primarily based on the perceptions of supervisors and supervisees at various levels of experience. This national survey examines the attitudes and beliefs of experts in the field of supervision concerning what constitutes effective supervision. A number of themes and recommendations were noted in the survey including an emphasis on the supervisory relationship, a commitment to supervision, and the adoption of a supervisory stance. The results point to the need for clearly articulated tasks and procedures; attention to developmental levels; accepting responsibility for evaluation and feedback; and developing a clear notion of desired outcomes. The opinions expressed in the survey describe the goal of effective supervision to be the development of a facilitative supervisory relationship characterized by empathy; warmth; trust; mutual respect; and flexibility. Appendix includes a copy of the survey. (Contains 4 tables and 61 references.) (JDM)
... In an extensive study of the supervisor-supervisee relationship, Putney, Worthington, and McCullough (1992) examined 84 interns from 32 different sites regarding the effects of theoretical orientation on supervisees' perceptions of supervisors' models, roles, and focus. Results indicated that cognitive-behavioral supervisors were perceived to be in the consultant role and to focus on skills and strategies. ...
This reprinted article originally appeared in
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 1997, Vol 28[5], pp. 475-485. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record
1997-05609-013.) Each year approximately 2,500-3,000 students, primarily from clinical and counseling psychology programs, seek internship programs. But what is known about this key educational event? This article attempts to answer that question by reviewing the internship-related literature of the last 22 years. Existing literature demonstrates that there is a substantial body of knowledge but also points to the need for updates of old data and for additional new investigations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... This scenario may be particularly salient when a supervisor has a different theoretical orientation than the supervisee. Nondisclosures due to a perception of an alternative agenda could have implications for the effectiveness of supervision in terms of counselor growth, as has been found for superviseesupervisor theoretical mismatches (Putney, Worthington, & McCullough, 1992). ...
Nondisclosures in supervision were studied for 108 supervisees. Supervisees reported an average of 8.06 nondisclosures ranging in importance level. Negative reactions to the supervisor were the most frequent type of nondisclosure. The most frequent reasons for nondisclosures were perceived unimportance, that the nondisclosure was too personal, negative feelings, and a poor alliance. The manner of nondisclosure was usually passive. Most nondisclosures were discussed with someone else, typically a peer. Supervisor style was related to content of and reasons for nondisclosure. Supervisees were less satisfied when they reported more negative reactions to supervisors and when they did not disclose because of poor alliances, supervisor incompetence, and fear of political suicide. Thus, nondisclosure affects the process of supervision. Further research is needed on how nondisclosures in supervision affect supervision and therapy processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... In an extensive study of the supervisor-supervisee relationship, Putney, Worthington, and McCullough (1992) examined 84 interns from 32 different sites regarding the effects of theoretical orientation on supervisees' perceptions of supervisors' models, roles, and focus. Results indicated that cognitive-behavioral supervisors were perceived to be in the consultant role and to focus on skills and strategies. ...
Each year approximately 2,500–3,000 students, primarily from clinical and counseling psychology programs, seek internship programs. But what is known about this key educational event? This article attempts to answer that question by reviewing the internship-related literature of the last 22 years. Existing literature demonstrates that there is a substantial body of knowledge but also points to the need for updates of old data and for additional new investigations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Süpervizyon gibi çoklu ilişkiler içeren bir sürece dair teori ve modeller oluşturmak ve bunları uygun biçimde ölçen araçlar geliştirmek zor olmakla birlikte, yıllar içerisinde süpervizyon konusunda yapılan araştırmalar artış göstermiştir. Süpervizyona dair var olan modeller en genel itibariyle iki kategoriye ayrılabilir. Bunlardan ilki psikoterapi teorilerini temel alan modeller ve diğeri de süpervizyon özelinde geliştirilen modellerdir. Psikoterapi teorilerini temel alan modeller benimsenen psikoterapi teorisinin varsayımlarının süpervizyon sürecine de uygulanabileceğini savunmaktadır. Süpervizyona özgü modeller ise teorik yaklaşımdan bağımsız olarak süpervizyonun kendi ilişki sistemlerini ve doğasını dikkate alarak geliştirilmiştir. Süpervizona özgü modeller gelişimsel modeller ve süreç modelleri olarak ikiye ayrılmıştır. Gelişimsel modellerde amaç deneyimsiz bir terapistin nasıl bir uzmana dönüştüğünü anlamaya çalışmakken, süreç modelleri süpervizyon sürecinin kendisini incelemektir. Literatürde başka modeller de olmakla birlikte bu makalede gelişimsel modeller içinde en sık kullanılanlardan Loganbill, Hardy ve Delworth Modeli, Bütünleşmiş Gelişimsel Model (BGM), Sistemik Bilişsel- Gelişimsel Süpervizyon Modeli, Rønnestad ve Skovholt’un Yaşam Boyu Gelişim Modeli ayrıntılı olarak ele alınmıştır. Süreç modellerinde ise en sık kullanılanlardan Ayrıştırıcı (Discrimination) Model ve Sistem Yaklaşımı ayrıntılandırılmıştır.
Providing quality supervision for student counselors in pre-K–12 school settings is both a responsibility and a challenge for professionals in the field. While the ASCA National Model® for School Counseling Programs provides a detailed structure for school counseling programs, it does not explicitly include a supervision element within its four basic components. This article presents a unique supervision format and training model specifically developed within the framework of the ASCA National Model.
In this article a systematic reflection on supervision in psychodrama training will give insight to the perspectives of the trainees how well the objectives in supervision are met, what supervisory methods have been helpful, and the difference between verbal reflection in comparison with reflection based on action methods. Therefore, the goals of the current study is to investigate whether verbal reflection and dramatization in supervision leads (1) to a better outcome regarding the objectives, (2) helps reducing distress of trainees caused by challenges in their practice, and (3) whether dramatization leads to a better transfer into practice than only verbal reflection.
ÖZET
DANIŞANLARIN ALGILADIKLARI TERAPÖTİK ÇALIŞMA UYUMU VE OTURUM ETKİSİ DÜZEYLERİNİN BAZI DEĞİŞKENLERE GÖRE YORDANMASI: EGE ÜNİVERSİTESİ ÖRNEĞİ
DENİZLİ, Serkan
Ph.D, Rehberlik ve Psikolojik Danışmanlık
Tez Danışmanı: Prof. Dr. Süleyman DOĞAN
Ekim 2010, 187 sayfa
Bu araştırma, psikolojik danışman adaylarının aldıkları süpervizyonun etkililiğinin ve kullandıkları psikolojik danışma becerilerinin etkililik düzeylerinin, danışanların algıladıkları terapötik çalışma uyumu ve oturum etkisi düzeylerini yordama derecesini belirlemeyi amaçlayan bir psikolojik danışma süreç ve sonuç araştırmasıdır.
Araştırma kapsamında önce Yardım Becerileri Sistemi (YBS) (Hill & O’Brien, 1999), Etkililik Değerlendirme Ölçeği (EDÖ) (Elliott, 1985), Oturum Etkisi Ölçeği (Stiles, 1980), Terapötik Çalışma Uyumu Envanteri (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989) ve Süpervizyon Ölçeği (Worthington & Roehlke, 1979) Türkçe’ye uyarlanmıştır.
Araştırmada veriler Ege Üniversitesi Rehberlik ve Psikolojik Danışmanlık Lisans Programı’nda eğitim gören 60 farklı psikolojik danışman adayından ve onlardan yarıyıl boyunca psikolojik danışma yardımı alan 78 danışandan elde edilmiştir. Verilerin analizi beş ayrı çoklu doğrusal hiyerarşik regresyon analizi ile gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Terapötik çalışma uyumunu süpervizyonun etkililiğinin ve psikolojik danışma becerilerinin etkililiğinin (kapalı uçlu soru, açık uçlu soru, yeniden ifadelendirme, duygu yansıtma, bilgi verme ve yönlendirme) yordamadığı bulunmuştur.
Süpervizyonun etkililiğinin oturum etkisinin derinlik, akıcılık, oturum sonrası olumluluk ve canlılık boyutlarını yordamadığı saptanmıştır. Oturum etkisinin derinlik boyutu ve akıcılık boyutları için yönlendirme becerisinin etkililiğinin anlamlı bir yordayıcı olduğu bulunmuştur. Yönlendirme becerisinin etkililik düzeyiyle, oturum etkisinin derinlik ve akıcılık boyutları düzeyleri arasında ters yönde korelasyon saptanmıştır.
Yönlendirme becerisinin etkililik düzeyi, danışanın oturum sonrası olumluluğun; duygu yansıtma becerisi ise danışanın oturum sonrası canlılığının anlamlı yordayıcıları olarak saptanmışlardır. Hem yönlendirme becerisinin etkililiğiyle olumluluk, hem de duygu yansıtma becerisinin etkililiğiyle canlılık düzeyleri arasındaki ilişki ters yönlü bulunmuştur.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Terapötik Çalışma Uyumu, Oturum Etkisi (Derinlik, akıcılık, olumluluk, canlılık), Süpervizyon, Psikolojik Danışma Becerileri, Psikolojik Danışman Adayları, Psikolojik Danışma Süreç ve Sonuç Araştırması.
ABSTRACT
PREDICTION OF CLIENT PERCEIVED WORKING ALLIANCE AND SESSION IMPACT LEVELS REGARDING SOME VARIABLES: THE EXAMPLE OF EGE UNIVERSITY
DENİZLİ, Serkan
Ph.D., Guidance and Counselling
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Süleyman DOĞAN
October, 2010, 187 pages
This is a counseling process and outcome study which investigated the role of the effectiveness levels of supervision and the counseling skills of counselor trainees in predicting working alliance and session evaluation scores of clients
At first, Helping Skills System (HSS) (Hill & O’Brien, 1999), Helpfulness Rating Scale (HSR) (Elliott, 1985), Session Evaluation Scale (Stiles, 1980), Working Alliance Inventory (Horvath & Greenberg, 1989) and Supervision Questionnaire (Worthington & Roehlke, 1979) were adapted to Turkish.
Data were collected from 60 counselor trainees who were enrolled in Ege University Guidance and Counseling Undergraduate Program, and from 60 clients who received counseling from them during a semester.
The effectiveness levels of supervision and the counseling skills (closed question, open ended question, restatement, reflection of feelings, information, direct guidance) did not predict the working alliance scores of clients.
The effectiveness of supervision was not a predictor of none of the session evaluation scores of clients. The effectiveness of direct guidance was the only predictor for both depth and smoothness scores. The effectiveness of direct guidance showed negative correlations with both the depth and smoothness scores.
The effectiveness of direct guidance was the predictor of post session positivity whereas the effectiveness of reflection of feelings predicted the post session arousal. The effectiveness of direct guidance showed negative correlations with the positivity scores. Likewise, the effectiveness of reflection of feelings showed a negative correlation with the arousal scores.
Keywords: Working Alliance, Session Evaluation (Depth, Smoothness, Positivity, Arousal), Supervision, Counseling Skills, Counselor Trainees, Counseling Process and Outcome Research.
Training and supervision theory and research is reviewed, specifically in relation to counselor education and training linked to the development of therapist competence, and supervision. Counselor competence is defined and reviewed along three areas: knowledge, self-awareness, and skills. Multiple areas of supervision are examined: history of supervision; predominant, theoretical models of supervision; supervisor techniques; the supervisory relationship; multicultural diversity; supervisor self-disclosure; supervisor countertransference; supervisee development; supervisee and supervisor nondisclosures; sexual attraction; supervision ethics; parallel process; client outcome; evaluation; supervisee competence; supervisee and supervisor professional competence problems; harmful supervision; supervisor training and competence; and specialized methods and topic areas of supervision. Throughout the chapter, we provide future research directions and practice implications for each training and supervision area reviewed. We conclude with some ideas about why training and supervision fails, fails to succeed, succeeds to fail, and succeeds.
The evaluation of supervisors working on Clinical Psychology was the aim of this study. In order to elaborate the action profile of supervisors' models the type of personality, style and focus was studied. The instruments used were the Supervisor Style Inventory and Supervisory Focus and Style Questionnaire. Subjects were divided in two groups according to their theorical approach used: Cognitive-Behavioral (N=6) and Psychodynamic (N=12). The results showed similarity in relation to style, focus, and personality.
Providing quality supervision for student counselors in pre-K-12 school settings is both a responsibility and a challenge for professionals in the field. While the ASCA National Model® for School Counseling Programs provides a detailed structure for school counseling programs, it does not explicitly include a supervision element within its four basic components. This article presents a unique supervision format and training model specifically developed within the framework of the ASCA National Model.
Reichelt, S. & Skjerve, J. (2004): Supervisor competence: Tasks and challenges in the supervisor role. Nordisk Psykologi, 56 (2), 75–91.
The clinical supervisor is expected to master a very complex role. Participating in the development of training programs, we have missed a specification of the tasks comprised in this role. In this article they are described and analysed, based upon social role models of supervision, empirical studies of the supervisory process and clinical experience. In training programs for supervisors, competent handling of this list of tasks is the goal for the developing supervisor.
The supervisor must continually make decisions concerning focus and interventions as part of the process. A main point in the article is that it does not suffice to be skilled in techniques or methods of supervision to contribute to a stimulating and supporting process for the supervisee. The supervisor must be reflective of and engaged in the role to make good decisions.
The authors examined 38 school counselor supervisors' perceptions of the Discrimination Model (DM; Bernard, 1979, 1997) of supervision, replicating and extending Ellis and Dell's (1986) investigation of the DM with mental health counselor supervisors. Participants judged the dissimilarity of each unique combination of roles and foci of the DM. The authors conducted a confirmatory multidimensional scaling analysis to compare the implicit dimensions and constructs that school counselor and mental health counselor supervisors used to make decisions. Results suggested partial similarities in the conceptual maps of school counselor and mental health counselor supervisors. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
This study examined the role of the ideal on-site mentor and the actual mentor's role performance, as perceived by 158 mentor counselors and 171 school counseling interns. Results indicated that the ideal mentor's professional traits were given priority by both groups and that the teacher role was the most salient among role domains. In the actual role performance, the 2 groups differed regarding the perceived contribution of the mentor-specific behaviors in each examined role domain. © 2007 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.
To address the pressing challenge of effectively managing multinational corporations' (MNCs) global sales forces, we offer a theoretical framework and investigate the effects, across cultures, of particular sales manager practices on sales manager effectiveness (SME). Further, we examine whether high SME is associated with salesperson commitment, regardless of national culture. The model is tested on survey responses from 888 salespeople from Canada, Mexico, the United States, China, Australia and New Zealand. The results reveal that national culture moderates most antecedents' relationships to SME. For example, masculinity weakens the positive effect of fixed compensation on SME, supporting the expectation that salespeople in highly masculine countries are more driven to achieve material rewards through greater variable pay. Collectively, study results suggest cultural conditions where managerial practices should be prioritized. SME has a universally positive effect on salesperson commitment, reinforcing the thesis that adapting sales manager practices across countries to optimize SME provides a tangible advantage.
The purpose of this article is to further graduate-level training in school consultation. Three questions that the first author has encountered throughout the last 26 years while teaching consultation are illuminated in this article: (1) What criteria should be used in selecting a consultation placement? (2) What criteria should be used in selecting a field supervisor? (3) What criteria should be used in evaluating the work of the consultants in the consultation course? Placing these questions into currency in the school psychology training literature may ensue more thinking around these critical issues. A case example provided by the second author is used in synergy with the questions and serves to expound on them.
This report of a spring 1995 study involving 78 female MSW students at the University of Georgia compares the degrees of satisfaction with field practicum supervision of those with female and male field instructors respectively, using previously published measures of supervision satisfaction. One statistically significant but practically unimportant difference was revealed favoring male supervisors. The results are discussed in terms of past literature on gender in clinical supervision; areas for future research are also suggested. The little existing empirical research appears to support a gender-neutral policy for matching MSW students with practicum supervisors.
This study focuses on 20 mentoring pairs in an Israeli teacher training program in order to determine in which ways matched and mismatched expectations of the role of the cooperating teacher between student teachers and cooperating teachers contribute to different opportunities for learning to teach. Perceptions of learning reported in student teachers' pedagogical journals were analysed according to two category systems based on different orientations to teaching and the concepts of support and challenge, and compared to the initial expectations of the cooperating teachers and the student teachers. We found that matched expectations between student teachers and cooperating teachers explained a high degree of support in student teachers' perceptions of learning to teach, whereas mismatched expectations explained a high degree of challenge. We also found a third pattern of expectations that was neither matched nor mismatched, but mixed, in terms of support and challenge in a wide range of orientations to teaching. The conclusion of this study is that the mixed pattern provides opportunities for optimal learning. Based on the findings, we make some recommendations for supervision of participants of mentoring relationships in practicum programmes. (Contains 11 tables.)
The purpose of the study was to determine level of agreement between supervisors and supervisees about the most important topics they discussed and about styles of supervision used. Chi-square analyses of data collected on 86 doctoral student supervisors and 161 master's degree supervisees over a 10-week period showed that supervisors and supervisees agreed to a significant degree about the most important topics discussed and the style used by the supervisor. Actual amounts of agreement are not high despite statistical significance, thus raising questions about clinical significance.
The purpose of the study was to discover which supervision topics were chosen by supervisors and their supervisees as the most important topics they discussed during the course of 10 supervision sessions. Data from 78 doctoral degree student supervisors and 112 master's degree student supervisees over a 10-week period showed significant agreement among supervisors and supervisees. The two topics most often identified as important and agreed upon by both supervisees and supervisors were Personal Issues and Skills and Techniques.
Social workers' perceptions of their supervisors' dispositional goal orientations towards learning and performing act as powerful situational influences—in interaction with their own goal orientations— to affect social workers' job satisfaction. Social workers perceiving their supervisors' goal orientation to align with their own will experience greater job satisfaction. Supervisors cognizant of supervisees' goal orientations are more able to provide individually motivating tasks, support, and rewards. Such inquiry offers a promising direction for improving the work conditions of social workers. An increase in job satisfaction should be correlated with an increase in improved client outcomes and reduction in social worker turnover.
This book reviews the fundamentals of clinical supervision in the mental health disciplines. It should be useful to both the student of supervision and to the supervision practitioner as a professional resource. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses the literature on psychotherapy supervision and training, covering the following topics: (1) supervision and training outcomes, (2) supervisory relationships, (3) the role of individual differences in supervision and training processes and goals, (4) supervisory and supervisee development, (5) evaluation in supervision, and 96) training and supervision issues concerning empirically supported treatments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The use of play therapy techniques within supervision can enhance the supervisory process and in turn therapy with the client. Just as children use toys rather than words to express themselves in play therapy, so too can supervisees use play therapy techniques when words fail to express their experience or understanding of their clients. In this article, the authors focus on L. D. Borders and G. Leddick's (1987) 6 categories for supervisor intervention: learning goals, learning style, experience, developmental level, supervisor theoretical orientation, and supervisor goals for supervisee and goals for within supervision. Practical play-based experiential techniques are applied to each category and discussed in detail to facilitate application. Use of these techniques can expand the didactic framework of supervision and thereby enhance the supervisory and therapeutic processes. In addition, some attention is given to the advantages of the registered play therapist- supervisor credential obtained through the Association for Play Therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Effects of supervisor and supervisee theoretical orientation on supervisees' perceptions of supervisors' models, roles, and foci were studied, as were variables influencing quality of supervision and supervisee autonomy. 84 interns from 32 nationwide training sites were surveyed. Cognitive-behavioral supervisors were perceived to be in a consultant role and to focus on skills and strategies more than were humanistic, psychodynamic, and existential supervisors, who were perceived more as using the relationship model, playing the therapist role, and focusing on conceptualization. Supervisors were not perceived to differ in their use of growth and skill development models, teacher role, and focus on the supervisee. Women were perceived as more effective supervisors than were men. Perceived effectiveness was predicted by theoretical match and similarity. Supervisee autonomy was predicted by theoretical similarity, low supervisor adherence to theory, and unmatched gender. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
33 beginning counseling practicum students and their supervisors rated their supervisory relationship and satisfaction with supervision; supervisors also evaluated their trainees. Ss' cognitive styles were determined through the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory, Counselor Evaluation and Rating Scale, and individual Likert scales were used as measures of the independent variables. Trainees' scores on certain indices (most notably the Sensing–Intuition index) were related to supervisors' perceptions of the interpersonal nature of their relationship, supervisors' satisfaction with trainees' performances, and supervisors' evaluations of trainees. On the other hand, supervisors' cognitive styles were not related to the independent variables. Cognitive style similarity between supervisor and trainees on specific MBTI scales was related to mutual perceptions of their interpersonal relationships. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We used a rigorous case study methodology to examine one supervisory dyad's work together during one semester. We used the "best-worst" strategy of several recent researchers, multiple sources of qualitative and quantitative process data, and the perspectives both of the participants and of observers. A number of findings provide hypotheses to guide future research. For example. Session 2 was identified as best by both participants. That it focused on relationship issues between the participants is consistent with other findings that the supervisor-supervisee relation-ship was a primary focus during the first several supervisory sessions. Despite its shortcomings, the science of counseling and psychotherapy rests on a solid empirical foundation. Yet the same is not true for the science of clinical supervision, which is still very much in its infancy. In commenting on this, Holloway and Hosford (1983) observed that scientific en-deavor progresses through a series of stages, the first of which is observing a phenomenon in its natural environment. They maintained that observation should be the proper research emphasis at this particular stage of the science of supervision. At first glance, this prescription would seem inappropriate, for observational data are amply represented in the supervi-sion literature. For example, Searles (1955) used case material to introduce a phenomenon that others since have called parallel processes; Markowitz (1958) presented a retrospec-tive, comparative account of supervision that he received from each of several supervisors; and Mueller and Kell (1972) used observations of supervision for their rich formulations of supervisory processes. The supervision literature is replete with such examples.
The delivery of supervision skills to those who direct counselors through practicum is not well defined in the counseling literature. This article addresses that issue by presenting a model for identification and training of those skills, the roles in which the skills are demonstrated, and the types of choices or discriminations that are necessary to make in tutoring trainees through the counseling practicum. This model attempts to pair the training of supervisors with the training of counselors in a systematic fashion.
12 students were followed through 3 yrs of a doctoral program in counseling psychology. An analysis of transcripts of brief counseling sessions for each of the 3 yrs revealed that Ss increased their use of minimal encouragers; decreased use of questions; and maintained acceptable levels of activity, anxiety, and quality. No differences were found for Ss' experience level on entrance to the program. Post hoc interviews indicated that although Ss felt that graduate school was extremely stressful, it was also considered growth producing. Ss also reported that most of their changes had been in higher-order counseling abilities (e.g., timing, appropriateness of intervention, client dynamics, and self-confidence) rather than in basic counseling skills. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the validity of an elaboration of C. Stoltenberg's (see record
1981-06282-001) developmental counseling supervision model with 71 supervisors (mean age 37.5 yrs) and 107 supervisees (mean age 30.2 yrs) from 9 university counseling centers, resulting in 107 supervision dyads. A supervision level scale (SLS) was used to classify predominant developmental level of supervisees and supervision environments to avoid the use of training level as a proxy for developmental level. Supervisors completed the SLS, and supervisors and supervisees reported their satisfaction and opinion of supervisee's learning. Supervisors were found to generally match the level of their supervision to the level of the supervisee. Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) revealed that supervisee developmental level was related to mean semesters of supervisee supervised, but not nonsupervised, counseling experience. Supervision environment level was also related to mean semesters of supervisee supervised, but not nonsupervised, counseling experience. Mean satisfaction and learning ratings of supervisors and supervisees did not differ by person–environment congruency. Results provide support for conceptualizing supervisees and supervision environments developmentally, although not for congruency. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this paper the nature of the supervisory relationship of the counselor-educator and the student in the counseling practicum is explored. It is suggested that this relationship is not the usual didactic teaching relationship, nor is it, as Arbuckle suggests, a nonevaluative, counseling relationship, though it is closer to the latter than to the former. The nature of the relationship is discussed and the implications for techniques or procedures suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
58 experienced supervisors (median age 35.1 yrs) evaluated videotaped supervision sessions conducted by either Rudolph Ekstein, Albert Ellis, Erving Polster, or Carl Rogers, who had all supervised the same therapist, based on the same work sample. The 4 supervisors, originators or major interpreters of their theoretical models, were perceived as differing in attractiveness and in their use of the critic, model, and nurturing roles identified by B. Apfelbaum (1958); they also were perceived as differing in the extent to which they functioned as counselor and as teacher and in the extent to which their work focused on the supervisee's technical skills, on his/her use of his/her personal reactions and feelings, and on case conceptualization. These differences generally were consistent with theory. Raters did not perceive the supervisee or client differentially across supervision sessions, although the supervisee was perceived to be differentially satisfied with supervision. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We present pilot data on variables that influence interaction between trainees and supervisors and contribute to positive versus negative experiences in psychotherapy supervision. Subjects were two groups of supervisor/trainee dyads in which trainees had reported very positive or very negative supervision experiences. We found agreement on the quality of supervision experience between pair members. Trainees had positive supervision experiences when they were seen as interested in the supervisor's feedback. Trainees preferred supportive, instructional, and interpretive supervisors. Similarity in theoretical orientation and interpretive style contributed to positive experiences. A model combining variables to predict the quality of supervision experiences is presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies were conducted to assess the dimensionality of supervision. The purpose of Study 1 was to identify the salient dimensions of supervision from the counselor trainee's perspective and to determine if dimensions for trainees corresponded to the dimensions found previously for supervisors. In doing so the dimensionality and construct validity of Bernard's (1979) model was examined by using 15 doctoral trainees. For Study 2 Bernard's model was expanded to incorporate the self-supervisor role and was tested in combination with Littrell, Lee-Borden, and Lorenz's (1979) model. Counselor trainees from a master's (
n = 25) and a doctoral (
n = 23) program participated. The three dimensions that emerged in Study 1 and in Study 2 were remarkably consistent in content and label across the two studies. In terms of dimensionality, Bernard's model and the extended model were modestly supported, whereas Littrell et al.'s model received minimal support. Little evidence was found to suggest that trainees from master's and doctoral programs differed at all in terms of their cognitive maps of supervision. Implications and limitations of the studies were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this study was to examine counselor trainees' preference for structure in supervision as moderated by level of experience, reactance potential, and the content of supervision. Reactions of 78 practicum counselors to two of four audiotaped supervision sessions which varied on (a) amount of supervisor structure and (b) supervision content (suicidal client or client with relationship issues) were assessed. Beginning students preferred the structured supervision. The preference of structure for advanced students was moderated by reactance and content. For the relationship content, advanced students who were high on reactance preferred the low-structure supervision, while those with low reactance preferred the high-structure condition. In suicide content condition, advanced students preferred the structured supervision regardless of their level of reactance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Explored whether (a) practicing supervisors perceived themselves as varying their supervision process across 4 trainee experience levels and (b) whether several supervisor demographic variables were related to the degree to which some supervisors might vary the supervision process more than others. Four experience levels were identified: 1st practicum, 2nd practicum, advanced practicum, and predoctoral intern. 37 experienced supervisors rated the degree to which the supervision they gave varied across trainee levels. Results show that Ss significantly varied supervision between 2nd-practicum and advanced-practicum supervisees, but they did not vary the other levels. Also, psychodynamically oriented Ss in contrast to humanistic and other orientations (e.g., cognitive-behavioral) were most likely to make this discrimination across trainee levels. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Counselor trainees play a dual role—subordinate in relation to their supervisors, superordinate in relation to their clients. The present study investigated if and how role conflict affects trainees' self-statements, anxiety level, and performance. 52 graduate student counselors responded to a counseling dilemma and then were exposed to 1 of 4 experimental manipulations: conflict (the supervisor recommended action contradictory to the trainee's intended action), no conflict (the supervisor supported the trainee's intended action), neutral (the supervisor stated that the trainee's intent and the opposing option were equally valid), or control (no supervisory input). Measures included the State scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, a self-efficacy inventory, and a thought-listing procedure. Results suggest that role conflict produced few adverse effects on Ss' self-evaluations, affect, or behavior. Ss' performance, however, was inversely related to anxiety level, and anxiety was inversely related to the strength of Ss' self-efficacy expectations. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Audiotaped supervision sessions from 40 master's level counselor trainees and 40 field placement supervisors were used in a content analytic study of the relation of supervisor and trainee gender to supervisory discourse. The Penman Classification Scheme was used to rate the middle 15 min of supervision on power and involvement dimensions. Classification cells were aggregated to yield high-power, low-power, and high-involvement categories. Transformed proportional data and kappa scores from sequential analysis were used in 2 2 × 2 (Gender × Role) multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) to compare dyad types on speaker's use of message categories and patterns of discourse between speakers. Findings indicated that male and female supervisors reinforced female trainees' high-power messages with low-power, encouraging messages significantly less often than for male trainees. Female trainees responded to supervisor low-power, encouraging messages with high-power messages significantly less often than male trainees. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the effects of supervisor experience level on presession planning and in-session supervisor verbal behavior. 30 supervisors representing no, low (1⅓ to 3 yrs), and high (4 to 25 yrs) levels of experience (mean ages 27.3, 28.7, and 35.8 yrs, respectively) listened to a 30-min audiotaped counseling interaction and then recorded thoughts and strategies for supervision in a 30-min planning session. Ss then conducted a 30-min supervision session with the counselor. Analyses of audiotapes from the planning and supervision sessions revealed no significant differences between the 3 levels of supervisory experience in planning statements. However, significant differences were observed in the actual supervision session, with low- and high-experience Ss being similar to each other and different from the no-experience group on several dependent measures. Results also indicate that the counselor rated the low- and high-experience Ss more positively than the no-experience Ss. No relation was observed between statements generated during the planning session and those occurring during supervision. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted a series of studies to develop and validate the Supervisory Styles Inventory (SSI) with parallel versions for supervisors and trainees. The instrument and validation procedures were based on a conceptual model of interrelated sources of variability among supervisors. Four separate analyses consistently revealed 3 factors among the perceptions of heterogeneous samples of trainees and experienced supervisors, which suggests that supervisory style is multidimensional. Scales constructed from these factors—Attractive, Interpersonally Sensitive, Task Oriented—demonstrated robust reliabilities and construct validity. In one study, SSI scales discriminated within and between expert supervisors with different theoretical orientations working with the same supervisee. These results were consistent with other evidence that a highly task-oriented style is endorsed by cognitive-behavioral supervisors, a highly interpersonal style by psychodynamic and humanistic supervisors. Furthermore, these supervisory styles seem to be differentially related to trainees' level of experience—supervisors are more task oriented with beginners, more attractive and interpersonally sensitive with interns. All 3 styles were strongly associated with trainees' reported willingness to work with different model supervisors and satisfaction with supervision. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses the role of the supervisor based on gender issues. Issues in supervision of practitioners with a feminist perspective are explored, as well as how supervisors can assist the practitioner who has managerial aspirations. The role of supervision in dealing with stress and gender is considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We used Stoltenberg's (1981) developmental model of counselor supervision in an examination of relational consequences of supervisors' and supervisees' disagreements about a supervisee's counseling sophistication. We also sought support for Stoltenberg's proposed optimal supervision environments. Eighty-seven supervisors and 77 supervisees from 31 randomly selected university counseling and clinical psychology programs around the United States categorized supervisees as belonging to one of four developmental levels. They also provided demographic information, estimated supervisory behavior frequencies, and made satisfaction and impact ratings. Results indicated that (a) supervisors perceived themselves as varying their behavior with supervisees of different developmental levels in a manner that accorded with Stoltenberg's model, (b) supervisees did not perceive the differences reported in supervisors' behaviors, and (c) supervisees reported significantly less satisfaction and impact when they were in mismatched pairs with supervisors, although supervisors did not. In subsequent analyses, we found that supervisees preferred supervision that was characterized by a collegial relation with a focus on trainee personal development and self-understanding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews research bearing on whether and how counselors and supervisors receive or give different types of supervision of psychotherapy as they each gain experience. Most theories describing changes in supervision of counselors as they gain experience are similar. They posit changes in the supervisee, with supervision environments being matched to the changing needs of the supervisee. There are 3 theories concerning how the supervisor changes as he/she gains experience. Empirical findings are consistent with theories of counselor development but only weakly supportive of the theory that actual supervision environments are matched to supervisee needs. Empirical findings on changes in supervisors as they gain experience reveal few differences in supervisors at any level beyond the master's degree. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a model of counselor supervision that conceptualizes the training process as a sequence of identifiable stages through which the trainee progresses. The progress of the trainee is described from the entry level counselor through the advanced master counselor stage. Characteristics of trainees at each of the 4 levels of the model are discussed, as are the appropriate supervision environments that encourage development to the next level. The supervisor skills of discrimination and the creating of environments are discussed in relation to trainee characteristics and the appropriate environments for the supervision process. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
86 graduate counseling students and 92 supervisors rated their relationships 3 times during a semester. At the semester's end, supervisees decribed the perceived frequency of performance of supervisor behaviors. Supervisors and supervisees differed in their perceptions of the relationship and how it developed. Supervisees, in contrast to supervisors, saw improvement in their relationships over time. Male supervisees and supervisors both rated their relationships as better than females. Gender matching affected supervisees' perceptions of their relationships but not supervisors' perceptions. Semester-end ratings showed that supervisees discriminated between the quality of the relationship, which was affected by gender matching, supervisor gender, and supervisor behavior, and supervisor competence, which was affected only by supervisor behavior. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
237 counselors from 11 counseling agencies completed the Supervision Questionnaire, a description of the frequencies of various supervisor (155 post-PhD, 82 pre-PhD) behaviors during the preceding semester. Counselors were classified as being in Practica 1, 2, 3, 4, or internship. Changes in supervisees' perceptions of supervisory behavior as the counselors gained experience were relatively congruent with previous research and theory: Supervisors do change their behavior to match the needs of their supervisees. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
45 graduate student trainees were asked to give their perceptions of the most important issues and the most important supervisor interventions at the end of each weekly supervision session throughout a semester as well as at the conclusion of supervision. Supervisees in the study were at 3 levels of training (beginning practicum, advanced practicum, and doctoral intern). Results lend additional support to previous findings that emphasized the importance of supervisory support and client-treatment planning for trainees. A finding different from those of previous studies was that this was true not only for beginning trainees but for trainees at all levels of experience. Results also provide descriptive data that are supportive of a developmental model of supervision both between trainee levels and within trainee groups. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
16 supervisors of beginning practicum counselors rated the importance to good supervision of 42 supervisor behaviors. At the end of their 1st semester of training, 31 beginning practicum counselors rated the frequency with which their supervisors actually performed each of the 42 supervisor behaviors. The counselors also rated the effectiveness of supervision on 3 dimensions: satisfaction with supervision, supervisor competence, and contribution of supervision to improved counselor ability. In general, supervisors perceived supervision as primarily providing feedback to supervisees. Beginning counselors rated their supervision as good, however, if (a) a personal and pleasant supervisor–supervisee relationship existed; (b) supervisors provided relatively structured supervision sessions, especially during early sessions; and (c) supervisors directly taught beginning counselors how to counsel (i.e., by using literature, and by didactic instruction) and then encouraged the new counselors to try out their new skills. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The construct validity and developmental structure of R. A. Hogan's (see record
1966-00843-001) model of counselor development and supervision were studied using a sample of 141 counseling psychology graduate student trainees, interns, and professional staff in 20 university counseling centers. Counselor development questionnaire items were developed into 2 arrangements: one based on Hogan's concepts as he organized them into levels, and another derived empirically using factor analysis. The 2 configurations were compared for their ability to predict experience level of Ss using discriminant function analysis. Each empirical factor was also examined for relationship with experience by means of 1-way ANOVA with preplanned comparisons. Results indicate that counselor development is best described by a complex rather than a simple model and that it involves factors of Anxiety/Doubt, Independence, Method/Skills Training, Work Validation, Commitment Ambivalence, and Respectful Confrontation. Developmental profiles of these issues are described, and implications for supervision and training programs are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested whether 102 practicum students' preferences for the legitimate, expert, and referent power bases were affected by clients' gender, the amount of students' supervised experience, and the nature of the clients' presenting problems. 64 women and 38 men from 16 counseling and counseling psychology programs completed a questionnaire in which they were asked to estimate the utility of responses reflecting each of the 3 power bases in facilitating behavior change in client's presenting problems of either depression or anxiety. Results indicate that Ss with less supervised experience preferred the legitimate and referent power bases to a greater extent than did Ss with relatively more supervised experience. Neither gender nor type of presenting problem affected Ss' preferences. Results are discussed in terms of the relation between the levels of supervised experience and the stereotypic notions of the counselor's role. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three studies examined differences across 3 counselor trainee levels (beginning practicum, advanced practicum, and doctoral interns) with regard to (a) the interpersonal influence process between the supervisor and supervisee (Study 1), (b) trainees' perceptions of specific supervisor behaviors contributing to supervisory effectiveness (Study 2), and (c) trainees' perceptions of the most important or critical incidents that occur within supervision during a semester (Study 3). Ss were 58 beginning practicum students, 51 advanced practicum students, and 36 doctoral interns. Overall results are congruent with a developmental model of supervision and suggest that across trainee levels, variables related to the interpersonal influence process differ; different types of supervisor behaviors appear to be effective at different levels of supervision; and different types of critical incidents are reported within the supervision process. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
34 predoctoral interns and 25 postdoctoral psychologists who were applicants for licensure and were employed at university centers rated the supervision they received. Effective supervision was characterized by support, teaching, direct monitoring of the supervisee, and appropriate confrontation. Interns received more supervision and less evaluation than did postdoctoral psychologists. Licensure status of supervisors made little difference in supervision. Results are weakly congruent with theories and research on counselor development. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Power and involvement are two fundamental dimensions of primary relationships. We studied the relevance of these two dimensions in the supervisory relationship. A multiple-case-study approach was used to describe systematically the discourse of the five supervision interviews of the Goodyear (1982) series,
Psychotherapy Supervision by Major Theorists; we compared these results with previous findings that have reported impressional characteristics of the interviews. The content-analysis scheme used to describe the discourse was developed by Penman (1980) and includes both manifest and latent levels of communication organized on the two dimensions of power and involvement. The sequences of verbal messages in each of the interviews were analyzed by using unidirectional and dominance sequential tests. The results indicate that although there was a primary pattern of teacher–learner interaction in all interviews, each interview exhibited a unique style with regard to the sequences of messages between supervisor and supervisee and the characteristics of power and involvement as defined by the Penman scheme. We discuss the characteristics of the interviews, as described by the results of the content and sequential analyses, in relation to the theoretical orientation of each supervisor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Past studies have indicated a preference for male therapists among both client and nonclient samples. To test for possible changes in preferences since the time of these studies, 53 male and 76 female applicants for counseling and 140 male and 150 female nonclient undergraduates completed a university counseling service application form that included a question regarding preference for sex of therapist. Although more clients than nonclients expressed preferences, results from both groups indicate a decrease in male counselor preferences. (4 ref)
Research has suggested that psychotherapy skills are developed and valued depending in part on the level of trainee experience. Beginning trainees tend to value and benefit from supervisor support, whereas later trainees tend to gravitate toward technical guidance. This cycle may be repeated with continuing experience. We present illustrative data from our own research to suggest that several years after training, early supervisory experiences may still exert an effect on one’s theoretical position.
Four models of supervision—counseling/therapeutic, teaching, consulting, and self-supervising—have been identified, but no one model adequately describes the total supervision process. The authors propose a comprehensive developmental framework that incorporates the four supervision models. The framework reflects the changes that occur during supervision and offers the supervisor and the trainee a means of conceptualizing the developmental stages of supervision. Professionalization occurs during supervision as the trainee assumes greater responsibility for the content of supervision and learns how to be a self-supervisor.
This essay reviews the status of supervisory models, presents an overarching schemata of stage models of supervisee development, and finally, describes a three stage model of supervisor development. The terms "counseling" and "psychotherapy" are used synonymously, as are "trainee", "supervisee", "student", and "psychotherapist."
51 supervisees (mean age 38.5 yrs) varying in both experience and training (a) judged 44 specific supervisor behaviors for the frequency that they were implemented in supervision and (b) judged supervision effectiveness, which was assessed on 5 scales. Factor analysis of the supervisor behaviors revealed 4 factors: Evaluative Support, Time/Structure, Method of Supervision, and Rapport. Results from MANOVA showed that 1 factor, Method of Supervision, was significant, with beginning trainees emphasizing more the mechanics and task of supervision. Other trends showed that experienced supervisees entertained a less-structured interaction with supervisors that was more supportive and considered more effective. Analysis of specific supervisor behaviors gave support to the notion that supervision over time can be conceptualized as a developmental process. (10 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Asserts that research in supervision appears to rely on the assumptions that (1) the supervisor is the focus of the evaluation in the supervision interview, (2) the trainee is evaluated primarily on counseling behaviors in the counseling interview, and (3) the roles of supervisor and counselor are very similar. These assumptions have led to a narrow and restrictive body of research that no longer reflects current models of supervision that describe multifaceted roles of supervisor and trainee and distinct roles between supervisor and counselor. A framework of different sources of outcome data in supervision is outlined, and research in supervision conducted since 1961 is classified according to this framework. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a client-centered approach developed over more than 20 yrs of supervising practicum students. This approach is discussed in terms of the context of supervision and the actual supervisory sessions. This approach requires that students make a commitment to the theory of client-centered theory; this should include a commitment to the elements of understanding, respect, and genuineness in working with a client. The greater the student's understanding and acceptance of this philosophy and theory, the lesser the amount of time needed in skills training. Supervisees may be oriented for their practicum through their commitment to theory, an explanation of the criteria for their evaluation, and presentation of guidelines for interviewing clients. The actual supervisory session should parallel the therapy session, in that the supervisor should listen with minimal interruptions while the supervisee is responsible for control of the session. There is no requirement that a supervisee develop a treatment plan, and the emphasis remains on feelings rather than content. The goal of the supervisee is to provide the facilitative conditions that will allow the client to become a more self-actualizing person. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Describes the supervisory version of the model that attributes the power for change to 2 factors: the strength of the alliance between the person seeking change and the change agent, and the power of the tasks that are incorporated into the alliance. The working alliance model is discussed in terms of mutual agreements, tasks, and bonds. The building of a strong therapeutic working alliance is a major feature of the change process, and the amount of change that results may be a function of the strength of that bond. The goals of the supervisory working alliance are stated from the supervisee's viewpoint: mastering specific skills, enlarging one's understanding of clients, enlarging one's awareness of process issues, increasing awareness of self and impact on process, overcoming personal and intellectual obstacles to learning, deepening one's understanding of theory, providing a stimulus to research, and maintaining standards of service. The establishment of the contract between supervisor and supervisee should include discussion of goal orientation and of the process by which goals may be achieved (e.g., review of client sessions). Later evaluation may include a review of these goals and satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the established alliance. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
"Organismic achievement may extend in two main directions; (1) specificity regarding certain stimulus variables as antecedents or causes of reactions, and (2) specificity regarding certain results of organismic reaction." The probability character of the causal relationships in the environment demands a fundamental, all-inclusive shift in methodological ideology regarding psychology. If psychology wishes to deal with vitally relevant molar aspects of adjustment and achievement, it must become statistical throughout. Traditional statistical treatment is inadequate. The viewpoints of Lewin, Hull, and others are examined and their limitations noted. To establish the methodological unity of science, it will become increasingly important to emphasize thematic differences. There can be no truly molar psychology unless it gives up the nomothetic ideal in favor of a thoroughly statistical conception. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Comments on the model of counseling supervision presented by C. Loganbill et al (see record
1982-33536-001). Major criticisms include the authors' failure to include group supervision in their considerations, the limited array of supervisor's interventions that were discussed, and the complexity of the authors' stage theory of competency development. The present author presents an outline of the competencies in the theoretical–technical and the personal process–relationship aspects of therapy and of effective supervisor behaviors for developing these competencies. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In their new book, Cal D. Stoltenberg and Ursula Delworth present a comprehensive guide to supervising counselors and therapists in training. The method they offer is based on four levels of development through which entry-level counselors become seasoned professionals. Stoltenberg and Delworth draw on extensive research and experience to (1) explain the needs and characteristics of trainees at each level; (2) outline procedures for assessing trainees in eight areas of growth, including interpersonal skills, treatment goals, and client evaluation; and (3) recommend how and when supervisors may intervene to help trainees handle sessions with clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews the literature on expectations of counseling trainees in supervision by dividing the research into 3 areas: expectations about structure, expectations about communication, and expectations of the supervisory relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compares client-centered, cognitive-developmental, working-alliance, rational-emotive, and social learning models of counselor supervision as presented (see PA, Vol 71:2383, 2313, 2314, 2413, 2352, and 2351, respectively) by C. H. Patterson, D. H. Blocher, E. S. Bordin, R. L. Wessler and A. Ellis, and R. E. Hosford and B. Barmann and, E. L. Holloway. The purposes, processes, specific characteristics, and evaluative characteristics of each approach are reviewed. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This text is designed to provide professionals in the mental health fields with the opportunity to become acquainted with the research and theory related to supervision. In addition, it provides a general procedural model of the tasks required of supervisors regardless of their preferred theory of therapy. The Task-Oriented Model has several purposes. It serves to structure the tasks required of a supervisor in managing the critical issues related to supervision; it serves as a basis for discussion of the three systems encountered in supervision—the clients' system, the system of the therapist interacting with the clients, and the supervisor-therapist-client system. Finally, the Task-Oriented Model could form the foundation from which to build one's own personal model of supervision and begin the lifelong process of becoming a supervisor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Sex role issues in the supervision of therapy
- A M Brodsky
- A. M. Brodsky
How to counsel students: A manual of techniques for clinical counselors
- E G Williamson
- E. G. Williamson
Psychotherapy supervision by major theorists [Videotape series]
- R K Goodyear
- R. K. Goodyear
Six-week test-retest reliability of the SQ-R
- E L Worthington
- Jr
- E. L. Worthington