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295Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops
Chapter 16
Insect Pests of Apple and
their Management
Asma Sherwani1, Malik Mukhtar1 and
Ashraf Alam Wani2
1Division of Entomology, 2Division of Plant Pathology
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences
and Technology of Kashmir,
Shalimar, Srinagar – 190 025, J&K
Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) is considered to be the world’s oldest fruit crop. It
is premier table fruit of the world and excels other fruits in having prolonged keeping
quality and wide variety of flavour and taste. Apple is a highly remunerative crop
and is grown in all temperate regions of the world. In India apple is grown in Jammu
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and some parts of Arunachal Pradesh.
Jammu and Kashmir account for sixty per cent apple in total apple produced in India
and is the most important fruit among all the cultivated fruits in the state. The state
annually produces 1.31 lakh metric tonnes apple fruit from an area of 1.28 lakh
hectares (Anonymous, 2008). It forms the backbone of the state’s economy and is
main cash crop for the small and marginal farmers. However, the production and
quality of apple is poor as compared to that of the developed countries because of
several factors including insect and diseases.
Although a large number of insect pests attacks to apple crops but some of them
are very serious and need attention for their control. Besides the insect pests, mites
are also associated with apple production and cause significance economic losses to
commercial fruit growers. Insect pests found in apple orchards can be classified into
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Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops296
two groups depending upon plant parts which they attack. Direct pests are those
insects that feed on apple fruits while indirect pests are those that attack leaves, trunk
and other parts of the tree. Examples of direct pests are maggot, codling moth and
other internal fruit feeders. Pests like leaf miner, aphid and mites are indirect pests
since they do not directly injure fruits. They are also called major and minor pests
when classified in terms of seriousness of their infestation. The major insect pests
attacking apple fruit are as follows:
1. San Jose scale,
Quadraspidiotus perniciosus
(Comstock)
San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)
insect is widely distributed in all the apple growing countries of the world. In India,
it was introduced from France in 1906 and now has been recorded on more than 32
host plants (Rahman and Ansari, 1941). It has spread to every continent except
Antartica. The pest prefers to feed on plants belonging to the family Rosaceae such as
apple and pear but can survive on other fruits of hilly region. Thus, more than 700
host plants has been recorded.
Life Cycle
The adult female reproduces ovoviviparously i.e., the eggs developing in an
ovisac inside the mother to be born as nymphs. Each female give birth to 200-400
nymphs. The first instar nymphs (crawlers) move about for 12-24 hours and fix
themselves at suitable places on host tree and begin to feed by sucking the cell sap.
Simultaneously, they secrete a waxy covering over themselves which give them the
name scale insects. They become full grown in 3-4 days and within next 10-14 days
the female again start giving birth to new ones. The longevity of gravid mother is 50-
53 days and male adult develops into a winged adult in 25-31 days and live only 24-
32 hours during which it fertilizes the non winged female. The insect overwinters in
the nymphal stage inside the scale covering. The insects are active from April to
December. There are 6-7 overlapping generations in a year (Singh, 1964). The scale
disseminates by various birds, bats etc. (Rahman et.,al. 1940).
Damage
The tiny insects suck the sap continuously resulting in weakness and ultimately
death of young plants in the nursery. The leaves, twigs and fruits sometimes even the
entire bark may be seen covered with ashy-grey scales which can be easily scraped
off exposing the orange coloured individuals beneath. The fruits present pink coloured
areas around the scales and the market value of such fruits is depreciated.
Management
PSpray diesel oil emulsion + Bordeaux mixture (Diesel oil 68 liters +Copper
sulphate 15 kg +unslacked lime 3.75 kg) to be emulsified and diluted 5-6
times before spraying.
PSpray 7.5 liters of any tree spray oil emulsion in 250 liters of water per ha in
winter season when trees are completely defoliated.
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297Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops
PSpray 1.25 liters of Chlorpyriphos 20 EC or 625 ml Malathion 50 EC in 500
liters of water per ha during summer.
PThe parasite, Encarsia perniciosi (Tower) may also be released to check the
overwintering population and have proved effective in controlling this
insect pest.
2. Wooly Apple Aphid,
Eriosoma lanigerum
(Hausmann)
Wooly aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is native
of America and is cosmopolitan in distribution except in hotter parts of the tropics. In
India it was first recorded in 1889 at Connoor (Tamil Nadu) damaging young apple
trees (Misra, 1920). The pest is active throughout the year and feed on apple, crab
apple, almond, hawthorn, pear and quince. The nymphs secrete wooly filaments of
wax over their bodies, hence the name wooly aphis.
Life Cycle
Aphids are viviparous (give birth to nymphs and do not lay eggs) and reproduce
both asexually, parthenogenetically and sexually after mating. The mid December to
mid-February is a non-reproductive period for these insects. From March onwards,
each female produce 30-116 nymphs parthenogenetically which could be alate
(winged) or apterous (wingless). The former being present throughout the year and
the later from July to October during which they fly to form new colonies on new
plants. Within 24 hours the nymphs start secreting waxy filament to become wooly.
Nymphal period having 4 instars lasts for 11 days in summer and 93 days in winter
(Rahman and Khan, 1941). In winter, sexual forms appear to mate and lay eggs while
the nymphs already on the trees migrate downwards to enter the root zone for
hibernation. Reverse migration from roots to the aerial part takes place in May. There
may be 13 generations in a year.
Damage
The pest is active throughout the year. It attacks primarily the underground
roots but winged form also attacks trunk, branches, stems, twigs, leaf petioles and
fruit stalks. Upward and downward migrations are accentuated during hottest and
coldest seasons, respectively (Lal and Singh, 1947). Due to the drainage of sap by
feeding, affected trees present a sickly appearance; lose vigour and the growth of
these trees and also their fruiting capacity are adversely affected. In case of young
trees, the roots disintegrate to such an extent that these trees are easily blown over by
even moderately strong winds. The fruits from heavily infested trees are of poor
quality being undersized, malformed and insipid in taste.
Management
PUse resistant root-stock like Golden Delicious, Northern Spy and Morton
Stock 778, 779, 789 or 793 has been found effective to prevent damage by
aphid (Atwal and Dhaliwal 1999).
PThe aphid population can be effectively checked by an exotic parasite
Aphelinus mali (Haldeman).
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Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops298
PSpray 800 ml Malathion 50 EC in 500 liters of water per ha during summer
months. Avoid insecticidal sprays where parasite Aphelinus mali is present.
P
During leaf fall spray the plants with 1.25 liters of Diazinon 20 EC in 500
liters of water per ha against aerial forms. For controlling the root forms,
apply one litre of methyl oxydemeton 25 EC in 500 liters of water per ha.
These sprays should be made during winter months.
3. The Tent Caterpillar,
Malacosoma indicum
(Walker)
The tent caterpillar, Malacosoma indicum (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae)
is an important pest of apple in north-western India, being more serious in the Kashmir
valley and Shimla hills. The major pest is found on a number of fruit, forest trees and
also on ornamentals apple being its preferred host plant. Besides the apple as host
plant, almond, apricot, cherry gooseberry, peach, pear, walnut are also occasionally
attacked.
Life History
The pest is active from mid March to May. A female lay around 200-400 eggs on
branches of the trees as broad bands or rings which pass the remaining 9 months in
egg stage. The hatching of eggs coincides with the appearance of buds on the plants.
They hatch in around 9-10 months between mid March to mid May. The larvae live
gregariously and soon after emerging spin a nest at a convenient and sheltered place
on the tree. Larvae rest in the nests during day time and feed voraciously on the
leaves at night. The larval stage lasts 39-68 days and later spin oval, white and
compact cocoons, each about 25 mm in length. The pupal stage lasts for about 8-22
days which is passed in side these cocoons. Sometime, moths emerge in the 3rd week
of May and continue to do so till the beginning of June and are short lived. The female
in capacity may survive for 3-5 days. Only one generation is completed in a year
(Atwal and Dhaliwal, 1999).
Damage
The caterpillar web a tent like nest at the forking of twigs and hide in this nest
during day. At night the caterpillars congregate on leaf lamina and feed voraciously
leaving behind only the midribs and portions of hard veins. In case of serious
infestations, 40-50 per cent of apple plants in an orchard may be defoliated. The tents
and skeletal remains of the leaves are conspicuous symptoms of attack by this pest.
Management
PTo check the infestation of this pest, destroy all the egg bands at the time of
pruning in December-January.
PThe caterpillar can be killed by mopping up the tents with a pole and some
rags dipped in kerosene tied on its end. Kerosenized water in an open
container should be placed below the tree infested with larvae so that the
larvae that fall may also get killed.
PSpray 500 ml of Dimethoate 30 EC or 2.0 kg of Carbayl 50 WP in 500 liters
of water per hectare.
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299Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops
4. European Red Mite,
Panonychus ulmi
(Koch.)
European red mite, Panonychus ulmi (Koch.) (Acarina: Tetranychidae) has been
introduced from Europe some time previous to 1911. This spider mite has become one
of the most important pest of all fruit growing belts of the world and considered by
many growers to be their most important pest which is sometimes difficult to control.
A wide host range of this pest includes deciduous bushes and trees belonging to the
family Rosaceae, but it is found commonly in association with fruit trees such as
apple, walnut, almond, vines, mulberry, blackberry, peach, pear, plum, prune and
cherry that it reaches economic importance.
Life Cycle
Panonychus ulmi over winter as diapausing eggs laid on the bark of trees or
smaller branches and spurs. During heavy infestation, areas of bark may even appear
red due to the presence of many eggs. Eggs hatch from mid April to end June depending
upon climatic conditions. On hatching, juvenile mites move to the underside of leaves
and begin feeding. In about 3 weeks they become mature after third mould. Mostly 8-
10 generations are completed in a year. Panonychus ulmi lays two types eggs summer
eggs and winter eggs. Summer eggs are laid on the leaves of host plant and are of the
non diapause type and develop without interruption. The winter eggs are deposited
predominately on the bark. Summer females exposed to cool conditions lay diapausing
eggs. Overwintering eggs are deposited in groups on roughened barck, especially
around buds and fruit spurs.
Damage
European red mite injuries the tree by feeding on leaves destroying chlorophyll,
and increasing respiration. This is accomplished by insertion of the mite mouth parts
into the leaf cells to withdraw the contents. All motile stages feed on the foliage,
preferably on lower surface of leaves, but both leaf surfaces are attached when
populations are high. A characteristic of brown foliage, starting as a subtle cast to the
green leaf which becomes bronze in severe cases, results from heavy mite feeding.
Damage is more severe when mite infestation is followed by Alternaria fungus. High
population of mites during late season can cause further indirect downgrading of
fruit by depositing overwintering eggs.
Management
PRemove branches carrying eggs of mites in autumn when leaves fall.
PWinter spray of petroleum oil in March when buds are breaking will give
some control of winter eggs and act as a first line of defense.
PSummer sprays are also effective. Malathion is of short persistence but may
be useful if kill is required close to harvest.
POther sprays include Dicofol (18.5 EC) 0.02 per cent, Propargite (57 EC)
0.05 per cent and Abamectin (1.8 EC) 0.01 per cent as summer spray.
Fenazaquin (10 EC) 0.04 per cent should be applied at post bloom stage of
crop. Spraying of Dimethoate (30 EC) 0.025 per cent to apical portion also
control the mites.
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Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops300
PA lady bird beetle, Stethorus punctum (Le Conte) is usually the most important
and frequent predator of spider mites in fruit orchard. A few mites must be
on the leaves to support the appetites of the predators, otherwise they will
starve.
5. Codling Moth,
Cydia pomonella
(Linnaeus)
The codling moth, Cydia pomonella L. is a serious pest of apple. The pest has been
reported from Europe, USA, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand,
Afghanistan and Pakistan (Sheldeshova, 1967). In India, this pest is restricted to cold
arid region (Ladakh) of Kashmir state (Malik et al., 1972; Wadhi and Sethi 1975). This
pest is supposed to have entered into Ladakh from the North West frontier province
of Pakistan where it was reported as a serious pest on deciduous fruits (Janjua, 1938,
Pruthi, 1938; Janjua et. al., 1943 and 1941). In Ladakh, it is widely distributed in all
the fruit growing areas and has been recorded from Karkitchoo, Mangbore, Hardass,
Sainikund, Batalik, Dah, Hanoo area of Kargil district and Lamayuru, Scrubachan,
Khaltse, Tamisgam, Basgo, Saspole and Nimmu area of Leh district. Pawar et al,
(1938) reported biology of codling moth and their incidence in apple growing in
Ladakh region. In a study, Zaki (1999) reported that infestation of codling moth in
apple was 49.7 and 42.5 per cent in Kargil and Leh district, respectively. The infestation
on fallen fruit was 69.9 per cent while on fruit still on tree it was 27.5 percent. Pawar
et al. (1938) has reported that the four local varieties of apple grown in Ladakh behaved
differently in susceptibility to codling moth attack. However, a number of varieties
have been introduced in Ladakh, which showed varying degree of susceptibility to
codling moth. Apple is the major host of this pest, however, it also feed on pear,
walnut, peach.
Life Cycle
The adult emergence takes place in the month of June. The female moth after
mating starts egg lying on fruits, leaves and twigs. The eggs being flat and white
transparent in colour. The hatching of egg takes place after 7-15 days depending
upon temperature and humidity. The newly hatched larvae bore through the fruit
surface generally from the blossom or calyx end and feed near the surface for a time
before boring. After that larvae bore into deep and feed on pulp and developing seeds
until fully grown. Early stage larva being creamy white in colour, which later become
light pink. Matured larvae come out from exit hole of the fruit and spin a cocoon in
loose bark, cracks or on debris and may or may not pupate. The codling moth
overwinters as full-grown larva within cocoon under loose bark, leaf litter, or any
other sheltered place nearby. Pupation takes place during second fortnight of May,
which ranges from 10 to 20 days depending upon temperature and other climatic
condition. The pest complete one to two generations in a year depending upon the
temperature and other weather parameters.
Damage
The infestation of this pest in Ladakh region was 69.9 per cent in fallen fruit
while 27.5 per cent in fruit still on tree. However, in a resent study conducted by
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301Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops
SKUAST-K, Leh, it was observed that in Leh district alone the damage was 80 per
cent. The damage is done by the caterpillars which tunnel through the fruits by
eating away the pulp, fills these tunnels with frass and thus render the fruits
unsuitable for human consumptions.
Management
PAll the debris and weeds should be removed from old trees and orchard to
prevent the hibernating larval to find shelter.
PBand the trees with grass ropes or sac (Jute) cloth in 3-4 folds before the
larval descend to the ground for hibernation and the larvae should be
collected and destroyed.
PEnforce quarantine rules strictly to prevent spread of this dangerous pest.
PThe trees should be sprayed with Chlorpyrifos (20EC) 0.02 per cent, the
first spray called the calyx spray which should be applied at the time of the
fall of petals and closure of calyx and followed by 3-4 cover sprays with
Methyl oxydemeton (25 EC) 0.02 per cent at intervals of 15 days and two
months before the fruits are plucked.
6. The Apple Root Borer,
Dorysthenes hugelii
(Redtenbacher)
The apple root borer, Dorysthenes hugelii (Redtenbacher) (Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae) is confined to foot hills of Himalayan range and is a serious pest of
apple in Kumaon hills. The main host of this borer is living and dead roots of apple
trees including other host like apricot, cherry, peach, pear, walnut and a few forest
trees and also attacked.
Life Cycle
The adult beetles start mating immediately after emergence sometime around
the end of June to mid of July. The males die soon and females live for about 10-12
days and lay around 200 ovoid shaped yellow white eggs, below the soil surface. The
eggs hatch in 30-40 days and the grubs go down in the soil about 10-25 cm deep and
feed on the root system of host plants. The duration of grub lasts for 3 years 6 months
and without food can survive for 24-90 days. Pupation take place in earthen cocoons
inside the soil and the pupal period lasts for 3 months. The beetle emerges from the
soil after the first shower of monsoon.
Damage
The grubs feed on the roots and girdle the roots and feed on the internal tissues.
As a result the main roots are severely damaged from the base and the trees, if young.
die away while the older ones become weak and fall down with strong winds.
Management
PTo check the incidence of this pest, avoid dry sandy soils for planting apple
orchards.
PInter culturing in the orchard helps in killing of grubs.
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Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops302
PUse well rotted FYM and mix thoroughly with soil around the tree.
POnce infestation has occurred, it is important to treat the tree basins with
Phorate granules @ 100 grams a.i. per tree.
7. Apple Stem Borer,
Apriona cinerea
(Cheverlot)
Apple stem borer, Apriona cinerea (Cheverlot) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) is
reported from India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. In India it is more commonly found
in Kashmir, Himachal and Uttar Pradesh. The major host plant of apple stem borer is
apple, peach, fig, pear etc.
Life Cycle
The beetles appear in July-August with the onset of monsoon and after mating
female excavate an oval patch on the shoot and lays eggs inside the cavity. The
incubation period is 7-8 days and after hatching grubs start feeding in the tree trunk.
The feeding activity starts in March reaching tree trunk by autumn and activity gets
slowed and go in hibernation during winter. As the summer season comes, it starts
activity again and when full fed it pupates inside the tunnel made in the woody
tissue for more than a month. The life cycle is completed in about two years.
Damage
The grubs bore through the shoots and make circular galleries downward leading
to main stem and trunk of the trees. Due to feeding by the grubs, the affected trees may
not die for many years but their vitality and productivity is greatly impaired. The
adult beetles feed on bark but does not considerable loss.
Management
PCollection and destruction of beetle and grub is very effective method to
reduce the pest population.
PSince the pest feeds inside the woody portions no insecticide spray can be
effective. The only way to control this pest is to locate the feeding holes,
clear the passage and inject poisons.
PInsert in the live holes cotton wicks soaked in Dichlorvos (0.1 per cent) or
Dimethoate (0.03 per cent) or Methyl –o- Demeton (0.025 per cent) and seal
with mud.
8. Indian Gypsy Moth,
Lymantria obfuscate
(Walker)
Indian Gypsy moth, Lymantria obfuscate (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) is
a major pest of apple and apricot in Kashmir, has been reported by Rahman (1941)
feeding on apple foliage in Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. Besides the apple it also
causes serious damage to apricot, walnut, willow and poplar.
Life Cycle
After mating, brachypterous female settles on the bark of host tree for oviposition.
Female lays eggs in batches of 200-400 During June-July. The eggs are laid under the
loose bark and are covered with yellowish brown hairs. The eggs undergo in
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303Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops
hibernation and hatch in March-April when the season warms up. The larvae after
passing through 5 larval instars and complete the development in 66-100 days. Last
instar larvae pupate in plant debris for 9-21 days. The longevity of male and female
moths is 4-10 days and 11-31 days, respectively. There is one generation in a year.
Damage
The caterpillars are gregarious feeder and nocturnal in habit. The larvae severely
defoliate the trees completely which results in production of lower quality of fruit
formation or may failure in fruit formation.
Management
PTo check the infestation of this pest, destroy all the egg bands at the time of
pruning in December-January.
PThe caterpillar hide in grasses grown at the ground level of tree. Therefore,
orchard should be kept clean followed by collection and destruction of
larvae.
PSpraying of 500 ml of Dimethoate 30 EC or 2.0 kg of Carbayl 50 WP in 500
liters of water per hectare has also been found effective to manage the pests.
9. The Bark Beetle,
Scolytus nitidus
(Schedl)
Scolytus nitidus Schedl (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) is an important shot-hole borer
which has caused severe economic losses to apple fruit trees in the Kashmir valley
and its population has witnessed manifold increase during the last few years due to
conducive environmental conditions, mainly due to drought. S. nitidus is distributed
in Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir and Uttar Pradesh. On an average 5-10 per cent apple
trees get damaged annually by the attack of S. nitidus, which can increase upto 44 per
cent in the mismanaged orchards during dry and hot weather conditions (Buhroo
and Lakatos, 2007). The infested branches or sometimes the entire tree may be killed
by this pest. Besides the apple, this pest causes severe damage to apricot, peach, plum
and other forest plantation.
Life Cycle
This bark beetle overwinters in larval stage on apple trees in Kashmir. They
resume their activity from the first fortnight of March. Pupation start from the first
fortnight of April and the adults emergence start from the fourth week of April. The
insect completes three generations in a year. The first generation lasted from the
second fortnight of April to July having a total life span of 97-120 days. The second
generation emerges from the first fortnight of July to the 15th of October with a total
life span of 108-120 days while the third overwintering generation takes 245-284
days. After emergence the adults fly to host trees and undergo maturation feeding for
5-8 days. The copulation takes place at the entrance hole. The female lays on an
average 60 eggs which hatch in 4 to 8 days. The larvae attain 5 instars and accomplish
their development in 40 to 55 days constructing larval galleries. The larvae pupate
for 8-20 days. The adults survive for 48-65 days and the total life-span of this insect
ranges from 94 to 128 days.
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Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops304
Damage
The insect makes galleries under the bark due to which the translocation of food
and water is severely hampered. During the early part of the attack the tree does not
show symptoms but growth is arrested. Attacked trees show reduction in yield and
foliage density. Heavily infested trees attract fungal diseases.
Management
PInfested branches or tree should br removed from the orchards.
PNew orchard should not be planned near infested forest trees.
PSpraying of Dimethoate 30 EC 100 ml or Methyl-o-demeton (25 EC) 80 ml
per 100 liters of water should be done for controlling the insect pest.
10. The Stem Borer
Aeolesthes sarta
(Solsky)
The stem borer Aeolesthes sarta (Solsky) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) pest is widely
distributed in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The insect attacks apple, cherry,
apricot, peach, pear, plum and mulberry.
Life Cycle
The adults are dark brown, having mottled yellowish pubescence on the elytra.
Antennae of the male are 1.5 times longer their body length, while those of the female
are about the same length as the body. They grubs feed inside the woody portion of
the host trees. The beetles emergence starts from May to October and are active through
the summer. After mating, the females start egg laying on the dry woody portions of
the host trees in the cuts and cracks of the bark. A female on an average lays about 100
eggs which are white, elliptical in shape. They hatch in 7-12 days and the young
grubs on emergence feed first on the bark and, as they grow they bore deeper inside
the woody portions of a tree. The larval period is completed in 27-32 months. The pre
pupal period varies from 3 to 150 days and pupation takes place either in October-
November or in March- April. The pupal stage lasts from 40 to 100 days. The beetle
that emerge from puparia formed in October, remain within the tunnel throughout
the winter and the spring, while those beetles that emerge from the puparia formed in
April, rest for only six weeks. The life cycle is completed in three years.
Damage
The newly hatched grubs first feed on the bark and make zig zag galleries. They
bore inside and feed on sap wood. In summer they feed at a fast rate, throwing frass
from the exit holes. As a result of their feeding, sap flow in that portion of the branch
or the trunk becomes restricted and gradually causes death of that portion. In the
winter the grubs are very slow and full fed grubs may just rest in the tunnel without
feeding. As a result of their feeding and the resultant damage to the woody tissue, the
vitality of the trees is reduced. Parts of the attacked tree start dying till it becomes
unproductive. The pest can be located from the frass that comes out of the holes.
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305Insect Pests Management of Fruit Crops
Management
PCollection and destruction of beetle should be done. Installation of light
trap is helpful in collection of beetle.
PSince the pest feeds inside the woody portions no insecticide spray can be
effective. The only way to control this pest is to locate the feeding holes,
clear the passage and inject poisons.
PInserting wire inside the stem is also effective in killing of grub.
PInsert in the live holes cotton wicks soaked in Dichlorvos (0.1 per cent) or
Dimethoate (0.03 per cent) or Methyl –o- demeton (0.025 per cent) and seal
with mud.
References
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pp. 55-75.
Atwal, A. S. and Dhaliwal, G. S. 1999. Agricultural Pests of South Asia and their
management. pp 274-286.
Buhroo, A. A. and Lakatos, F. 2007. On the Biology of the Bark Beetle Scolytus nitidus
Schedl (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) attacking apple orchards. Acta Silvatica et Lignaria
Hungarica. 3: 65-74.
Butani, D. K. 1979. Insects and fruits, pp. 259-261.
Davidson, R. H. and Leonard, M. P. 1966. Insect pests of farm, garden and orchard, 6:
426-466.
Davidson, R. H. and William, F. I. 1987. Insect pests of farm, garden and orchard 8:
413-447.
Fadamiro, H. Y. 2003. Integrated Pest Management Manual for Minnesota Apple
Orchards. Minnesota Department of Agriculture.
Janjua, N.A. 1938. Codling moth in Afghanistan, Curr. Sci., 7: 125,.
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codling moth Cydia pomonella L., in Baluchistan. Indian J. Agri. Sci., 13: 112-128.
Janjua, N.A. and Samuel, C. K. 1941. Fruit pests of Baluchistan. ICAR miscellaneous
bulletin No. 42: 1-41.
Khan, A. W. 1955. Studies on stocks immune to wooly aphis of apple Eriosoma lanigerum
(Hausmann). Punjab Fr. J., 19: 28-35.
Lal, K. B. and Singh, R. N. 1947. Seasonal history and field ecology of the wooly aphid
in the Kamaon hills. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 17(4): 211-218.
Malik, R. A., Punjabi, A. A. and Bhat, A. A. 1972. Survey study of insect and non
insect pests in Kashmir. Horticulturist (J&K), 13 (3): 29-44.
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