Teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: Final report of phase III-B, Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study
... has identified a strong positive relationship between academic learning time, defined as the portion of time students spend actively and productively engaged in learning, and student achievement (Anderson, 1981; Fisher, Filby, Marliave, Cahen, Dishaw, Moore, et al., 1978; Fisher & Berliner, 1985; Gettinger, 1995; O'Donnell, 1978). The basic components of academic learning time include time allocated to instruction, engaged time, and academic productivity (Gettinger & Seibert, 2002). ...
... One feasible way to increase time spent in instruction is to decrease time associated with transitions (Arlin, 1979; Reith, Polsgrove, & Semmel, 1981; Wilson & Wesson, 1986). Addressing transitional activities in particular may be important, as time in transition has been found to consume as much as 25% of non-learning activities in the classroom (Fisher et al., 1978). With increased emphasis on prevention and intervention work at the school and classroom levels, providing consultation services to teachers that address classroom time management of transitions may be an efficient and effective way to improve school outcomes. ...
... At the start of the study, transition time comprised 26%, 31%, and 39% of 39-minute biology classes for Mrs. F, Mrs. O, and Mrs. N, respectively. This was somewhat higher than rates described in previous studies (Fisher et al., 1978). Corresponding student academic engagement rates ranged from 53% to 62% and the percentage of class time during which instruction was provided ranged from 32% to 52%. ...
Performance feedback has been described as a necessary component of consultation. Although feedback has been used to improve academic performance of individual students, less research has examined the effects on classroom academic engagement when implementation of classroom management variables is the source of feedback. Using a multiple-baseline design, the effects of performance feedback with goal setting was examined across three high school biology teachers who were first provided with feedback on the number of seconds devoted to transitions and then successful implementation of classroom time management strategies. Feedback on the number of transition minutes alone led to decreases in transition time and corresponding increases in student academic engagement for all teachers. One teacher benefited from additional feedback on classroom time management strategies. For all teachers, low rates of transition time and high rates of academic engagement were maintained when the intervention was faded and after it was terminated.
... The research results support the value of frequent correct responses given rapidly and automatically. One of the major findings of the BTES study (Fisher et al., 1978) was that high percentage of correct answers (both during guided practice and independent practice) was positively correlated with achievement gain. Similarly, Anderson et al., (1979) found that the percent of academic interactions where the student gave the correct answer was positively related (r = .49) ...
... The most common context in which independent practice takes place is in individual seatwork. Students in grades one through seven spend more time working alone on seatwork than on any other activity (approximately 50 to 75% of their time) (Evertson et al., 1980a; Fisher et al., 1978; Stallings et al., 1977; Stallings & Kaskowitz, 1974). However, students are less engaged during seatwork than when they are in groups receiving instruction from the teacher. ...
... The most effective teachers spent 24 minutes (in a 50-minute period) in demonstration and guided practice, whereas the least effective teachers spent only 10 minutes on these same activities. Similarly, Fisher et al. (1978) found that teachers who had more questions and answers during group work had more engagement during seatwork. That is, another way to increase engagement during seatwork is to have more teacher-led practice during group work so that the students can be more successful during seatwork. ...
... Accompanying traditional outcome metrics with such rate-based metrics allows for equitable comparisons across studies ( Skinner, 2008;Skinner et al., 1995;Skinner, Fletcher, & Henington, 1996). This is particularly important given that instructional time in schools is at a premium ( Fisher et al., 1978;Gettinger & Ball, 2008). A basic tenet of the EBI movement is that research should increasingly move toward establishing the best intervention for a given instructional deficit. ...
... The results of the current study converged with the findings of Poncy et al. (2015) in demonstrating that growth, measured as phase differences-analogous to more common estimators (e.g., nonoverlap metrics, Cohen's d)-confers little information regarding rates of growth. Rate of growth is a significant concern of school-based interventionists given the brief amount of time students are available for intervention ( Fisher et al., 1978;Gettinger & Ball, 2008;Skinner et al., 1995). The purpose of academic intervention is to manipulate rates of growth (i.e., increase the steepness) of learning over time via a modification of the instructional setting ( Skinner et al., 1995). ...
The purpose of the current study is to determine whether single-case intervention studies targeting reading fluency, ranked by traditional outcome metrics (i.e., effect sizes derived from phase differences), were discrepant with rankings based on instructional efficiency, including growth per session and minutes of instruction. Converging with prior findings, we found great variability in reported sessions and minutes of instruction across studies, as well as divergences in rankings based on outcome variables. These findings raise questions as to how literature syntheses on the topic of academic intervention are interpreted and how selection of evidence-based intervention occurs.
... From the perspective of social learning theory, such learning tasks are beyond the student's zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). Fisher et al. (1978) and Rangel and Berliner (2007) have identified academic learning time (ALT) as an important predictor of student academic achievement. In the Fisher et al. (1978) study, tasks were rated as high, medium, and low difficulty, based on direct classroom observations of how well students performed those learning tasks. ...
... Fisher et al. (1978) and Rangel and Berliner (2007) have identified academic learning time (ALT) as an important predictor of student academic achievement. In the Fisher et al. (1978) study, tasks were rated as high, medium, and low difficulty, based on direct classroom observations of how well students performed those learning tasks. The amount of time students spent attempting to do high difficulty tasks was negatively associated with student learning achievement, whereas more time spent on medium and low difficulty tasks (i.e., more successful engagement) was positively correlated with achievement. ...
Self-directed e-learning (SDEL) refers to electronic learning environments where there are often no peer learners or instructors regularly available. Past studies suggest that lack of time and lack of motivation are primary causes of learner attrition in online settings. However, little is known about what influences motivational change during SDEL. We surveyed 368 adult learners from both higher education and corporate settings who had used commercial SDEL products. Results from stepwise regression analysis indicated that the best predictors of motivation to begin SDEL were perceived relevance, reported technology competence, and age. The best predictors of motivation during SDEL were perceived quality of instruction and learning (e-learning is right for me) and motivation to begin. Motivation during SDEL was the best predictor of positive change in motivation, which in turn predicted learner satisfaction with SDEL. Instructional design principles for sustaining learner motivation in SDEL are identified from the findings of the present study.
... By the 1980s, however, interest in the measurement of teaching spread to new research contexts. One development was the use of instructional logs (or time diaries) 6 to gather data on classroom instruction, as was done in such studies as the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study (Fisher et al., 1978) and research conducted at the Institute for Research on Teaching at Michigan State University (Floden, Porter, & Schmidt, 1980). Still later, an interest in the measurement of teaching spread to large-scale survey research when policy makers called for more and better survey data on instruction and annual surveys emerged as a primary means for gathering data on the enacted curriculum (Brewer & Stasz, 1996; Burstein, McDonnell, Van Winkle, Orm seth, Mirocha, and Guiton, 1995; Mayer, 1999; Mullens & Kasprzyk, 1999). ...
... Soon, however, researchers linked measurement of the enacted curriculum to theoretical models of schooling. One linkage was to John Carroll's (1963) model of school learning and related ideas about time-on-task (see, e.g., measures of curriculum coverage used in the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study [Fisher et al., 1978]). Now, the key task in measuring the enacted curriculum became quantifying students' exposure to curriculum content in terms of accumulated time on a curriculum task over some interval—usually the time elapsed between achievement tests. ...
In this article we examine methodological and conceptual issues that emerge when researchers measure the enacted curriculum in schools. After outlining key theoretical considerations that guide measurement of this construct and alternative strategies for collecting and analyzing data on it, we illustrate one approach to gathering and analyzing data on the enacted curriculum. Using log data on the reading/language arts instruction of more than 150 third-grade teachers in 53 high-poverty elementary schools participating in the Study of Instructional Improvement, we estimated several hierarchical linear models and found that the curricular content of literacy instruction (a) varied widely from day to day, (b) did not vary much among students in the same classroom, but (c) did vary greatly across classrooms, largely as the result of teachers' participation in 1 of the 3 instructional improvement interventions (Accelerated Schools, America's Choice, and Success for All) under study. The implications of these findings for future research on the enacted curriculum are discussed.
... ● Investigators have found that students are more engaged during seatwork when the teacher circulates around the room and monitors and supervises their work (Fisher et al. 1978). However, these contacts should be relatively short, averaging 30 seconds or less. ...
... However, these contacts should be relatively short, averaging 30 seconds or less. The same researchers found that students of teachers who spend more time in guided practice are more engaged during seatwork; in contrast, when teachers give a great deal of explanation during seatwork, students make more errors (Fisher et al. 1978 ). Lengthy explanation during seatwork indicates that the initial teaching and guided practice were not sufficient. ...
Research has found that effective teachers teach concepts and skills using a systematic, step-by-step instructional process. The six teaching functions are: review, presentation, guided practice, corrections and feedback, independent practice, and weekly and monthly reviews. Includes two tables and extensive references. (MD)
... The significance of improved rates of academic initiation lies in its relationship to learning outcomes. Recent studies of low achievers have shown consistently that timeon-task (active learning time) is a powerful predictor of learning outcomes (Berliner, et al., 1978). Low achievers are often found disengaged or waiting for the teacher thereby lowering the probability of learning. ...
... The use of small groups clearly represents an improvement over this pattern; it produces more actively involved students. Other studies cite a relationship between active, time-on-task and measurable learning gains among low achievers (Berliner, 1978 ). We were not able to show this relationship mostly because the in-service program was completed late in the year. ...
A Multi-Ability classroom is a set of recommendatio ns for permanent changes in the task and evaluation structure of classroorils. These changes are calculated to increase active, engaged, learning behavior of low status students and to provide detailed enriched feedback to the student on how he or she is doing on many different specific tasks. These changes are designed to modify expectations of competence held by classmates for each other and by the student for him/herself. Instead of a set of consistent expectations for competence for a student based on how "smart" or "dumb" he or she is, we introduce multiple intellectual abilities on which each child develops mixed expectations. This classroom model requires the changing of the perception and conception of human ability from unidimensional to multi-dimensional. Active steps must be taken to prevent reading achievement from being used as the index of where each child stands on what is commonly thought to be a single dimension of human intelligence. Unless strong steps are taken, what happens in many classrooms is that a child's ability in reading is used as an index to organize expectations for how competent he or she will be at a wide range of classroom tasks. This is, of course, encouraged by making reading a prerequisite for success at almost every classroom task. However, even if we set a task, such as small group discussion or a game task not requiring reading, we have collected consistent evidence that those children who are perceived to be better readers will be more active and influential than those who are perceived to be weaker readers (Rosenholtz, 1980; Stulac, 1975). This is a kind of self-fulfilli ng prophecy whereby those who are better readers expect to be better at a wide range of intellectual tasks; and those who are weaker readers expect to do poorly at a wide range of tasks. These dif
... Finally, we asked students to report on their academic learning time—their successful engagement in tasks, activities and problems that were related to course objectives (cf. Berliner 1990; Fisher et al. 1978; Squires et al. 1983). Our research question was: What is the relationship of these factors with First Principles of Instruction? ...
... Past research has also shown that ALT is strongly and significantly correlated with student academic achievement as measured by standardized tests (cf. Berliner 1991; Brown and Saks 1986; Fisher et al. 1978; Kuh et al. 2006). In our study, student reports of ALT in their courses and their perceived Learning Progress were highly correlated (q = 0.60). ...
Numerous instructional design models have been proposed over the past several decades. Instead of focusing on the design process
(means), this study investigated how learners perceived the quality of instruction they experienced (ends). An electronic
survey instrument containing nine apriori scales was developed. Students responded from 89 different undergraduate and graduate
courses at multiple institutions (n=140). Data analysis indicated strong correlations between student self-reports on academic learning time, how much they
learned, First Principles of Instruction, their satisfaction with the course, perceptions of their mastery of course objectives,
and global course ratings. Most importantly, these scales measure principles with which instructional developers and teachers
can evaluate their products and courses, regardless of design processes used: provide authentic tasks for students to do;
activate prior learning; demonstrate what is to be learned; provide repeated opportunities for students to successfully complete
authentic tasks with coaching and feedback; and help students integrate what they have learned into their personal lives.
... For example, Stallings and Kaskowitz (1974) found students in the highest performing Follow Through programs spent about 50% more time on reading or reading-related activities than did students in other programs. Similar results were found by Fisher et al. (1978), who observed reading and mathematics in second-and fifth-grade classrooms. ...
... We conducted observations in 27 kindergarten and 18 first-grade classrooms to determine how teachers spend their time. The observation system we used was built upon the work of Stallings and Kaskowitz (1974), Fisher et al. (1978), and Barr and Dreeben with Wiratchai (1983). It is extensively described in Meyer, Linn, Mayberry, and Hastings (1985). ...
... The concept could be considered a de facto reform strategy, since learning beyond classroom instruction is typically needed or proposed only when learners are not performing or achieving at expected levels. (Fisher, 1978). This approach can be a strategy for increasing learners' time of receiving instruction; time spent engaging in other learning areas such as sports and arts; learning through non-traditional experiences such as apprenticeships or internships; or time for acquiring academic support while extended learning time may take a wide variety of forms from state to state. ...
This study investigated primary school teachers' levels of awareness about social media-based instructional platforms for extended learning. The research design used in this study was a descriptive survey and to achieve this objective, two research questions were formulated to guide the study. A standard questionnaire was used as the main data collection tool. Seventy-six (76) Primary school teachers were randomly selected from five public primary schools in Ado Local Government of Ekiti State, Nigeria. The data collected from respondents were analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation and descriptive analysis. The finding revealed that many of the respondents are aware of various social media platforms used in teaching, and there existed a significant relationship between primary school teachers' awareness based on the existence of social media platforms and usage of social media platforms for extended learning (r= 0.0219: p<0.05). It was also indicated that Primary school teachers' level of awareness about social media instructional platforms was below average. Teachers are therefore implored to familiarize themselves with these social media platforms and not restrict themselves to the platforms that were for social engagement but rather get used to social platforms specifically designed for learning.
... A finales de los 70, Fisher et al., 1978y Rosenshine y Berliner, 1978, bajo el proyecto "Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study (BTES)", estudian la relación entre el "Tiempo de Aprendizaje Académico" y el éxito académico de los estudiantes. Según estos autores, el Tiempo de Aprendizaje Académico estaba constituido por tres elementos (1) el tiempo destinado al aprendizaje (Allocated time: tiempo que el maestro ofrece al alumno para que se dé un aprendizaje), (2) la tasa de implicación (Engagement rate: tiempo en el que los niños están implicados para aprender el contenido) y (3) la tasa de éxito (Success rate: proporción de tiempo que los estudiantes pasan en una tarea que les permite obtener los diferentes niveles de éxito altos, medios o bajos). ...
Engagement in classroom activities is relevant for the development and learning of children and adolescents with and without disabilities. Although researchers in Spanish speaking countries are studying the construct of engagement, a need prevails to present a synthesis in Spanish language on the onset and evolution of engagement. This article presents the historical evolution of the construct of engagement from three perspectives: time on task, ecological-behavioral studies and experiential education. The first two perspectives are born in the United States during the 60s and 70s, while the latter emerged in the late 70s in Belgium. We present the chronological evolution of the investigations for each of these perspectives and the challenges that arise to continue the study of engagement. ///////////////Resumen
La implicación en las actividades del aula es relevante para el desarrollo y aprendizaje de los niños y jóvenes con y sin discapacidad. Aunque la implicación se ha estudiado en el contexto de países de lengua española, existe la necesidad de presentar una síntesis en español sobre cómo surge y se desarrolla la investigación de este constructo. Este trabajo presenta la evolución histórica del constructo de la implicación desde tres perspectivas: el tiempo en la tarea, los estudios ecológico-conductuales y la educación experiencial. Las dos primeras surgen en Estados Unidos durante los años 60 y 70, mientras que la última surge a finales de los 70 en Bélgica. Se presenta una evolución cronológica de las investigaciones llevadas a cabo desde cada una de estas perspectivas y de los retos que se presentan de cara a continuar el estudio de este constructo.
... In other words, errors appear to be on the causal path between these factors and attention. That there is a negative association between errors on classroom tasks and growth in reading is a well-established finding (Anderson, Evertson, & Brophy, 1979; Fisher et al., 1978; Hoffman et al., 1984). On the basis of this finding, previous investigators have wanted to advance the conclusion that classroom tasks should be made easier so that errors are reduced. ...
Investigated the attention of 116 children in 6 2nd- and 3rd-grade classrooms while they participated in 4 lessons involving progressively more difficult stories. Analysis of videotapes of the lessons revealed that the likelihood of a lapse of attention was highest during the 1st 15 sec of attention episodes. Lapses in attention were more likely among 2nd graders than among 3rd graders, among boys than among girls, in low groups than in middle groups, and in middle groups than in high groups. The more difficult the story, the more likely were lapses in attention, especially among younger and less able students. Reading-group membership was more strongly related to attention than were reliable measures of children's individual comprehension and fluency; a leading hypothesis to explain this finding is that reading groups have subcultures that differentially support paying attention. The most newsworthy finding of the study was the sharp drop in attention after oral reading errors; this drop was observed in all reading groups in both 2nd and 3rd grades.
... In other words, the most effective teachers structured oral reading opportunities where most children read with 100% accuracy! A second, and similar, study was carried out by a team of research- ers from the Far West Laboratory for Educational Research and Development (Berliner, 1981 ;Fisher & Berliner, 1985 ;Fisher et al., 1978 ). One difference from the Anderson et al. ( 1979 ) study was that observations were completed for second-and fifth-grade classrooms. ...
The CCSS framework indicates more difficult texts are to be used with students. However, the rationale for increasing text difficulty, decreasing text difficulty, is unsupported by the research that shows texts have been increasing in difficulty for at least 50 years. Oral reading accuracy is a traditional method of estimating text difficulty. For 70 years oral reading accuracy of at least 95% accuracy has been the accepted standard. The research available suggest that this traditional level of accuracy is supported by the evidence as optimal for developing reading proficiency.
... Academic learning time (ALT) refers to frequency of successful student engagement in learning activities relevant to curriculum goals. ALT has been shown to be positively correlated with student learning achievement (Berliner, 1991; Fisher, Filby, Marliave, Cohen, Dishaw, Moore, & Berliner, 1978). Kirkpatrick's (1994) four levels of evaluation for gauging training effectiveness have been used for over five decades in non-formal educational settings, such as business and industry. ...
... In an early study, Reuter (1963) found that the length of the school day varied from four to six hours. A large-scale study known as the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study, or BTES, found that second graders were in school 5.5 hours, whereas fifth graders were in school for six hours (Fisher et al., 1978). Harnischfeger and Wiley (1978) found that the length of the school day within the same district could vary by as much as 45 minutes. ...
... In examining the research literature, one factor has consistently shown a strong relation to student achievement at all levels: academic learning time (ALT). ALT refers to the frequency and amount of time that students spend successfully engaged in learning tasks that are similar to skills and knowledge they will be later tested on (Berliner, 1990; Brown & Saks, 1986; Fisher, et al., 1978; Kuh, et al., 2006; Squires, Huitt & Segars, 1983). Yet the kinds of items in the Cohen (1981) meta-analysis largely focused on the instructor or course, not on student ALT. ...
... Still, researchers are able to determine things worth believing, seriously discussing, or doing by moving from adequately secure premises, with not necessarily unfailing processes of reasoning, to conclusions judged warranted at that time. It is useful to recall that all knowledge is human, as Fisher and his colleagues stress in their final report on the well-known Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study (Fisher et al., 1978): No knowledge is ever absolute. Even experimental analyses are generally open to more than one reasonable interpretation, particularly when one wishes to generalize to natural situations and events. ...
John Dewey's vision of communication posits an important ideal that educational researchers are hard pressed to meet, for the language that facilitates exchanges between scholars often encumbers their attempts to convey their work and findings to a wider, lay audience. The canons of inquiry (of foremost concern to researchers) rarely coincide with the exigencies of policy (of foremost concern to laypeople). Three potentially incompatible conditions must be met in order to bridge this communicative gap: access, belief, and impact. The condition of access requires that the language and style researchers use to present the findings of their investigations be comprehensible and appealing. The condition of belief demands that researchers gain and maintain credibility in the eyes of their audience. The condition of impact emphasizes the inherent tensions between the perennial tentativeness of knowledge and the immediate need for certainty in action. Israel Scheffler's notion of a ‘double consciousness’, consistent with the author's notion of ‘second thoughts’, is proposed as an aid in enabling resolute commitment while holding action and decision open to revision in light of new insights and wider knowledge.
... In examining the research literature, one factor has consistently shown a strong relation to student achievement at all levels: academic learning time (ALT). ALT refers to the frequency and amount of time that students spend successfully engaged in learning tasks that are similar to skills and knowledge they will be later tested on (Berliner, 1991; Brown & Saks, 1986; Fisher et al., 1978; Kuh et al., 2006; Squires, Huitt, & Segars, 1983). Yet the kinds of items in the Cohen (1981) meta-analysis largely focused on the instructor or course, not on student ALT. ...
While student global ratings of college courses historically predict learning achievement, the majority of recent U.S. college
graduates lack proficiency in desired skills. Teaching and Learning Quality (TALQ), a new course evaluation instrument, was
developed from extant instructional theory that promotes student learning. A survey of 193 students in 111 different courses
at multiple institutions was conducted using TALQ. Results indicated strong associations among student ratings of First Principles
of Instruction, academic learning time, perceptions of learning gains, satisfaction with courses, perceived mastery of course
objectives, and their overall evaluation of courses and instructors. Instructors can implement the theoretically derived First
Principles of Instruction by challenging students with real-world problems or tasks, activating student learning, demonstrating
what is to be learned, providing feedback on student learning attempts, and encouraging student integration of learning into
their personal lives.
KeywordsTeaching and learning quality-Higher education-Student learning-Course evaluation-First Principles of Instruction-Academic learning time
... @BULLET use of five First Principles of Instruction in a course (Merrill, 2002; 2008; Merrill, Barclay & van Schaak, 2008), @BULLET perceived student academic learning time (ALT) (Rangel & Berliner, 2007; Berliner, 1990; Fisher et al., 1978; Kuh et al., 2007), @BULLET perceived learning progress (Cohen, 1981), @BULLET self-reported mastery of course objectives (Mager, 1997), @BULLET satisfaction with the course and instructor (Kirkpatrick, 1994); and @BULLET global ratings of course and instructor quality (Cohen, 1981). In a study of 140 students in 89 unique courses from a wide range of disciplines, Frick et al. (in press, 2007) found highly significant positive correlations among these scales. ...
Recent research has touted the benefits of learner-centered instruction, problem-based learning, and a focus on complex learning.
Instructors often struggle to put these goals into practice as well as to measure the effectiveness of these new teaching
strategies in terms of mastery of course objectives. Enter the course evaluation, often a standardized tool that yields little
practical information for an instructor, but is nonetheless utilized in making high-level career decisions, such as tenure
and monetary awards to faculty. The present researchers have developed a new instrument to measure teaching and learning quality
(TALQ). In the current study of 464 students in 12 courses, if students agreed that their instructors used First Principles
of Instruction and also agreed that they experienced academic learning time (ALT), then students were about 5times more likely
to achieve high levels of mastery of course objectives and 26times less likely to achieve low levels of mastery, according to independent instructor assessments. TALQ can measure improvements in use of First Principles in
teaching and course design. The feedback from this instrument can assist teachers who wish to implement the recommendation
made by Kuh et al. (2007) that universities and colleges should focus their assessment efforts on factors that influence student success.
KeywordsCourse evaluation-Teaching quality-First principles of instruction-Academic learning time-Complex learning-Higher education-Authentic problems
... For example, researchers estimate that more than 30 separate activities occur in elementary classrooms with the majority of classroom time spent in seatwork and the rest in whole-class presentation, recitations, and transitions. Historically, students' tasks have a narrower range in secondary school classrooms than in elementary school classrooms (Fisher, et. al., 1978; Doyle, 1986; Shuell, 1996). Using these three interconnected observable markers—with special emphasis on teacherdesigned activities—I collected 1045 classroom reports from 71 schools in three districts between 1993 and 2005 and placed them along the continuum of historical teaching practices. Many reports showed teachers who tilted towa ...
In the last quarter-century and especially the last decade, testing and accountability have come to dominate education policy at the state and national levels. The common concern about the effects of such testing is that it reshapes teaching in the classroom. But such claims do not look at the evidence of deeper classroom structures (the mix of teacher-centered and student-centered practices) in historical context. This article extends historical research in How Teachers Taught (Cuban, 1993) to the present in three metropolitan school districts. While testing and accountability have become more obvious concerns of teachers, the hybridized classroom environment documented in How Teachers Taught have become more pervasive. This article documents this continuing ubiquity and addresses the apparent inconsistency between evidence of a hybridized classroom environment and the unintended consequences of testing and accountability.
... Academic engaged time. Results of the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study (Fisher, et al., 1978) showed the importance of considering more than content covered or the amount of time allocated to a specific content area. In that study, classes were found to vary, not only in the amount of time allocated to a subject area, but also in the rate at which students were engaged during that time, and in the rate of errors made. ...
... In the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study, Fisher and his associates (Fisher, Filby, Marliave, Cahen, Dishaw, Moore, & Berliner, 1978) found that achievement gains were positively correlated with the percentage of class time during which the error rate was 10% or less and negatively correlated with the percentage of class time during which the error rate was greater than 30%. These findings held in both mathematics and reading across 25 second-grade classrooms and 21 fifth-grade classrooms. ...
Running title: Errors Includes bibliographical references (leaves 13-15) Support in part under contract no. 400-81-0030 from the National Institute of Education
This article describes the development and implementation of three applications of portable microcomputers (Projects STEEL, MICROS, and UPWARD) to collect, store, transmit, and analyze teacher and student observational data. It identifies the goals of each project and describes development of the observation systems and corresponding computer software. The article also discusses obstacles associated with using portable microcomputers to collect data and describes how, through a series of refinements and with the advent of a second generation of laptop computers, many of these obstacles have been eliminated, now enabling researchers and teachers to more extensively use portable microcomputers to conduct observation studies.
The purpose of this chapter is to illustrate the application of the system dynamics method to an educational policy problem of wide current interest. Other applications of system dynamics to educational problems include the work of Andersen et al. (1980) and Weaver (1982) on school finance, Blakeslee (1984), Weaver (1983), and Gaynor and Clauset (1983) on teacher supply and demand, Gaynor and Clauset (1985) and Garet (1979) on innovation and institutionalization, and Roberts (1974) on teacher-student interactions.
The search for knowledge to understand and improve the quality and effectiveness of teaching is an endeavor in which educational researchers have been engaged for decades. The focus of this search, however, has changed over time. It has shifted from efforts to identify teacher characteristics that were thought to result in improved student learning, to the development of strategies for training teachers to implement specific curricula. The search has also shifted to the identification of classroom procedures and instructional processes that correlate empirically with greater rates of student academic achievement. The means by which researchers have collected data to guide the search have been diverse, as have the theoretical constructs they have employed to focus their inquiry.
This chapter discusses the various ways of effective teaching. The single most important factor in predicting whether or not a teacher will be effective is whether the curriculum that is delivered to students in his or her classroom is linked logically or empirically to the outcomes that are desired. An important instructional variable that has not received a great deal of attention in discussions of effectiveness, until recently, is the variable of success rate. Three obvious levels of success rate may be defined: (1) high success rate is defined as the amount of time students spend in high success experiences where approximately 80% or more correct responses are made, (2) medium success rate is defined as the percentage of time students spend in activities or with curriculum materials that provide them with between 20 and 80% correct responses, and (3) low success rate is defined as the percentage of time students spend in activities or with curriculum materials that provide for approximately 20% or fewer correct responses. High success means that a student would show a low error rate and consider the task to be easy and low success means a student has a high error rate and probably considers the task difficult. It is an important variable in a discussion of effectiveness because very high and very low success rates in classrooms appear to affect student attitudes and student achievement.
The current study examined the effect of a planning and goal-setting intervention in reducing latency to task engagement. This study used a multiple baseline design across participants for two seventh-grade and two eighth-grade students in a remedial reading class. The behavioral intervention was administered in small groups at the start of each class period. Latency for transitions was measured from the conclusion of teacher directions to the initiation of assigned academic tasks. Results showed the implementation of the intervention was closely associated with immediate decreases in latency to task engagement. The intervention reduced the mean latency to task engagement for all participants and reduced the variability over baseline. Visual analysis indicate a functional relation between the intervention and changes in latency. Implications for results and suggestions for future research are discussed.
This article reports the results of a Madeline Hunter program implementation study. The study was conducted by the NAPA County Unified School District as one of the NTE-funded Follow Through grants. The research sought to identify the relationships between staff development programs, teacher implementation of the program, students’ engaged rates, and student achievement. This article reports the findings at the completion of the first full year of data collection.
The sample includes 13 teachers in two schools representing two school districts. All of the teachers were observed before and after a three-month intervention where the Madeline Hunter five-step lesson plan was taught. The 257 students included in the analyses have pretest and posttest scores for observed engaged rates and achievement tests in both reading and mathematics.
The correlational results suggest a significant relationship between program implementation and engaged rate in both reading ip < .05) and mathematics ip < .01). Program implementation is significantly related to mathematics achievement test scores ip < .01) but not to reading scores. Engaged rate and achievement are related in reading ip < .0Q1) and for mathematics ip < .07).
Teachers apply their diagnostic skills when grading students’ work as well as when preparing lessons and monitoring students’ understanding during the learning process. Previous research on teachers’ diagnostic skills has focused on teachers at elementary level. Drawing on a large German sample of mathematics teachers at secondary level, this chapter empirically addresses three key questions on teachers’ diagnostic skills (depending on the research question, the number of teachers with valid data varied between n=155 and n=331). The results showed that (a) the accuracy of teachers’ judgments of their classes’ achievement level, distribution of achievement, and motivation is relatively low, (b) diagnostic skills do not represent a one-dimensional but a multidimensional construct, and (c) teachers’ diagnostic skills (in terms of tasks-related judgment error and diagnostic sensitivity) have a positive influence on their students’ achievement gains in mathematics. Training and fostering teachers’ diagnostic skills seems thus to be highly relevant for the valid assignment of grades and for student progress.
El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar el efecto de tres formas de organización (forma de organización grupal en filas, grupal en circuitos, y grupal en tareas jugadas) sobre la actuación y evolución del profesor de educación física en la enseñanza de habilidades atléticas. La muestra se compuso de dos profesores que impartían clase en los cursos 1º y 3º de Enseñanza Secundaria. Se realizó un diseño cuasi-experimental intergrupos y se aplicó una instrucción de nueve sesiones de enseñanza, con seis grupos de clase (n=45 sesiones). La variable independiente fue el tipo de organización. Las variables dependientes fueron la evolución del profesor (recorrido), el número de pasos, la distancia recorrida, y el feedback impartido por el profesor (número y tipo). La forma de organización es una variable que tiene influencia sobre la actuación del profesor en clase (posición y evolución) durante las clases de educación física. Esta parece no afectar de forma significativa a la prevalencia de feedback de tipo individual, y si a la impartición de feedback grupal. La evolución y la distancia recorrida por el profesor fue mayor en la forma de organización en circuitos y menor en filas y grupal en tareas jugadas1.
The purpose of this paper was to establish the effect of three task organizations (groups in lines, small-group in circuits, and large-group in game-like activities) on the action and progression of physical education teachers in the teaching of athletic skills. The sample was composed of two teachers that taught in the first and third courses of Spanish Secondary Education. An intergroup quasi-experimental design was used, and instruction was carried out over nine sessions with six classes (n=45 sessions). The independent variable was the task organization. The dependent variables were the path the teacher took over the course of the class, the number of steps taken, the distance covered, and the feedback given by the teacher (number and type). Task organization is a variable that affects the teacher’s actions in class (position and movement). This does not appear to significantly affect the individual feedback given, but it does affect the group feedback given. The path and distance covered by the teacher was greater in circuits and was lower in lines and in large group game-like activities.
Presents results from a large study of classroom management in third grades. The objective of the study was to gather extensive information about how third grade teachers in socially disadvantaged schools organized their classes. Data are presented regarding student behavior, teacher behavior, and characteristics of effective management. (Author/DB)
This study investigated the relationships among student achievement, student engagement, and the selected student characteristics of initial skill, previous experience, and sex.
A challenge for primary classroom teachers is to maintain students’ engagement with learning tasks while catering for their diverse needs, capabilities and interests. Multiple pedagogical approaches are employed to promote on-task behaviours in the mathematics classroom. There is a general assumption by educators that games ignite children’s on-task behaviours, but there is little systemically researched empirical data to support this claim. This paper compares students’ on-task behaviours during non-digital game-playing lessons compared with non-game-playing lessons. Six randomly selected grade 5 and 6 students (9–12 year olds) were observed during ten mathematics lessons. A total of 2,100 observations were recorded via an observational schedule and analysed by comparing the percentage of exhibited behaviours. The study found the children spent 93 % of the class-time exhibiting on-task engagement during the game-playing lessons compared with 72 % during the non-game-playing lessons. The game-playing lessons also promoted greater incidents of student talk related to the mathematical task (34 %) compared with the non-game-playing lessons (11 %). These results support the argument that games serve to increase students’ time-on-task in mathematics lessons. Therefore, it is contended that use of games explicitly addressing the mathematical content being taught in a classroom is one way to increase engagement and, in turn, potential for learning.
This article reports a naturalistic study of small-group instruction in elementary school mathematics classes. Three school districts from three cities (a small suburban city, a large urban city, and a middle-sized city) in three midwestern states were studied. Observations (N = 206) of entire mathematics periods were made in the classrooms of 33 teachers (primarily fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade) in 21 schools. This article describes the types of small-group formats observed, the variation in teachers' use of time in 12 teaching functions, and the extent to which group structure and use of teaching functions affected the task climate in which students learned mathematics. Six types of small-group formats were found: whole-class ad hoc, two groups, three groups, four groups or more (mixed-size groups), heterogeneous work groups (cooperative learning), and individualized grouping.
Many school practices and policies are built on the assumption that students learn best when the curriculum is well matched to students’ learning abilities. The belief is that when students understand what they are being taught, they are more likely to be actively involved in the learning process and less likely to disengage from classroom instruction and activities. The common practice of age-grading, which assumes that student age correlates with learning ability, enables teachers to present a curriculum designed to interest and challenge students at a particular age. Similarly, the practice of curriculum differentiation found in most secondary and middle schools and some elementary schools is based on this belief. Teachers assign students to ability groups to ensure that the curriculum they receive is suitable for their academic preparation and to expose them to new material at a level that they can comprehend. Ideally, ability grouping should maximize student learning. In practice, ability grouping falls far short of its goal. Limitations in the process of assigning students to ability groups and in the pedagogical techniques utilized at different ability group levels seriously restrict the learning opportunities that are provided to students in some ability groups. Empirical research reveals several of the limitations in the practice of ability grouping that account for its failure to maximize learning opportuni
A series of three studies was conducted, the first two at the intermediate grade level and the third at the primary grade level. The purpose of these studies was to investigate the effects of an experimental classroom reading program in which students who passed pretests on basal skills were excused from subsequent instruction and practice on these skills. Most students were able to pass pretests on reading skills before the skills were covered in the basal reader program. Without instruction their performance on end-of-book skill tests remained high. Results suggest that it may be possible to excuse many students in the elementary grades from many of the skill activities in the basal reader program and that students' attention could be directed, instead, to other reading activities.
ABSTRACTS
Reading teacher education in the next millennium: What your Grandmother's teacher didn't know that your granddaughter's teacher should
The preparation of teachers in the area of reading education is a primary concern of those who seek to improve reading achievement in schools. The challenges of the next millennium will make teacher preparation even more of an issue. Changes in the nature of literacy itself, changes in the diversity of our student population, and changes in the occupational characteristics of teaching are part of the near future. Research in the area of teacher preparation has been limited. We summarize the research in teacher preparation and argue that a great deal is known about the training of teachers but much less about the teaching of teachers. It is the latter that must occupy our attention if we are to prepare future teachers for the changing landscape of reading education. We review research in the areas of training and teaching of teachers and point toward promising practices in the area of teaching teachers. These promising practices emphasize such features as inquiry and reflection and we argue that there are political forces that privilege a training model for the preparation of teachers and that the emphasis on teaching teachers will be difficult. We conclude with recommendations for a research agenda in reading teacher education that is based on our analysis of the status quo.
La formación de los docentes de lectura en el próximo milenio: Lo que la maestra de tu abuela no sabía y la maestra de tu nieta debe saber
LA FORMACIÓN docente en el área de enseñanza de la lectura es una preocupación fundamental de aquellos que buscan mejorar el desempeño en lectura en las escuelas. Los desafíos del próximo milenio harán que la formación docente sea un tema muy importante. Cambios en la naturaleza de la alfabetización, cambios en la diversidad de la población de estudiantes y cambios en las características laborales de la docencia son parte del futuro cercano. La investigación en el área de formación docente ha sido limitada. Resumimos la investigación en formación docente y argumentamos que se sabe mucho sobre el entrenamiento docente y poco sobre enseñar a los docentes. Esta última cuestión es la que debe ocupar nuestra atención si el objetivo es preparar futuros docentes para el terreno cambiante de la enseñanza de la lectura. Revisamos investigaciones en las áreas de entrenamiento y enseñanza a los docentes y señalamos prácticas prometedoras en la enseñanza de los docentes. Estas prácticas enfatizan rasgos tales como la investigación y la reflexión. Asimismo argumentamos que hay fuerzas políticas que privilegian un modelo de entrenamiento para la formación docente y que poner el énfasis en la enseñanza será difícil. Concluimos con recomendaciones para una agenda de investigación en la formación de docentes en lectura basada en nuestro análisis del estado de la cuestión.
Lehrerausbildung im Lesen im nächsten Jahrtausend: Was der Lehrer Ihrer Großmutter nicht wußte, das sollte der Lehrer Ihrer Enkelin wissen
DIE VORBEREITUNG von Lehrern auf dem Gebiet der LeseAusbildung ist ein primäres Anliegen von jenen, die sich bemühen, die Leseleistungen in den Schulen zu verbessern. Die Herausforderungen des nächsten Jahrtausends verleihen der Vorbereitung zum Lehrer noch weit mehr an Bedeutung. Veränderungen in der Natur des Lesens und Schreibens selbst, stetiger Wechsel in der Vielfalt der Bevölkerung unserer Schüler, und Veränderungen in den beruflichen Charakteristiken der Unterrichtserteilung sind alle ein Bestandteil der unmittelbaren Zukunft. Die Forschung auf dem Gebiet der Lehrervorbereitung war bisher begrenzt. Wir fassen die Forschung in der Lehrvorbereitung zusammen und argumentieren, daß ein Großteil über das Training von Lehrern bekannt ist, jedoch weit weniger über das Unterrichten der Lehrer selbst. Letztere sind es, denen unsere Aufmerksamkeit gelten muß, wenn wir künftige Lehrer auf die sich än dernde Landschaft in der Leseausbildung vorbereiten. Wir werfen einen Rückblick auf die Forschung auf dem Gebiet der Lehrerausbildung und deren Lehrvermittlung im Ausbildungsunterricht von Lehrern und weisen auf die vielversprechenden Fortschritte in den Bereichen der Lehrerausbildung und Fortbildung hin. Diese vielversprechenden Vorgänge bekräftigen solche Bemühungen durch Untersuchungen und Rückblicke und wir argumentieren, daß es politische Bestrebungen gibt, welche ein Aus‐ und Fortbildungsmodell für Lehrer stark befürworten und daß eine Betonung der Lehrerausbildung schwierig sein wird. Wir schließen mit Empfehlungen für eine Forschungsagenda in der Lehrerausbildung zum Lesen, die auf unsere vom Status quo ausgehende Analyse basiert.
La formation des maîtres en lecture au prochain millénaire: ce que le maître de votre grand mère ne savait pas et que le maître de votre petite fille devrait savoir
LA FORMATION des maîtres dans le domaine de la lecture est la préoccupation principale de ceux qui cherchent à améliorer les résultats en lecture dans les écoles. Les défis du prochain millénaire font de la formation des maîtres un problème de plus en plus préoccupant. Des changements dans la nature même de la littératie, des changements dans la diversité de notre public d'élèves, et des changements dans les caractéristiques professionnelles de l'enseignement font partie intégrante de notre proche avenir. La recherche dans le domaine de la formation des maîtres est limitée. Nous en faisons un résumé et soutenons qu'on sait beaucoup de choses sur l'entraînement des maîtres mais pas sur leur éducation. C'est cette dernière qui devrait retenir notre attention si nous voulons préparer les enseignants de demain au nouveau paysage de l'enseignement de la lecture. Nous faisons une revue de question du domaine de l'enseignement et de l'éducation des maîtres et indiquons des pratiques prometteuses dans le domaine de l'éducation des maîtres. Ces pratiques prometteuses mettent l'accent sur des caractéristiques telles que la recherche et la réflexion et nous soutenons que ce sont les forces politiques qui privilégient tel ou tel modèle de formation des maîtres et qu'il sera difficile de mettre l'accent sur l'éducation des maîtres. Nous concluons par des recommandations pour un agenda de recherche dans l'éducation des maîtres à la lecture qui soit basé sur notre analyse de la situation actuelle.
The emergence of compensatory education and special education as two distinct entities within the larger educational system can be readily understood in terms of each program's unique social and historical background. An argument for continued separation of treatment along programmatic lines cannot be supported, however, due to growing evidence that the educational rationale for separate systems does not hold. That is, specific instructional treatments tend not to vary across programs, and particular strategies found to be effective are effective for both compensatory and special education students. Drawing upon a diverse pool of studies, we review the findings on the features of effective instructional practices that help to move the lower quartile of students closer to the mean and that are not setting bound. The article concludes with a discussion of the implications of effective instruction research for future research, reform policies, and current educational practices.
During the past decade, a large body of research has well established the nexus between time variables and classroom achievement. This study measured the relative influence of two particular time variables (allocated time, pupil engaged time) on mathematics achievement as compared with the influence of two context variables (IQ, socioeconomic status), often cited as determinants of achievement.
A multivariate analysis of the data collected from three primary schools indicated that time variables accounted for a significantly greater proportion of the variance in mathematics achievement scores than did the context variables measured. It was also found that, of all the variables investigated, pupil engaged time had the greatest influence on primary mathematics achievement. Some implications of these findings are commented upon in the light of time variable research carried out to date.
Reviewing their "Classroom Environment Study: Teaching for Learning" and other teaching research literature, project personnel examine the limitations of the process-product paradigm typically used in research on teaching. Topics covered include a conceptual model for teaching; preservice and inservice teacher training; appropriate research instruments; and problems in data analysis. (BS)
This article describes an approach to curriculum adoption that is confirmatory in nature, and is based upon Cooley and Leinhardt's (1975) model of classroom learning and Stake's (1967) data matrix. This approach includes identification of principles of classroom learning, assessment of district goals, analysis of curriculm materials "on the shelf," direct observation of learning processes during classroom use of materials, and measurement of student performance with curriculum-based and non-curriculum-based measures. This approach was applied to a school district's curriculum adoption decision-making needs in the area of special education, with the pilot use of basal materials in four classrooms over a 1-year period, and the assignment of two nonequivalent control group classrooms. Analysis of the resulting multi-faceted database was used to address a number of separate but interrelated evaluation questions. The results from the separate analyses are mutually supportive, converging toward a single adoption decision.
∗ This is the first of two articles examining the effect of the high school curriculum on achievement. In this paper we examine curricular variation and its correlates. A paper to appear in a later issue of JCS deals with the relationship between course‐taking and achievement.
Studied the effects of 3 teacher supervision patterns on student on-task and practice skill behavior. Ss were 3 physical education teachers and 3 off-task junior high school males. An alternating treatment design was used to study the on-task behavior, total practice trials, and appropriate practice trials under 3 supervision patterns: (1) close with feedback, (2) distant with feedback, and (3) distant with no feedback. During the active supervision patterns (with feedback), teachers issued specific skill feedback to students at a minimum of .5 per minute. When treatments were successfully implemented, the percentage of on-task behavior was significantly higher during active supervision for 2 students, and total practice trials and appropriate practice trials across all 3 treatments had mixed results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper offers a model for the better understanding and potential generation of student engagement in school situations. The model was originally derived from research with a number of cohorts of year nine students who were observed as maximally engaged with their laptop computer usage and related school projects in a special leadership educational setting in the Victorian Alps. The authors derived the original model based from student interview data and observations and suggested its strength lay in its derivation from the "other side of the engagement issue" as a way of re-conceptualising student engagement , rather than the traditional approach of observing dis-engagement and attempting to find solutions to this perceived "problem". Recent additional applications and trials of the model In pre-service teacher education courses, have led to additions and this paper suggests that whilst the model is readily applicable in ICT situations, it may have some general application to teaching and learning in all classrooms. The model is presented as a work in progress which promises a possible basis for additional applied research in broader classroom applications.
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