Four world titanium mining provinces

Abstract

Major world ilmenite and rutile accumulations reveal similar regional geology and Proterozoic age deeper crustal source rocks. During crustal collision titanium crystallizes as ilmenite and rutile at buried sites of high pressure and temperature rock metamorphism. Hydrothermal activity can convert titanium minerals to rutile, but titanium migration and enrichment seem only local. Many melts crystallize rocks with iron-titanium oxides in solid solution, but titanium enrichment at economic scale takes place in basic intrusive melts often associated with anorthosites and charnokite. Sedimentary placer enrichments have formed since the Proterozoic with water-resistant ilmenite, and rutile segregating by gravity from quartz sands deposited from flowing water. Placers have residual, alluvial, strand and shallow marine variants. Time, organic acids, and sand permeability play lead roles in the leaching of iron from ilmenite during weathering and diagenesis.

Full text

Stanaway, K.J., Four World Titanium Mining Provinces. Heavy Minerals 2005, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, 2005
1
FOUR WORLD TITANIUM MINING PROVINCES
Kerry J. STANAWAY
Consultant
31 Pohutukawa Rd., Beachlands 1705, New Zealand
Major world ilmenite and rutile accumulations reveal similar regional geology and Proterozoic age deeper crustal source
rocks. During crustal collision titanium crystallizes as ilmenite and rutile at buried sites of high pressure and temperature rock
metamorphism. Hydrothermal activity can convert titanium minerals to rutile, but titanium migration and enrichment seem
only local. Many melts crystallize rocks with iron-titanium oxides in solid solution, but titanium enrichment at economic
scale takes place in basic intrusive melts often associated with anorthosites and charnokite. Sedimentary placer enrichments
have formed since the Proterozoic with water-resistant ilmenite, and rutile segregating by gravity from quartz sands deposited
from flowing water. Placers have residual, alluvial, strand and shallow marine variants. Time, organic acids, and sand
permeability play lead roles in the leaching of iron from ilmenite during weathering and diagenesis.
Introduction
The Earth hosts seven significant sites of rutile
and ilmenite enrichment, together with at least as many
smaller areas. The significant seven include east North
America, north and east Europe, central Asia, south India,
south and east Africa, southwest Australia and central east
Australia. Of these only two have exploited both placer
and rock deposits. East Australia while an area of rutile
enrichment is not an area of significant titanium
enrichment in Earth’s crust. Operations often mined ores
with less than the average crustal abundance for the
element, yet east Australia has cast a long shadow over
the industry, resulting in a longstanding search for both
placers, and placers rich in rutile and zircon.
Rutile (TiO2) and ilmenite (FeTiO3) crystal
growth requires either or both high pressures and
temperatures, so that igneous and metamorphic rocks
ultimately source all deposits.
Only rutile and ilmenite have economic value.
Titanomagnetite, titanian hematite, perovskite(CaTiO5)
titanite (CaTiSiO5) and other silicates such as titan-
augite, all have no value as titanium sources to industry.
Titanium, ninth element in abundance, differs
from all those more abundant in that it forms no economic
enrichments arising by chemical reaction (hydrolysis)
with water. Large-scale crustal mechanisms to enrich the
element include magma differentiation and gravity
separation (Force 1991).
Rutile and Ilmenite in Igneous Rock
Magma differentiation to titanium enrichment
occurs in mafic melts at deep and mid-crustal depths (10
to 40 km). It is associated with phosphorus enrichment.
Rocks exhibiting titanium enrichment (>1%Ti)
appear in some members of the following mafic rock
associations:
• Intrusive tholeitic mid ocean ridge basalts
(MORB) (Kent-Brooks, et al, 1991) (Sharapov
and Zhmodik, 2000)
• Continental flood basalts (trap rock)
• Layered mafic intrusives,
• Alkaline mafic intrusives (carbonatites) and
• Some anothosite, mangerite, charnokite, granite
massif complexes (AMCG suites).
In the first three listed, enrichment of titanium
iron and phosphorus likely arises as a result of their
cooling free of water, i.e. Fenner Trend crystallization. In
this they are distinct from the better studied rocks of the
Bowen Trend, e.g. calc-alkaline suite rocks that
crystallize with water in subduction zones.
Phase equilibria study of high alumina
orthopyroxene megacrysts found in anorthosite massifs
indicate 13 to 15kbar pressures and an origin at 40 km
depths. The melts that give AMCG rocks are thus, either
“primitive jotunite” arising as 1200’ C remelts of
gabbronorites from older layered mafic intrusives or,
1300’C melts of high-alumina basalts (Duchesne, 1999).
These melts, as plagioclase crystal mushes, can rise
diapirically through the continental crust to crystallize at
15 km depths. Experiments demonstrate that calcium
plagioclase is the first mineral to crystallize from jotunitic
melts and ilmenite (hemo-ilmenite) is the second, only
later followed by hypersthene. Declining pressure during
ascent of such a crystal mush ensures that only
plagioclase forms, thus giving rise to huge volume
anorthosite massifs. (Duchesne, 2001) Such a process
yields large residual melts rich in ilmenite, capable of
intruding anothosites and their surroundings to form
spectacularly enriched (>5%Ti) gabbronorites, troctolites,
and mangerites, often labeled ferrodiorites. Interestingly
zirconium is also enriched in some of these rocks.

Stanaway, K.J., Four World Titanium Mining Provinces. Heavy Minerals 2005, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, 2005
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AMCG rocks form during the later stages of
continental collision following massive long term heating
of the crust and crustal weakening due to large scale
melting (Duchesne, 2001).
Rutile and Ilmenite in Metamorphic Rock
Regional rock metamorphism takes place during
crustal collision and in the greenschist and lower
amphibolite facies titanite is the main titanium mineral.
With increasing metamorphism biotite and hornblende
accommodate increasing titanium until replaced in the
granulite facies rocks by titanium-intolerant pyroxene and
garnet allowing ilmenite and rutile to form.
Rutile can occur in originally muddy rocks as low as
the kyanite zone, and is common in sillimanite zone rocks
(Force, 1991). The high alumina and low iron and
calcium of such rocks are likely due to hydothermal
leaching coincident with water escape during
metamorphism. Rutile and abundant aluminosilicates may
indicate water channelways in such situations. Rutile can
form from hemo-ilmenite in this way, via intermediate
fine-size anatase, even in greenschist rocks as is evident
for former hemo-ilmenite and zircon placers at Sutton in
Quebec. (pers comm. E. Hebert). Rutile has also
developed in other rocks when iron becomes unavailable
for ilmenite, as when abundant sulphur with a stronger
preference for iron forms iron sulphides. In high pressure
metamorphic rocks, such as glaucophane schists and
eclogites, rutile is the standard titanium carrier. In these
rocks with all the iron loaded into garnet and sodium
pyroxene, titanium becomes free. Unusually rutile rich
eclogites from metamorphosed oceanic crust (MORB) are
found in the Pianpalludo eclogite of Italy. Similar
eclogites from continental crust layered mafics crop out in
western Norway.
It is generally accepted that no titanium is introduced
into rocks during metamorphism. Ilmenite, rutile and
titanite merely reflect original rock titanium contents.
Titanium migration and enrichment take place either in
melts by differential crystallization during cooling
(magmatic differentiation) or in clastic sediments by
differential movement due to specific gravity.
The eclogites of the Pam Peninsula in New Caledonia
however, show evidence for at least local metre-scale
migration with centimeter-sized crystals in fractures in
eclogite and in milky quartz-white mica veins in adjacent
high pressure metamorphosed black shales. The coarse
rutile seen in some amphibolite grade terrains, e.g the
Araxa Formation of Minais Gerais in Brazil, reported
originally in quartz veins and as quartz rich leucosomes,
reflect such migrations. Often metamorphic rocks go
through increasingly higher pressures first, followed by
higher temperatures. Large centimeter-scale, often
ilmenite coated rutile grains, may be rare evidence of such
initial high pressure conditions in rocks that have now
become overprinted by higher temperature minerals such
as ilmenite. Iron unable to diffuse throughout the grain
prevents large rutile grains turning completely to ilmenite.
Albitite and scapolized metasomatic rocks in the
Bamble area, once mined for rutile at Kragero in Norway
(Force,1991) might reflect original high titanium contents
in the metamorphosed igneous amphibolite host rock
(Korneliussen et al, 2000), but could equally reflect
titanium migration and enrichment since these rocks,
display pervasive element additions (iron, chlorine and
sodium) from migrating heated waters.
Rutile and Ilmenite in Sediments
Quartz, together with rutile, ilmenite and minerals
such as zircon, monazite and diamonds are resistant to
hydrolysis, a process of reaction with, and breakdown in,
water. Unlike quartz, which is several orders of
magnitude more abundant in nature, ilmenite and rutile
and the other minerals have specific gravities more than 3
times that of water. This property enables them to
segregate from quartz in flowing water regimes.
Offshore marine heavy mineral placers result from
the storm-wave winnowing of fine sand, silty sediments
kilometre-scale distances offshore. Such accumulations
cover tens to hundreds of square kilometers, and can be
tens of metres thick. Their thickness likely results from
gravitational sediment settling due to water expulsion, or
basin sag. Slow sea-level rise may also factor.
Strand placers, the favored heavy mineral sand
exploration targets these days, have much less silt and
clay than do marine placers. Rutile, ilmenite and zircon
have coarser 100-150 micron grain-sizes, making for
easier recovery. Concentrates develop on the beach face,
induced by favorable sand supply, mineral supply, wave
regime, longshore drift, coast configuration and sea-floor
morphology (Roy, 1999) (Force,1991). Strands tend to
produce higher grades than other placer classes, but this is
not universal. Strand grains also develop some roundness
lessening wear in mineral recovery plants. Wide
separations between low to high tidal levels, so-called
macro-tidal ranges, favor thicker deposits. Significant ore
volumes call for strand repetition indicating slow marine
regression.
Coastal dune heavy mineral placers constitute
larger, generally lower grade resources, representing
many (thousand) years of stored accumulation of seasonal
strand enrichments that have blown inland. Surrounding
hills, lagoons, swamps and vegetation have prevented
sand dispersal as the grains blew from the beach, e.g.
Trail Ridge, Florida (Stanaway, 1992). Nearly all coastal
dunes show episodic accumulation, with varying mineral,
silt, humate and iron oxide endowments. Grains are
always highly rounded. Dune placers form along lines of
maximum transgression and thus have very little chance
of preservation by burial.
Alluvial (river) heavy mineral placers occur in
plateau, coastal plain and rift valley settings, usually close

Stanaway, K.J., Four World Titanium Mining Provinces. Heavy Minerals 2005, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, 2005
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to source rock. Ilmenite and rutile grain-sizes tend to be
coarser than strand and dune deposits and reflect source
terrain. They tend also to high angularity increasing wear
in mining plants. At Irsha in the Ukraine they are
successfully mined for ilmenite.
Residual mineral sand placers reflect passive
accumulations of Ti-minerals at source rock sites, where
most other rock minerals hydrolysed to clay and iron
hydrolysate oxides undergo removal by water or wind.
These placers grade down drainage to river sediments.
Deposits near Gbangbama in Sierra Leone, intermediate
on the residual-to-river placer spectrum, have deposited in
valleys from storm sheet wash (Stanaway, 1992).
Heavy mineral ilmenite, rutile, sand placers have
been recognized in the Proterozoic, Cambrian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary.
Globally, high-grade metamorphic terrains containing
granulites and undergoing deep chemical and mechanical
weathering are the most important source rocks. Most
such terrains also have AMCG rocks. Flood basalt terrains
generally provide ilmenites not used by industry because
of exsolution or trace element contamination, and fine
grain-size; factors true also for most carbonatites and
many layered mafics. Stanaway(1994) outlines needed
characteristics for industrial use of ilmenite and rutile.
Many known deposit ilmenites lack these desired criteria.
Age dating of rutile and zircon grains as done by
Sircombe(1997) for east Australia can help elucidate
provenance as can laser ablation analyses of grains.
The ilmenite grains in sand placer heavy mineral
deposits can undergo stepwise oxidation and removal of
iron to give progressively higher titanium contents during
weathering as ilmenite (53% TiO2) alters to leucoxene
(60 to 85% TiO2). Force and Rich (1989) present an
interesting study of the alteration of ilmenite with depth in
the Trail Ridge deposit in Florida. If the natural process
proceeds too far however, the grain loses cohesion,
fragmenting if mining is attempted. This is reported for
the ilmenites of the Ione Formation of California (pers
comm. T Garnar). Process rate factors include host
permeability, duration of weathering, warmth and
humidity of climate. Climate indicates the potential for a
healthy vegetation cover, and consequent strong humic
acid generation in the soil. At a locality in Jutland,
Denmark ilmenite in highly permeable Pleistocene aged
sands a metre under a peat layer has had TiO2 upgrade. In
contrast ilmenite in the Teri Sands of eastern India,
despite a tropical climate, has undergone no such upgrade
because of relatively impermeable sands, plugged by both
the hydrolysis breakdown products of weathered
plagioclase and possibly aeolian dust deposited with the
sand as a consequence of a dry climate. Insufficient
vegetation cover may have been another factor.
Many of the placers with higher titanium contents in
their ilmenite-leucoxene grains have recycled from source
rocks via intermediate sediments, where upgrading may
have also taken place e.g. Trail Ridge, Florida.
Titanium in East North America
Rose (1969) shows few titanium deposits in the
Precambrian-age Superior Province. The best of these
formed with the 2700Ma age layered mafic intrusives
known as the Bell River and Lac Dore in the Abitibi
Greestone Belt of Quebec and have titanomagnetite in
slight excess over ilmenite (Taner et al,1998).
Titanium deposits in the late Proterozoic Grenville
Province, however are too numerous to show on Figure 1,
and cluster around AMCG rocks. St Urbain, Quebec
deposits have been known since the 1600’s and about
0.5Mt had been mined by the 1970’s. At the Tio mine, in
production since 1949, tens of millions of tonnes of 37%
TiO2 hemo-ilmenite at cut-off grades of 85% combined
titanium and iron oxides, have been won from a resource
exceeding 180Mt (Perreault,2001). In Virginia from both
residual and rock deposits marginal to the Roseland
Anorthosite, mining since the early 1900’s had by 1971,
at mine closure, yielded 0.2Mt of rutile and ilmenite.
From 1942 to around 1970 the National Lead Company
won 10Mt of ilmenite grading 45% TiO2 from the
Tahawus mine in the Adirondaks of upper New York.
The Lac Tio mine occurs in the Lac Allard
Anorthosite massif which has been dated from associated
mangerites at 1126Ma (Van Breeman and Higgins,1993).
Force (1991) reports a 1050Ma age for the Roseland
Anorthosite Massif and a 980Ma date for the associated
ferrodiorites. Force (op cit) also reports on significant
ilmenite in the Duluth Gabbro of Minnesota a layered
mafic of 1100Ma age.
The eastern U.S. continental collision Appalachian
and Piedmont terrains include the source rocks for all the
Atlantic Coastal Plain and Gulf Coast residual, alluvial,
coastal and offshore marine placers. National Uranium
Resource Evaluation (NURE) stream sediment samples,
taken one per 10 km square clearly show this (Figure 1).
Granulite and upper amphibolite metamorphics make up
much of the Grenville Province rocks exposed in these
terrains. The 570Ma Catoctin metamorphosed basalt in
the latest Grenville which is thought to have been a
continental flood basalt prior to the opening of the Iapetus
Ocean contains 2 to 4% TiO2 (Mose and Nagel,1984).
Overthrusting and immediately above the Grenville
lies the Georgiabama Thrust Stack which contains not
only Grenville slices, but also metamorphosed Cambrian
sands locally enriched in heavy minerals eroded from the
Grenville (see next page) and ocean crust MORB rocks
averaging 1% TiO2 (Higgins et al 1998). The sillimanite
metamorphic zone map of Force (1976) demonstrates that
the titanium occurs as ilmenite and rutile in these rocks.
Farther east again and overlying the Georgiabama
Thrust Stack is the Little River Thrust Stack composed of
younger Proterozoic to Cambrian sediments and island arc
slices that have undergone very little metamorphism and

Stanaway, K.J., Four World Titanium Mining Provinces. Heavy Minerals 2005, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, 2005
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Figure 1: East North America Titanium Province
appear to have little titanium to judge from the NURE
data. Even farther east however, the Macon Melange
outcrops with variable titanium enrichments reflecting an
underlying complex tectonic admixture of variably
metamorphosed sediments plus oceanic basic and
ultrabasic rocks. The recently discovered Old Hickory-
Bailey trend of coastal heavy mineral deposits and NURE
stream sediment enrichments lie on the eastern margin of
this unit on the Piedmont-Atlantic Coastal Plain (Fall
Line) boundary (Carpenter and Carpenter,1991).
The present Atlantic Coastal Plain with attendant
titanium mineral sand placer deposits began to form in the
Jurassic with the rifting apart of North America from
Africa. An earlier coastal plain formed in the Cambrian
when North America split from the Baltic area to form the
Iapetus Ocean. The now metamorphosed Cambrian heavy
mineral bearing Ocoee Formation at the base of the
Georgiabama Thrust stack accumulated on this coastal
plain, as did Pinnacle Formation placers containing zircon
and ilmenite (now hydrothermally leached to rutile) in the
Cambrian near Sutton, Quebec (Gauthier et al, 1994).
On the present day Atlantic Coastal Plain, because of
continuing continental margin down-warp over the past
100 million years most of the placers that have formed
during several transgression-regression marine cycles now
lie deeply buried. Those exposed today all likely have late
Tertiary to Recent ages. They belong to the latest
regression, induced by sea level retreat since the late
Miocene, and are disposed in three sub-parallel shoreline
sequences identified by Winker and Howard (1977).
The shoreline of ultimate transgression, known as the
Trail Ridge-Orangeburg Scarp runs from central Florida
to Virginia (Figure 1). A definite sharp transgressional
feature in the north (a scarp) and in the south (a linear
dune) it shows a regressional cuspate delta in southern
North Carolina (Sand Hills) although subsequent erosion
obscures the beach ridges. This shoreline, presumably
once at a single elevation has suffered gentle warping, and
now has 45m above sea level elevations in north Florida,
falling to 30m above sea level in southern Georgia thence
rising gently northward to reach 60 to 75m elevations in
North Carolina and Virginia, where the Old Hickory-
Bailey deposits outcrop. The parallel and younger
Effingham Shoreline and more recent Chatham Shoreline
Sequences farther eastward also display local
transgression called respectively the Surry and Suffolk
scarps in North Carolina and Virginia, but are regressional
cuspate delta features from South Carolina to Florida.
Coastal heavy mineral deposits occur at both the northern
and southern ends of the shoreline of ultimate
transgression. In Florida the Trail Ridge, Highland and
Maxville mines are found in the southern part of a mostly
single dune that stretches 200km into Georgia, and
reaches 20m high with a width from 1 to2 km. This dune

Stanaway, K.J., Four World Titanium Mining Provinces. Heavy Minerals 2005, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, 2005
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dams the Okeefenokee Swamp, a lagoon at the time of
dune formation. The placers have not suffered erosion
because uplift on the Ocala Arch (the warping described
above) has deflected the streams that deposited the
precursor alluvials, described by Pirkle (1977). In
Georgia, the Varn and Jesup deposits form part of the
dune. The system continues northward becoming the
Orangeburg Scarp in South Carolina on which no coast-
parallel dune has been preserved, if it ever accumulated.
In the far north of this ultimate shoreline on the Fall Line
(scarp) in North Carolina and Virginia lies the Old
Hickory, Brink, Aurelian Springs, Bailey string of placers.
The average 30% silt and clay in these sands, seen from
relict kaolin pseudomorphs to be due to the weathering of
abundant feldspar, together with scattered strandline
features, indicate wave rework at the mouths of immature
sediment carrying rivers. Heavy mineral assemblages,
varying by deposit, imply little transportation along the
coast; deposits 5 to 10 metres thick suggest prolonged
stillstand with sea level rise or multiple marine
transgressions (pers comm. M.C. Newton).
Deposits on the lower elevation Effingham Shoreline
regressional beach-ridge systems include Green Cove
Springs in Florida and Lulaton in Georgia with former
mines at Folkston and Boulogne. It is possible these
deposits are strandline reworks of deposits that were
offshore marine at the time of the Trail Ridge-Orangeburg
shoreline of ultimate transgression. Their sands are much
finer grained than the nearby Trail Ridge deposits. If so
such precursors could represent the transgressional
offshore marine part of a single transgressional-
regressional event.
Deposits on the younger Chatham Shoreline farther
east include the minor dunes of Aurora and Chowan on
the Suffolk Scarp in North Carolina, together with the
formerly mined Jacksonville Beach deposit in Florida,
plus the un-mined Yulee, Cabin Bluff and Altama
deposits. These too are finer grained than those on the
Trail Ridge-Orangeburg Shoreline.
In New Jersey alluvial deposits occur in the
Cohansey Formation, in fine sands at the top of fining
upward sequences thought to alluvial rather than shoreline
because drill-hole profiles show multiple stacking of as
many as five fining units in 1 km wide, 5 to 20m deep
channels cut into the underlying Kirkwood Formation at
angles almost perpendicular to the present coast
(Stanaway, 1992). High grade finer grained ilmente
predominant heavy mineral sands several metres thick in
the underlying Kirkwood may be of offshore origin,
representing the transgressional part of a transgressional-
regressional marine event in the Miocene.
Several offshore marine ilmenite, rutile and zircon
placers in silty to very fine Cretaceous McNairy
Formation sands show up around Camden in Tennessee.
The titanium minerals probably came from Grenville
rocks in the Blue Ridge area of Virginia and were carried
to the offshore site via the ancestral Tennessee River. Any
associated coastal placers of ultimate shoreline origin, if
they ever existed, have likely long since eroded.
Titanium upgrade in ilmenite grains within the
eastern North America deposits increases with both age of
deposit and southerly latitude (Force, 1991) Humid
environments with humate generating forest would have
been widespread in the Miocene, but in the Pleistocene
they would have existed only in the south.
The Trail Ridge Deposit has 64% TiO2 ilmenites. At
Green Cove Springs they are only a little lower at 63%. In
Georgia deposits have TiO2 in the low 60’s with variable
pyroxene, amphibole, garnet and epidote--the so called
‘junk heavies’. These are all highly permeable sands rich
in humates, indeed often cemented by them. They differ
principally in age and grain-size. Offshore, the deposits
forming at the present time have very high ‘junk heavies’
and 51% TiO2 ilmenite, reflecting less present day
weathering in the Appalachian and Piedmont, and incised
rivers by-passing the coastal plain sources that contain
more weathered assemblages and higher TiO2 ilmenite
(Grosz,1987). Farther north at Old Hickory, due to a lack
of humate and low permeability host clayey sands,
ilmenite TiO2 contents while 60+% at the surface are
only 53% at depth. In Quebec despite a present day forest
cover and abundant humate, prolonged glaciation and the
youth of the deposits have combined to yield ilmenites
and hemo-ilmenites with TiO2 contents below 50%.
Titanium in North and East Europe
The oldest rock titanium enrichments in north Europe
occur on the Kola Peninsula in Russia within layered
mafics intruded during the early Proterozoic (2.5-2.6Ga).
They formed in the Tsaginsk and Keyv labradorite
anorthosite massifs (Fig 2). Titanomagnetite is over-
whelmingly predominant over ilmenite. Titanomagnetite
predominance continued with subsequent iron-titanium
rich mafic intrusions throughout the mid Proterozoic as
demonstrated in the Pudozhgorsk, and smaller Koykarsk,
Zhelez and Velimyatsk bodies. In all of these TiO2
contents in the ‘ores’ ranged from 3 to 12%, and total Fe
from 15 to 54% (Yudin and Zak, 1970).
In later Proterozoic times, ilmenite as a primary
crystallizing, even predominant phase began to emerge.
The associated apparently andesine anorthosites appear to
have plagioclase with more sodium at least in some, or
parts of, the intrusives (data is incomplete here).
Accumulations here associate with the Gremyakha-
Vrymes and Yelet’ozero massifs (1.82 -1.86Ga) on the
Kola Peninsula and occur in Finland with layered mafic
intrusions at Karhujupukka (2.1Ga) Otanmaki (2.06Ga)
Kalvia (1.88Ga) and Kauhajarvi (1.87Ga) (Karkkainen,
2001). The Russian deposits are titanomagnetite dominant
with local layers and lenses of ilmenite predominance,
while the Finnish deposits vary. Karkkainen (op cit)
reports titanomagnetite predominant 2:1 at Otanmaki and
Karhujupukka while ilmenite predominates 4:1 at Kalvia,

Stanaway, K.J., Four World Titanium Mining Provinces. Heavy Minerals 2005, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, 2005
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Figure 2 North and East Europe Titanium Province
and 1.5:1 at Kauhajarvi. In Norway the Rodsand has a
1.7Ga age and near total titanomagnetite. In Sweden the
Akkavaara deposit has a similar age and titanomagnetite
dominance.
Yudin and Zak (op cit) data show continuing
evolution of titanium minerals on the Kola Peninsula.
There Paleozoic intrusives at Afrikanda, Kovdor,
Vorijarvi, dated from 340 to 590Ma and Khibny at 290Ma
are all alkaline carbonatites, and their titanium minerals
have become perovskite-titanomagnetite in the first three
and titanite in the last. Rock TiO2 contents however range
from 8 to 18% in the former and 10% in the latter,
indicating similar degrees of titanium enrichment as melts
from earlier times.
Far to the south on the Ukrainian craton, the first
AMCG rocks date late Proterozoic at 1.7 to 1.8Ga and
form massifs called the Korosten and Korsun-
Novomirgod. According to Nechaev and Pastuko (2001)
the AMCG rocks originated from a heating event that
followed the collision and welding together of two older
cratons now forming the eastern and western parts of the
craton. Rapakivi and other granites formed by secondary
crustal melting induced by the intruding high alumina
basalt. The residual and alluvial placer ilmenite deposits
of the Irsha field, are currently mined. These deposits
formed by weathering of the AMCG rocks over a100
million year period with the richest placers forming in the
Cretaceous and Tertiary when the climate was warmer
than today. The Stremegorod and Krapivnia titanium
deposits weathered to increased grades over a primary
magmatic ilmenite enrichment on the Korosten massif
while the Nosachev formed on the Kirsun-Novomirogod
massif.
The southern Ural mountains, bordering Russia and
Siberia, host another area of primary magmatic ilmenite
and rutile enrichment in four layered mafic intrusions 70
km long overall. The four intrusions are the the Kopan,
Matkal, Medvedev and Kusinsk, all dated at 1300Ma. The
rocks have only 6 to 7% TiO2, but cooler crystallization
conditions allowed 53% TiO2 ilmente to crystallize in
separate grains from magnetite (Fershtater and
Kholodnov, 2001).
The youngest European andesine anorthosite AMCG
massifs crop out at Rogaland near the southernmost tip of
Norway and date at 931Ma. They host major mined
ilmenite deposits in norite dikes at Tellnes and nearby

Stanaway, K.J., Four World Titanium Mining Provinces. Heavy Minerals 2005, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, 2005
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Storgangen dated at 920Ma. Mapping and dating link the
AMCG suite to melting that accompanied a second
heating following almost 50 million years after a primary
heating that coincided with a1250Ma to 980Ma crustal
collision. The second heating persisted in the crust for 15
million years before cooling below 500’C.
Collision between the Baltic and North American
cratons in the late Palaeozoic ( the Caledonian Orogeny )
generated high pressure metamorphism of rocks now
thrust over western Norway. The rutile rich eclogites
found at Engebofjellet, Orkheia and Ramsgoronova
metamorphosed from titanium-enriched older continental
layered mafics during this event (Korneliussen, 2000)
Similarly the Siberia (Angara) craton became
attached to the European (Baltic and Ukrainian) craton in
the Permian to form the Russian Platform. During this
crustal collision high pressure metamorphism of oceanic
crust gave rise to rutile bearing eclogites in the Ural
mountains notably at Shubino (Force, 1991).
Beginning in the Tertiary, the Africa Europe
continental collision or Alpine Orogeny, has given rise at
Pianpalludo in Italy to titanium enriched eclogite, of
ocean crust (MORB) origin. Rutile grades reach 5% with
a proven 9 million, possibly 20 million tonnes of rutile in
the rock (Force, 1991).
Metasomatic rutile deposits have been described from
Kagero, Norway (see page 2).
Patyk-Kara et al (1999) propose nine placer forming
episodes on the Russian Platform;
• In Proterozoic metamorphosed sandstones located in
the southern Urals and the northern Kola Peninsula.
• In Devonian and Carboniferous coastal sandstones at
Yarega in the north, and Pavlov-Mamon in the south
on the passive eastern margin of the merged Baltic
and North American Cratons. This margin would
have been analogous to the present day passive
margin Atlantic Coastal Plain of North America.
• In Jurassic fine-grained offshore sands at Lukoyanov
eastern Russia on the passive southern margin of the
merged European and Siberian (Angara) cratons.
With the attaching of Siberia the only open ocean
(the Tethys) now lay to the south. At Lukoyanov ten
separate probable offshore marine placers each up to
several metres thick cover an area of 5000square km.
• In early Cretaceous coastal sands first in the area of
Lipiesk, south east of Moscow, and secondly west of
the Ukrainian Shield.
• In the late Cretaceous where a more productive series
of offshore marine placers were established at Central
(Tsentral) and Kirsanovsk in southeast Russia and at
Unecha in Belarus on the south-facing passive
margin of the Russian Platform. At Central the field
covers 200square km from 2 to 20 metres thick. It
formed in two separate time periods with an
intermediate time of uplift from the sea and dune
formation. Heavy minerals at the offshore marine
deposit at Unecha in Belarus have been coated with
phosphate from upwelling cold bottom ocean water.
• And finally in the Oligocene-Miocene transition
when often paired placers of transgressional offshore
marine and regressional strand origin developed one
above the other in the same locality within the
Dneipr-Donetz basin. These are mined at Malyshev
and at Volchansk. Their source rocks on the
Ukrainian Shield also yield the residual and alluvial
placers already described at Irsha. The Krasnokut
deposits formed offshore of Irsha. In the far south of
Russia, possible offshore marine deposits also formed
from Caucasus mountain sources at Beshpagir, near
Stavropol
A characteristic of both the Proterozoic and Devonian
age placers is their pervasive alteration of ilmenite to
leucoxene. At Yarega it seems likely this links to organic
acid rich fluid migrations at the time these buried beach
sands filled with oil in the Permian.
In Romania coastal placers have formed in
Pliocene sedimentary basin margin sediments at Glogova
and Tigveni.
Titanium in South and East Africa
The south and east Africa titanium province has
three groups of deposits;
• Rock deposits in layered mafics,
• Sandstone placers in the Karoo Basin and
• Tertiary to Recent coastal placers.
The Rooiwater (Figure 3) layered mafic intrusive
boasts the oldest deposits at 2.6Ga. Here a titanomagnetite
predominant deposit has had the ilmenite component
increased by metamorphism, when titanium was exsolved
from titanomagnetite, to make ilmenite in places in
mineable volume equal to magnetite. The deposit grades
15% TiO2 in a basal 8m layer with up to 24% grades in a
layer of similar thickness above. Wipplinger, 1998). A
residual weathering deposit 25km long by 2km wide, but
only 2m thick, called the Gravelotte, has accumulated
above the layered rock, where the TiO2 in the ilmenite
has upgraded to 57% (Deerlove, 1997).
In the Bushveld, the worlds largest layered mafic
intrusive, with a 2.05Ga age, titanomagnetite rich layers
have formed in the upper zones. Within the iron-titanium
enrichment layering, the lower layers have 12% TiO2 and
higher levels as much as 24%, but all the TiO2 is locked
in titanomagnetite crystals. Economic concentrations of
both ilmenite and rutile are lacking (Reynolds,1985).
Mafic melt origin titanium enrichments and deposits
have been reported from Liganga in Tanzania, and Cilek
(1989) reports titanomagnetite deposits spread through a
140km northwest-southeast trend along the north bank of
the Zambesi river, in the 1.0Ga Tete Complex. This has
been mapped as massif anorthosite by Ashwal (1993).
Ashwal also maps massif anorthosites that appear to lie in
the 1.2Ga Namaqua-Natal Metamorphic Belt of South

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Figure 3: South and East Africa Titanium Province
Africa. Iron-titanium enrichments show on
government geological survey maps from this same belt
on the Tugela River 50 km inland from the Richards Bay
coastal placers. Anorthosites of unknown affinity (massif
or layered) crop out in the Limpopo Mobile Belt.
In the Nsanje area 200km southeast of the Tete
massif anorthosite, rutile in probably small concentrations
shows up in a zone of regional metasomatism. The area
also lies along a zone containing eclogite that stretches
several hundred kilometres east-north-east. (Andreoli and
Hart, 1990). Cilek, (1989) also describes a metasomatic
rutile deposit near Zumbo close to the Zambesi river, on
the Zambian border.
The oldest known placer deposits in this titanium
province have been found at Delmas, Carolina and
Bothaville in the Karoo Basin (Force, 1991). They
accumulated in lower Permian age basal sands of
regressive shoreline systems growing southward into
shallow water in an actively subsiding basin with a very
low tidal range, allowing deposits only 1 to 2 metres
thick. Heavy mineral grain-sizes are useful at 150micron,
but sand induration renders recovery uneconomic.
The Natal coast from Richard’s Bay to St Lucia
hosts the largest and best placer titanium enrichments
currently exploited in Africa. Reserves here have a high
component of the ‘junk heavies’, such as pyroxene,
amphibole and epidote. As is typical for all similar coastal
dune systems from the eastern Cape to northern
Mozambique the heavy mineral assemblages show local
variations resulting not only from source rock supply, but
also from the various aged episodes of dune-sand
accumulation that have piled against each other to
aggregate to these complexes. Characteristically older
dunes have deeper red colors due to the hydrolysis of iron
bearing minerals such as garnet, pyroxene and amphibole.
Their higher silt contents might equally result either from
the hydrolysis of feldspar to clay and silt-size quartz, or
the incorporation of wind-borne dust, should they have
formed during ice age dryer climate events. Soudan et al
(1999) describe features of these dunes at Wavecrest on
the eastern Cape, that may equally apply all the way up
east Africa; from older dunes at the Empangeni placer
mine to the ilmenite resources at Corridor, Xai-xai,
Moebase, Moma, Congolone, as far north as the Pliocene

Stanaway, K.J., Four World Titanium Mining Provinces. Heavy Minerals 2005, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, 2005
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dunes at Kwale, Mabrui, etc on the Kenya coast.
Whitmore et al. (1999) conclude that the older parts of
the dune complexes have the more mature assemblages
i.e. less ‘junk heavies’. This occurs when the younger
sands contain mainly juvenile heavy mineral, reflecting
mostly river-borne new mineral supply. In contrast
however, at Moma in northern Mozambique the younger
deposits plastered against the older redder dune cores
have the more mature assemblages, possibly because
mineral supplied has spent time under adjacent vegetated
lagoons and swamps, before rework by wind and wave.
Coast parallel dune elongations typical of southern
Africa are controlled by wind directions when winds blow
predominantly oblique to the coast. They can also be
controlled by vegetation because of the salt-fresh
subsurface water boundary. Long-shore drift can also
force coast parallel dune growth by causing streams to
flow parallel to the strand behind an along-shore accreting
dune system. An origin as barrier bars seaward of lagoons
and swamps could determine dune elongation in places.
The coastal placers of Madagascar along the east and
south-east, appear to have developed as coast
straightening bay infill local regressional strand features.
They seem richest in the southeast. Ilmenite and rutile
have eroded from the island’s largest granulite
metamorphic rock mass, the result of the Pan African
crustal collision and heatings between 500 and 600Ma.
The unit crops out in the south east of the island, south of
the Ranotsara Shear Zone.
Ashwal et al (1998) describe 600 to 800Ma massif
anorthosites, indicating the AMCG suite, in south
Madagascar.
The source rocks for the ilmenite, rutile and zircon of
the adjacent continental African dune complexes include
older Tertiary sands on their respective coastal plains and
Karoo Basin sands and continental flood basalts (trap
rock). In South Africa the ultimate principal source
however, for both the Natal and Namakwa coast placers
has to be the Namaqua-Natal Metamorphic Belt. The
Namakwa mine strand and dunes have developed sitting
on these rocks at Graauw Duinen north of Capetown, and
just east of these rocks at Richard’s Bay.
The Mozambiquan Corridor and Xai-xai placers
appear to have a provenance among the titanium enriched
rocks of northern South Africa, i.e. Bushveld, Limpopo
Belt and the Rooiwater correlatives; the same rocks
sourcing Karoo Basin sandstone placers in the Permian.
In northern Mozambique the drainages supplying the
Moebase, Moma, and Congolone deposits penetrate only
into the immediate hinterland of the 800 to 1100Ma
Mozambique Belt of continental collision metamorphic
and melt rocks of the Nampula and Chiure Suprergroups.
The Chiure hosts anorthositic gabbro, charnokite and
leucogabbros, and granulite grade metamorphics.
Despite their occurrence in warmer latitudes once
thought to alone promote iron leaching from ilmenite
(except for southeastern Madagascar where forests were
once well developed) the ilmenites of the south and east
Africa Province display little leaching of iron from
ilmenites. This can be ascribed to insufficient
permeability of the dune sands, insufficient age,
overwhelming juvenile mineral supply, and insufficient
vegetation. In Mozambique the prevailing vegetation
seems to have been savannah, not humic acid generating
humid climate forest, nevertheless younger reworked
deposits as at Moma, probably have grains with a history
under lagoonal swamps have some TiO2 upgrade.
Titanium in south India and Sri Lanka
A seeming lack of rock deposits in this titanium
province could be ascribed to a lack of searching.
Evidence of AMCG suite rocks and very possibly the
world’s best collection of beach strand placers, suggest
they should exist. Ashwal(1993;1998) maps two massif
anorthosites in Tamil Nadu. Continental collision and
associated heat and burial induced melting and
metamorphism feature prominently in the coastal placer
hinterland source rocks of India and Sri Lanka.
Khondalites, metamorphosed sediments now re-
crystallized to garnet, sillimanite, and graphite mineral
assemblages, where mapped near the south tip of India
demonstrate a strong correlation with adjacent coastal
strand placers at Chavara and Manavalakurichi in Kerala
and the Tertiary sand deposits at Sattamkulam,
Kudiramozhi and Navaladi-Uvari in Tamil Nadu
(Krishnan et al, 2001)(Chandrasekharan and Marugan,
2001). (Figure 4) Interestingly the granulites mapped
north of the Khondalite belt do not appear to give rise to
significant coastal placers. This likely results from the
metamorphic rock maps reflecting the maximum
metamorphic condition of the rocks, while in fact most of
the rocks have reverted to amphibolite and lower grades
during rock cooling, leaving only remnants of the
granulites. If so, most of the ilmenite and rutile will have
reverted to titanite. In the khondalites however a lack of
calcium, for reasons discussed in a previous section, could
have prevented this reversion.
There seems a world-wide two-fold division of
heavy mineral assemblages (when the immature ‘junk
heavies’ are removed whether by nature or calculation)
into suites with 5% rutile, as in Kerala and Tamil Nadu,
and those with 1.5% rutile, as in Orissa and Andra
Pradesh. This might be a consequence of the relative
volume of kyanite-sillimanite-rutile-rich, calcium-silica-
iron poor, source rock.
In south India two ages of collision are apparent; one
at 2.5Ga that seems to have contributed little in the way of
ilmenite and rutile, for the reasons just outlined and
another at 1 to 1.2Ga. The last heating took place between
500 and 600Ma and affected most of the area.

Stanaway, K.J., Four World Titanium Mining Provinces. Heavy Minerals 2005, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, 2005
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Figure 4: South India and Sri Lanka Titanium Province
The oldest terrane of southernmost India affected by
these events is the Kerala craton. The Wanni Terrane
attaches southeast, in west Sri Lanka and consists of
granulite and amphibolite facies charnokites and granites.
Placers at Pumoddai and Putallam in Sri Lanka have
accumulated on Wanni Terrane coast. Farther east and
running northeast-southwest through central Sri Lanka is
the Highland Terrain full of granulite charnokites,
khondalites and metasediments, which seems to have
sourced offshore placers off the southwest coast, but no
deposits to the east of the island because a submarine
canyon likely takes the minerals to deep water. The
farthest south-easterly Vijayan terrain consists of mostly
amphibolite grade metasediments, apparently poor source
rocks. (Dissanayake,1999).
The Eastern Ghats of Orissa and Andra Pradesh form
another major granulite terrain with khondalites,
charnokites, and even several massif anorthosites,
suggesting AMCG suite rocks. Shaw et al (1999) write of
four major rock age clusters:
• At 1450Ma mafic and anorthosite intrusions,
• At 1000Ma granite, charnokite and granulite,
• At 800Ma representing major re-heating, and
• At 550Ma another reheating.
The coastline abuts abruptly against all this great
source rock with little in the way of coastal plain, merely
ilmenite rich Teri sands. Along 350km of this coast
occurs a spectacular array of high-grade large strand, and
low dune placers whose names include, Chatrapur,
Kayyam, Konada and Kakinada among others. These
have seventy million tonnes of ilmenite and three million
tonnes each of rutile and zircon. Ilmenite from poorer
quality trap rock sources via the Godvari River has
probably contributed also to the southernmost placers.
Conclusion
Ilmenite in continental crust favors granulite
metamorphic facies conditions developed during crustal
collision events also known as orogenies. Metamorphic
rocks and to a lesser extent, melts formed under granulite
pressure and/or temperature conditions in the late
Proterozoic give rise to nearly all of the economically
useful ilmenite seen on the Earth’s surface.
Rock formed under these conditions in mid to deep
crust comes to the surface during subsequent collision

Stanaway, K.J., Four World Titanium Mining Provinces. Heavy Minerals 2005, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, 2005
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events whether continent to continent or continent to
oceanic crust and establishes titanium provinces. Once in
place titanium provinces have persisted for at least one
geologic eon (the Phanerozoic) because of the stability of
ilmenite and rutile on the Earth’s surface, the tendency for
these minerals to lag in transport to form placers relatively
close to source, and the ability of ilmenite and rutile to
regenerate during metamorphism from other titanium
bearing species.
Rutile is favored over ilmenite when iron and calcium
are either absent or are tied up in other minerals thus
preventing ilmenite and titanite creation (Force, 1991).
These conditions favor metamorphic sites and can occur
under high pressure with abundant sodium in the rock
when all the iron and calcium are taken into omphacitic
pyroxene and garnet. Another significant source of rutile
appears to be the hydrothermal stripping of ilmenite and
perhaps titanite and other titanian minerals that takes
place with water escape during collision, subduction and
metamorphism. Hot mobile aqueous fluids generated
under such conditions can strip rocks and minerals of
iron, calcium and even much silica, to create kyanite or
sillimanite schists and khondalites; lesser stipping can
occur with iron removed from hemo- ilmenite only, as at
Sutton, Quebec. Volatile rich intrusive can also become
the site of similar rutile or anatase formation. Any
stripped rocks should be balanced by sites of rock
metasomatism where mobile heated aqueous fluids locally
add material, e.g. rutile with quartz.
Titanium enrichment in the crust (as distinct from
ilmenite and rutile enrichment) similarly occurs in the
deeper crust and has been recorded in late Archaen and
early Proterozoic with the formation of titanomagnetite in
layered mafic intrusives. Titanium enrichment via
cumulate ilmenite seems to have commenced only in the
upper Proterozoic, probably at different times on different
cratons with the evolution of AMCG rocks. Titanium
enrichment in the crust, as evidenced by regional NURE
stream sediment sampling in the eastern United States,
coincides with this primary magmatic ilmenite formation
and the evolutionary development of AMCG rocks in the
Grenville event. The oldest AMCG event occurred in the
Ukraine, at 1.8Ma. AMCG rocks it has been proposed
result from the remelting of older layered mafics enriched
in titanium (Duchesne, 1999).
It seems possible that the upper and lower crusts
might homogenize their titanium contents over time via
all the processes outlined above, especially in the margins
of cratons where continental crust repeatedly rifts apart to
collide again hundreds of millions years later.
Whether titanium enrichment in magmas via ilmenite
formation continues at significant scales under continental
collision zones today or was a unique event in crustal
evolution largely confined to the Proterozoic, is an open
question. Carbonatites produce mostly titanomagnetite,
perovskite and titanite from the deep crust; any primary
magmatic ilmenite bought to the surface since the
Proterozoic, mostly in basic melts is, in comparison,
either of too small a grain-size, too low a grade, or of too
poor of quality due to added trace elements, to find use in
industry e.g. east Australia basaltic lavas and layered
intrusives. Metamorphic ilmenites also are poorer quality
often with silicate inclusions e.g. the South Island of New
Zealand.
Acknowledgements
Thanks go to Andrew Grosz for permission to reprint
the left part of Fig 1 and to SME for the right portion.
Thanks also are due to Rio Tinto Iron and Titanium for
permission to publish, to Martin Theberge for the
diagrams, and to the reviewer for useful changes.
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