No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The Relationship between Efficacy Beliefs and Imagery Use in Coaches
Abstract
This study examined the relationship between coaching efficacy and imagery use. Eighty-nine coaches completed the Coaching Efficacy Scale and a modified version of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire. Results showed significant positive correlations among the coaching efficacy subscales and imagery functions. Regression analyses showed that the significant predictor for game strategy efficacy was CG imagery. Predictors for motivation efficacy included career record and MG-M imagery. MG-M imagery and total years of coaching were the significant predictors for total efficacy scores and character building efficacy. The only significant predictor for teaching technique efficacy was CS. The results replicate and extend the relationships found between efficacy and imagery for athletes and show that imagery also may be an effective strategy to build and maintain coaching efficacy.
... Based on Paivio's (1985) taxonomy of the cognitive and motivational functions of imagery, the model contains five imagery functions: Cognitive Specific (CS: skills; performing a Lachman's test to assess anterior cruciate ligament integrity), Cognitive General (CG: strategies; managing multiple rehabilitations at the same time), Motivational Specific (MS: goalsetting; making a progressive rehabilitation plan for an athlete one is treating), Motivational General-Anxiety (MG-A: arousal; remaining calm during an on field evaluation of a traumatic injury), and Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M: confidence; remaining confident in one's ability to affectively perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation). Studies have assessed these functions using Hall, Mack, Paivio, and Hausenblas's (1998) Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) with exercisers (Murphy, Nordin, & Cumming, 2008), coaches (Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005), and dancers (Overby, Hall, & Haslam, 1997-98). ...
... One-third of the participants reported learning about imagery in classes or did not know where they learned about imagery, indicating that the topic is not likely a formal focus in the academic preparation of ATs. Similar to previous studies that modified the original SIQ for dancers, coaches and athletes (Monsma & Overby, 2004;Short, Ross-Stewart, & Monsma, 2006, Short et al., 2005, Short et al., 2004, Weinberg et al., 2003, items were modified to fit the AT context. The new questionnaire was titled the IUATQ demonstrating acceptable internal consistencies (.70) with the exception of CG which was slightly lower (.68). ...
... The new questionnaire was titled the IUATQ demonstrating acceptable internal consistencies (.70) with the exception of CG which was slightly lower (.68). Similar to previous research (Short et al., 2004;Short et al., 2005;Weinberg et al., 2003) the subscales were intercorrelated but not to the level of multicolinearity, indicating that each subscale measured a separate type of imagery content. ...
Knowledge of imagery is a required competency for athletic trainers (ATs) but research has yet to consider imagery use by ATs despite its relevant application for learning, planning, and controlling emotions in high stakes situations like rehabilitation, competency exams or novel injury situations. Aligned with the Applied Model of Mental Imagery, this study examined the cognitive and motivational functions of imagery used by 59 certified ATs and 34 AT students (N = 93, 19-48 years of age). Participants completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire modified for the population. Image function and direction were also considered. Imagery training was only reported by 23% of the participants but 50% reported encouraging their athletes to use imagery and 86% believed the skill enhances their duties. Internal consistencies of the five image content subscales ranged from .83 to .68 and inter-scale correlations ranged from .72 to .76. ATs reported using MG-Mastery most frequently followed by CS-Skills CG-Strategies MG-Arousal and MS-Goals. Independent t-tests indicated MG-Goals was used more by students than certified ATs, t(91)=2.04, p<.05, and by non-practicing ATs than those who practiced, t(91)=-4.01, p<.001. Participants from curriculum programs reported more use of MG-Arousal than those from internship programs, t(91)=2.23, p=.05 and there was no gender variation across subscales. A trend of significant, negative correlations between education and the three motivation functions of imagery indicated the more educated ATs used imagery less for controlling emotions, mastering skills and setting goals. However, overall, the most frequently cited reason for using individual images was for confidence, followed by anxiety, goals, and skills and strategies. The majority of images were perceived to help job performance while one CG-Strategies and 4/5 MG-Arousal items were perceived as harmful to performance. Enhancing AT curricula with systematic training in psychological skills would enhance AT performance and disseminate information to clients.
... Coaching efficacy and attitudes toward sport psychology, independent of one another and together, are strongly related to total number of years coaching (Feltz et al., 1999;Malete & Feltz, 2000;Pope et al., 2015;Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005;Zakrajsek, Martin, & Zizzi, 2011). Specifically, coaches with several years of coaching experience are likely to welcome sport psychology services more than those with limited coaching experience (Zakrajsek et al., 2011). ...
... Similar to previous research by Teatro and colleagues (2017), motivation efficacy had the lowest mean response score in every group, and character building efficacy had the highest mean response score in every group. Total years coaching also continues to predict total coaching efficacy and be related to sport psychology, thus supporting findings from earlier research (Feltz et al., 1999;Malete & Feltz, 2000;Pope et al., 2015;Short et al., 2005;Zakrajsek et al., 2011). However, unlike previous studies that considered coach education in terms of a specific coach development program or workshop and found significant differences between pre-and post-scores or control and experimental groups (Campbell & Sullivan, 2005;Malete & Feltz, 2000;Sullivan, Paquette, Holt, & Bloom, 2012), this study showed no relationship between formal coach education, such as university courses or degrees, and coaching efficacy subscales. ...
Coaching efficacy is largely influenced by mastery experiences such as formal education, coaching experience, and sport participation. Further examining specific experiences, such as exposure to sport psychology, may prove helpful in advancing our understanding of coaching efficacy. Thus, the purpose of this study was to explore male high school coaches’ coaching experience to determine whether sport psychology education and interactions with sport psychology consultants relate to coaches’ coaching efficacy. Participants, 585 males (Mage = 43.89 + 10.02), completed an online survey measuring coaching efficacy and coaching and sport psychology experience. A hierarchical regression analysis revealed that after controlling for years of coaching experience and school size, sport psychology education and interactions with sport psychology consultants were associated with higher overall coaching efficacy scores (p < .001). Additionally, analysis of covariance revealed that those with extensive sport psychology education had statistically higher coaching efficacy scores than those reporting no sport psychology education (p < .05). Knowledge of these phenomena may be relevant for sport psychology consultants, coach educators, and researchers.
... Moving away from specific antecedents from the CE model, Short et al. (2005) investigated whether imagery may help coaches generate and uphold high levels of CE. Regression analyses (controlling for career record and coaching experience) tested whether specific functions of imagery (Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998) predicted coaches' CE. ...
... Also, consistent with the tenets of the CE model, a favourable win-loss record was consistently linked with higher levels of CE (e.g. Myers et al., 2005;Short et al., 2005). Next, perceived athlete-and team-ability were positively linked with CE (e.g. ...
Coaching efficacy (CE) represents the extent to which coaches believe they have the capacity to affect the learning and performance of their athletes, and the CE model details antecedents, dimensions and outcomes of CE. Based around the CE model, the present paper had two main aims. First, to present a comprehensive and critical review of the research underpinned by the CE model. Studies were categorised by whether they investigated antecedents, outcomes or athletes’ perceptions of their coach. Twenty-one published studies were identified for the review. Overall the review provides support for the main tenets of the CE model, with researchers establishing links between CE and many of the antecedents and outcomes proposed in the model. The second aim was to assimilate findings from the review, limitations in the CE model and relevant conceptual models to present a revised CE model. Whilst retaining the essence of the original model, the revised model also incorporates explicit processes linking coach beliefs and athlete perceptions, antecedents of athlete perceptions and an intrarelationship source of CE. It also incorporates specific categories of coach behaviour and athlete-/team-level outcomes. The paper concludes by identifying limitations in the literature and review, and by proposing key directions for future research.
... However, other mastery experiences, such as number of years, are also relevant to coaching knowledge. Coaching efficacy and attitudes toward sport psychology, independent of each other and together, are strongly related to total number of years coaching (Feltz et al., 1999;Malete & Feltz, 2000;Pope et al., 2015;Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005;Zakrajsek, Martin, & Zizzi, 2011). Specifically, coaches with several years of coaching experience are likely to welcome sport psychology services more than those with limited coaching experience (Zakrajsek et al., 2011). ...
... Results from the hierarchical regression analysis indicate that after accounting for gender, years coaching, and formal coach education, sport psychology education and SPC contact frequency predicted total CE. Total years of coaching continues to predict CE and appears to be related to sport psychology knowledge, supporting earlier research findings (Feltz et al., 1999;Malete & Feltz, 2000;Pope et al., 2015;Short et al., 2005;Zakrajsek et al., 2011). The CBE subscale had the highest mean response score for all groups, which was also observed by Teatro and colleagues (2017). ...
Coaching efficacy (CE) is largely influenced by mastery experiences such as formal education and coaching experience. However, specific education has not previously been considered in relation to CE. Therefore, examining specific educational experiences, such as those related to sport psychology, which have previously been reported to increase self-efficacy, may prove helpful in advancing CE. Also, previously reported gender differences in CE and perceptions of sport psychology advocate for gender consideration. The purpose of this study was to explore high school coaches’ coaching experience to determine whether sport psychology exposure and gender factors relate to CE. Participants (N = 2,018) completed the Coaching Efficacy Scale II–High School Teams. An analysis of covariance revealed that more sport psychology education and more frequent contact with sport psychology practitioners resulted in statistically higher CE (p < .05). Analysis of covariance indicated that female participants reported significantly lower CE than male (p < .05), and coaches of only female athletes reported significantly lower motivation efficacy and physical conditioning efficacy than their peer groups (p < .05). Sport psychology consultants and coach educators should consider these differences when consulting and when developing educational materials and workshops.
... The empirical evidence for prior success as a potential source of one or more of the dimensions of coaching efficacy, however, appears to be at least somewhat mixed. For example, Short, Smiley, and Ross-Stewart (2005) found a positive and statistically significant association between prior success and motivation efficacy and a nonstatistically significant association between prior success and each of the other dimensions of coaching efficacy: character building, game strategy, and technique. Myers, Feltz, et al. (2011), however, found a positive and statistically significant association between prior success and both game strategy efficacy and motivation efficacy and a nonstatistically significant association between prior success and both character-building efficacy and technique efficacy. ...
... Myers, Feltz, et al. (2011), however, found a positive and statistically significant association between prior success and both game strategy efficacy and motivation efficacy and a nonstatistically significant association between prior success and both character-building efficacy and technique efficacy. A difference between Short et al. (2005) and Myers, Feltz, et al. (2011) that may at least partially explain discrepant results between the two studies is that the former study sampled collegiate coaches, whereas the latter study sampled high school coaches. ...
Coaching efficacy refers to the extent to which a coach believes that he or she has the capacity to affect the learning and performance of his or her athletes. The purpose of the current study was to empirically synthesize findings across the extant literature to estimate relationships between the proposed sources of coaching efficacy and each of the dimensions of coaching efficacy. A literature search yielded 20 studies and 278 effect size estimates that met the inclusion criteria. The overall relationship between the proposed sources of coaching efficacy and each dimension of coaching efficacy was positive and ranged from small to medium in size. Coach gender and level coached moderated the overall relationship between the proposed sources of coaching efficacy and each of the dimensions of coaching efficacy. Results from this meta-analysis provided some evidence for both the utility of, and possible revisions to, the conceptual model of coaching efficacy.
... In empirical research, perceived community and parental support were positively linked to coaching efficacy in male high-school basketball coaches (Feltz et al., 1999). In intercollegiate coaches, coaching experience significantly predicted character building (Marback, Short, Short, & Sullivan, 2005; Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005), motivation, and game strategy (Marback et al., 2005) efficacy. In addition, career-winning percentage predicted game strategy efficacy, and perceived team ability and social support from athletes' parents predicted motivation and character building efficacy (Myers et al., 2005). ...
... for the total scale and provided evidence for the factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity of the scale. The CES has been used successfully with university coaches (e.g., Marback et al., 2005; Myers et al., 2005; Short et al., 2005). ...
Research on the conceptual model of coaching efficacy (Feltz, Chase, Moritz, & Sullivan, 1999) has increased dramatically over the past few years. Utilizing this model as the guiding framework, the current study examined: (a) coaching experience and sex. as predictors of coaches' coaching efficacy; (b) sport experience, sex, and the match/mismatch in sex between coach and athlete as predictors of 0thletes' perceptions of their coach's effectiveness on the four coaching efficacy domains; and (c) whether coaches' reports of coaching efficacy and athletes' perceptions of coaching effectiveness differed. Coaches (N = 26) and their athletes (N = 291 ) from 8 individual, and 7 team sports drawn from British university teams (N = 26) participated in the study. Coaches completed the Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES), while athletes evaluated their coach's effectiveness using an adapted version of the CES; coaches and athletes also responded to demographic questions. Results indicated that, in. coaches, years of coaching experience positively predicted technique coaching efficacy, and males reported higher game strategy efficacy than females. In athletes, sport experience negatively predicted all perceived coaching effectiveness dimensions, and the mismatch in sex between athletes and their coach negatively predicted perceived motivation and character building coaching effectiveness. Finally, on average, coaches' ratings of coaching efficacy were significantly higher than, their athletes' ratings of coaching effectiveness on all dimensions. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for coaching effectiveness.
... As such, the sources of coaching efficacy have been reported to include: the extent of coach experience and preparation (knowledge to how the performer(s) should be prepared, past experience in coaching, leadership skills, and coaches' development), prior success (win/loss record), perceived skills of athletes, player improvement, and support from others (e.g., school, community, parents) (Chase, Feltz, Hayashi, & Hepler, 2005). More specifically, research has recently identified efficacy sources to be influenced by gender (e.g., Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005), where males were reported to be more efficacious than females. Also, Malete and Feltz (2000) reported coaches who had participated in a specific coach education program to have significantly greater efficacy judgements compared to those who did not participate. ...
... Although related to motivation, technique, and character efficacy, in addition to overall coaching efficacy, there was no relationship to game strategy efficacy. The only possible explanation from the present study could be that coaches who report themselves as being highly coach efficacious and, as such, are good at understanding and regulating their own emotions and those of others, being optimistic, and having good social skills, develop this skill implicitly through their experiences, which have been shown in previous studies to be a significant predictor of coaching efficacy (Short et al., 2005). As such, interventions designed for developing emotional control and how they are used in a facilitative manner appear warranted. ...
The study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy. Ninety-nine coaches completed the Emotional Intelligence Scale and the Coaching Efficacy Scale with the results of the canonical correlation suggesting significant relationships between the two sets of variables. Regression analyses suggested motivation efficacy to be significantly associated with the regulation of emotions, and social skills, whereas character-building efficacy was associated with optimism. Teaching technique efficacy was significantly associated with appraisal of own emotions with no significant predictors for game strategy efficacy. When viewed collectively, results provide an insight to how emotional intelligence relates to coaching efficacy and gives an indication to where applied work with coaches may be directed. Future research suggestions are also provided in reference to coach-related psychology.
... Measures like the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ: Hall et al., 1998), the Exercise Imagery Questionnaire (Hausenblas et al., 1999) and the Dance Imagery Questionnaire were created and used extensively to examine the relationships among imagery use and many different outcomes (e.g., performance, confidence, anxiety; for reviews see Cumming & Williams, 2013;Martin et al., 1999;Short, Ross-Stewart, et al., 2006). Similarly, researchers adapted these measures to look at how others used imagerylike coaches (e.g., Ross-Stewart et al., 2014;Short, 2012;Short et al., 2005, Short et al., 2007 and athletic trainers (Monsma et al., 2011). ...
... Tais características se aproximam de uma medida motivacional que tem sido analisada em alguns esportes nas últimas décadas denominada eficácia coletiva (por exemplo, Shearer, 2015;Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005;Zumeta, Oriol, Telletxea, Amutio, & Basabe, 2016). Essa medida referese a visão do indivíduo quanto ao seu grupo no que se refere a capacidades conjuntas para organizar e executar as ações necessárias para o alcance de determinado objetivo, seja este proposto por seus membros ou imposto ao grupo (Bandura, 1997). ...
O presente estudo investigou os níveis e a relação da autoeficácia, eficácia coletiva e ansiedade em jogadores de voleibol de diferentes categorias ao longo de jogos de uma competição esportiva. Participaram 24 atletas (homens) da categoria sub-17 e categoria sub-21, com média de treinamento na modalidade de 2 ± 0,1 anos e 6 ± 0,2 anos, respectivamente. Os questionários de autoeficácia, eficácia coletiva e ansiedade foram aplicados previamente as partidas de uma etapa de um campeonato a nível estadual no Brasil. As respostas das duas equipes ao longo dos jogos foram analisadas por meio da análise de variância two-way, com medidas repetidas no último fator. Além disso, foi utilizada a correlação de Pearson para verificar relação entre as variáveis. Os resultados revelaram um aumento na autoeficácia após o primeiro jogo, sendo que a equipe sub-17 revelou maior autoeficácia em comparação a equipe sub-21. Na mesma direção, as equipes apresentaram mudança nos níveis da ansiedade somática e das subescalas da eficácia coletiva preparação, habilidade e persistência. Correlações significativas entre as três variáveis foram verificadas nos jogos das duas equipes. Os resultados permitem concluir que a ansiedade, autoeficácia e eficácia coletiva se relacionam e modificam-se ao longo de jogos de voleibol em atletas de diferentes categorias.
... Sumber: Feltz et al. (1999) Dalam satu penyelidikan empirikal yang dijalankan terhadap jurulatih bola keranjang di sekolah menengah lelaki, pandangan pihak komuniti dan sokongan ibu bapa dilihat mempunyai hubungan postif dengan efikasi kejurulatihan (Feltz et al., 1999). Dalam kalangan jurulatih itu sendiri, pengalaman kejurulatihan dilihat mempunyai hubungan signifikan dengan keberkesanan pembangunan watak, motivasi, dan strategi permainan (Marback et al., 2005;Short, Smiley & Ross-Stewart, 2005). ...
Kajian tinjauan ini bertujuan untuk mengenal pasti tahap kompetensi jurulatih sukan dalam kalangan guru melaksanakan latihan di sekolah sekitar Putrajaya. Jurulatih sukan yang berkompeten dalam kalangan guru dapat memberi faedah kepada kepada atlet yang dilatih bermula di peringkat sekolah. Instrumen yang digunakan dalam kajian ini adalah soal selidik Skala Kompetensi Kejurulatihan (CCS). Kajian ini melibatkan 34 orang jurulatih sukan dalam kalangan guru di sekitar Putrajaya. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa tahap kompetensi jurulatih sukan dalam kalangan guru adalah tinggi iaitu MC (min=5.46, S.P=0.90), GSC (min=5.16, S.P=1.07), TC (min=5.34, S.P=1.12) dan CBC (min=5.73, S.P0.88=). Majoriti jurulatih sukan dalam kalangan guru di sekitar Putrajaya menunjukkan tahap kompetensi yang tinggi dalam kesemua empat dimensi kompetensi jurulatih sukan.
... This finding complements similar research on sport coaches and how they personally use mental imagery. Short et al., (2005) found that coaches most commonly reported using mental imagery to assist with performance and correction of physical skills. Mental imagery is ideal because it allows for immediate comparison between desired performance and actual performance, and consequently, can be used to develop feedback extremely quickly. ...
PROBLEM STATEMENT: The appropriate use of assessment is a major issue for both in-service and pre-service physical education (PE) teachers. Part of the issue that PE teachers face specific challenges that are unique to the discipline of PE, and to effectively assess students in PE takes careful consideration of many different variables. Consequently, it is important to develop a clear understanding of what skills a PE teacher can utilize to assist them when conducting student assessment. One skill that some PE teachers could use is mental imagery, but to date, there has been minimal research related to the use of mental imagery by PE teachers. APPROACH: A purposive sample of highly experienced PE teachers (n=15) who presently taught PE at the middle or secondary school level was attained. Semi-structured one-on-one interviews were conducted with each participant to investigate their usage of mental imagery to assist with assessment practices. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to establish whether or not physical education (PE) teachers use mental imagery to assist with their assessment practices, and if so, what does this mental imagery use look like. RESULTS: The results demonstrated that all of the PE teachers engaged in this study indicated use of mental imagery to assist with assessment practices. Specifically, the participants most commonly reported using mental imagery related to assessment as an aid for providing effective feedback and correction, as well as to help with grading. CONCLUSIONS: Due to the findings in the present study that highly experienced PE teachers find beneficial uses for mental imagery in relation to many different facets of their assessment practices, it would be valuable to provide dedicated education to all PE teachers (especially pre-service or early career) around the potential uses of mental imagery and various strategies for that usage when it comes to assessment practices.
... More specifically, research has recently identified efficacy sources to be influenced by gender (e.g., Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005), where males were reported to be more efficient than females. Malete and Feltz (2000) reported coaches who had participated in a specific coach education program to have significantly greater efficacy judgments compared to those who did not participated (Malete & Feltz, 2000). ...
Coaches’ confidence in their coaching abilities has a great influence on athletes and the results from their activity. In an attempt to explain coaching efficacy some authors relate it to emotional intelligence.
The aim of the present research is to study the interdependence between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy among football coaches.
Methodology: The research was done among 50 football coaches aged between 23 and 45 year with different level of qualification.
In order to fulfill the aim, we used: 1) Background information; 2) Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES; Feltz et al., 1999); 3) Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS; Schutte et al., 1998).
Results: the results reveal that the leading subscales for the researched football coaches are „Technique efficacy“ and „Motivation efficacy“. We established significant correlations among the subscales of emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy. The results show a significant influence of emotional intelligence on coaching efficacy expectations. High Emotional Intelligence leads to increase in Technique efficacy.
Conclusions: Our results regarding coaching efficacy reveal a certain specificity in comparison with the data published by foreign authors but confirm the findings in literature about the role of emotional intelligence as a predictor of coaching efficacy.
... In addition, [3] proposed that certain desirable outcomes for both coaches and athletes should result from high levels of coaching efficacy. Scholars have stated that high self-efficacy in coaches has been found to relate to different external variables: These include coaching behavior [3], team winning percentage [5], coaches' commitment to coaching [6], player improvement [7]; [4], playing experience [8], imagery [9], leadership style [10], coaching experience [7], coach education [11], team efficacy, satisfaction with the coach, and team performance in athletes [12][13][14]. ...
... Coaches' use of imagery has been linked with enhanced self-efficacy beliefs specific to coaching practice (Short, Smiley and Ross-Stewart 2005). Further, emotional intelligence has also been linked with self-perceptions of coaching efficacy (Thelwell, Lane, Weston and Greenlees 2008). ...
Emotions have been shown to be central to sport performance outcomes. The practice of coaching is performance-oriented and can be influenced by emotions. The ability to regulate emotions effectively has implications for performance outcomes, individuals’ well-being, and interpersonal relationships. Individual differences related to personality variables can influence intrapersonal emotion regulation and interpersonal relationships. The present chapter reviews current knowledge of the implications of emotions and emotion regulation in coaching. The influence of personality on emotion regulation and the coach-athlete relationship is outlined. A number of emotion regulation strategies are suggested for use by coaches to optimize their emotions as well as their athletes’ emotions. Limitations of past research are discussed and future research areas are proposed.
... Similarly, Sullivan, Gee, and Feltz (2006) also found that coaches' playing experience (after controlling for coaching experience) was a unique source of coaching efficacy beliefs, but only for game strategy efficacy. Finally, imagery may also be an influential source of coaching efficacy information (Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005). ...
The Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES) measures beliefs coaches have to affect the learning and performance of their athletes. While previous research has provided support for the model of coaching efficacy and the CES as an adequate measure of the construct, these studies have used paid high-school and college coaches. It is possible that the factor structure of the CES may not replicate for volunteer youth sport coaches. The purpose of this study was to explore coaching efficacy sources used by volunteer youth sport coaches. In addition, the validity of the CES was examined, using a 5-point condensed rating scale, among volunteer youth sport coaches before exploring the sources. The study involved 492 volunteer youth sport coaches from various team sports. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the CES had an acceptable fit to the data. The sources of coaching efficacy were examined via multivariate multiple regression and canonical correlation. Results indicated that more confident coaches had more extensive playing and coaching backgrounds, felt their players improved more throughout the season, and perceived more support than did less confident coaches, particularly in regard to technique and game strategy efficacy.
... (seeTable 4.4). Therefore, in line with previous research (Myers, Wolfe, & Feltz, 2005; Short et al., 2005) and the recommendations of Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), the four subscales were aggregated into a general coaching competence (GCC) factor. A Cronbach's alpha value of a = .95 ...
Multiple conceptual frameworks support the link between coaches' attitudes and behaviors, and their effect on a variety of athlete outcomes, such as performance, motivation, and athlete self-perceptions. The present study explored the relationships among coaches' attitudes and behaviors, with respect to psychological skills training (PST), and the beliefs of their athletes. One hundred and fifteen coaches completed PST attitude (SPA-RC-revised) and behavior measures, while 403 athletes completed two perception measures (CCS and SCI). Structural Equation Modeling showed that the proposed relationships were statistically significant, except for the pathway between coaches' attitudes and their behaviors. Results support the disconnect between coaches' attitudes and behaviors previously established in PST research, as well as the theoretical links between coaches' behaviors and athletes' perceptions (i.e., evaluation of their coach and self-confidence).
... Det mest använda mätinstrumentet av visualiseringsanvändning är Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall et al., 1998). Det finns även olika modifierade versioner av SIQ (t.ex., i studier av Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005). SIQ är en enkät med 30 frågor och mäter hur ofta en idrottare använder sig av olika visualiseringstyper. ...
... Clearly, the findings on meta-imagery augment previous research which had provided preliminary evidence from a non-sporting sample (Nordin & Cumming, 2005a), and strengthen the argument for pursuing this aspect of imagery (Moran, 2002Moran, , 2004). Furthermore, the role of coaches in facilitating athletes imagery had previously been reported (Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005; White & Hardy, 1998), however, the process by which this occurred, other than through encouragement had not been illuminated. In this study, the use of 'talk-throughs' came to light and this interaction between coaches and athletes requires further study across different sporting contexts. ...
Imagery research has accumulated in two main waves since it was first investigated over a century ago. Firstly, in a period roughly extending over a century from the 1890s to the 1990s, several hundred experiments focused on the efficacy of the "mental practice" effect. More recently, attempts to shed light on the precise tasks or functions for which athletes use visualization in actual sport situations have led to an upsurge in imagery research. Central to this second wave of research is the imagery use framework (Hall et al., 1998), which has led to over 20 studies. Unfortunately, despite making significant advances these studies have a number of limitations, including a failure to include elite participants and the fact that they have largely overlooked meta-imagery abilities of the athletes. To address these issues, semi-structured interviews were used to explore imagery experiences among elite athletes. Canoe-slalom, which had been subject to previous research on imagery (e.g., White & Hardy, 1998), was the chosen sport. Five female and seven male elite level competitors (age= 25 years; SD = 4.16) participated. Findings from the elite athlete sample were inconsistent with previous research with regard to the motivational function of images. Furthermore, the athletes demonstrated a sophisticated understanding of imagery processes including imagery of realistic behaviours rather than perfect performance. Interestingly, the frequency of debilitative imagery was surprising given previous findings but may have been a consequence of the qualitative methods employed. Finally, examination of the meta-imagery construct proved valuable and is worthy of further research.
... Coaching efficacy has been linked with a host of theory-based external variables: coaching behavior (Feltz et al., 1999), team winning percentage (Myers, Vargas-Tonsing, & Feltz, 2005), player improvement (Chase, Feltz, Hayashi, & Hepler, 2005), playing experience (Sullivan, Gee, & Feltz, 2006), imagery (Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005), leadership style (Sullivan & Kent, 2003), and team efficacy (Vargas-Tonsing, Warners, & Feltz, 2003). While there is compelling evidence that measures derived from the CES relate with theoretically relevant external variables, there also is substantial evidence that model-data fit for the CES does not meet heuristic values for close fit (e.g., Hu & Bentler, 1999;Marsh, Hau, & Wen, 2004). ...
The purpose of this article was to provide a substantive-methodological synergy of potential importance to future research in sport and exercise psychology. The substantive focus was to improve the measurement of coaching efficacy by developing a revised version of the coaching efficacy scale (CES) for head coaches (N = 557) of youth sport teams (CES II-YST). The methodological focus was exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), a methodology that integrates the advantages of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) within the general structural equation model (SEM). The synergy was a demonstration of how ESEM (as compared with CFA) may be used, guided by content knowledge, to develop (or confirm) a measurement model for the CES II-YST. A single-group ESEM provided evidence for close model-data fit, while a single-group CFA fit significantly worse than the single-group ESEM and provided evidence for only approximate model-data fit. A multiple-group ESEM provided evidence for partial factorial invariance by coach's gender.
... After controlling for the effects of the relevant sources proposed in this study, future research should explore additional sources of efficacy information. One source not included in this study, for which evidence exists, is a coach's use of imagery (Short, Smiley, & Ross-Stewart, 2005). Future studies testing imagery for predicting dimensions of coaching efficacy, within the model proposed in this study, would advance the literature. ...
The purpose of this study was to determine whether theoretically relevant sources of coaching efficacy could predict the measures derived from the Coaching Efficacy Scale II-High School Teams (CES II-HST). Data were collected from head coaches of high school teams in the United States (N=799). The analytic framework was a multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis with ordered-categorical indicators and observed covariates. Applying this framework to the conceptual model of coaching efficacy (CMCE) resulted in a statistical model equivalent to a multiple-group multivariate regression with latent outcomes. Results provided evidence for the ability of measures derived from the CES II-HST to be predicted by theoretically relevant sources of coaching efficacy and suggested modifications to the CMCE.
New esports teams are popping up all of the time and they all need a good coaching staff, including specialists. For the benefit of esports coach education, this article provides a brief summary of the conditions that must be present for learning to take place, the various teaching methods available to coaches, and best practices in guiding athlete performance. The final section shows how coaches can facilitate imagery use with athletes.
The present study investigated the role of quality coach–athlete relationships and coaching efficacy on coaches’ well-being and performance. We examined whether coaches’ direct and meta-perspectives of the coach–athlete relationship quality predicted dimensions of coaches’ efficacy, hedemonic and eudaimonic well-being, and coach-related performance. A total of 233 male and female Swedish coaches from various team and individual sports completed the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, the Coaching Efficacy Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Subjective Vitality Scale, and a one-single item developed to measure perceived coach performance. Structural equation modelling analyses revealed that quality coach–athlete relationships as defined by closeness, commitment, and complementarity associated with all four dimensions of coach efficacy. While coach–athlete relationship quality was linked with coaches’ positive affect, vitality, and satisfaction with coaching performance, only the motivational dimension of coach efficacy was associated with indicators of coach well-being and coach-related performance. Further analyses showed that the motivational dimension of coach efficacy explained the link between coach–athlete relationship quality, well-being, and coach-related performance. Overall, the findings extended the coach efficacy model by investigating the coach–athlete relationship as a predictor and coach well-being as an outcome. Our findings emphasize the importance of relationships for coaches’ efficacy and well-being.
Introduction. The Olympic weightlifting training methodology is a powerful tool for developing motor abilities and overall fitness. In addition, it is well established that these activities have a positive effect on the physical development of adolescents. It is important that the preparation is conducted under professional coaching in sports clubs to guarantee the achievement of good sports performance without injuries. Methodology. The goal of this study is to identify the changes that occur in the physical performance of 13-15-year-old cadets (boys), under the influence of specialized training with the means of Olympic weightlifting. 30 weightlifters aged 14 on average participated in the experiment. The study was conducted in September 2021. Results. Based on the results, we can conclude that overall the structured specialized Olympic weightlifting training protocol positively affects explosive strength, speed, and flexibility in 13-15-year-old cadets. However, the results show significant between-group variability when stratified by age. Discussion and conclusions. Habitual Olympic weightlifting training is not a very popular activity among children and adolescents. It is generally considered risky and not appropriate for youngsters. However, our results painted a different picture, and based on them and our practical experience, in our opinion, if the methodology is properly modified, Olympic weightlifting is a powerful tool for the development of motor abilities in trainees of different age groups.
According to a number of authors, athletes ‘perceptions and evaluations of their coach’s effectiveness and behavior (real and preferred) influence athletes’ behavior and performance. The aim of the present study is to examine coaching efficacy expectations and leadership style among Bulgarian football players. Methods: The research was done among 73 football players (female-28, male-45) aged between 16 and 26 years. In order to fulfill the aim, we used: 1) Coaching Efficacy Scale (CES), Feltz et al., 1999; 2) Revised Leadership Scale for Sport (RLSS), Zhang et. el., 1997. Results and discussion: The results from the variation analysis showed similar levels in some of the components of coaching efficacy and leadership style. The comparative analysis revealed significant differences depending on the gender of the game strategy subscales and the way the coach makes decisions. There are established significant differences in the preferred behavior of the coach from the players on the social support and positive feedback subscales. The correlation analysis did not reveal strong relationships between the coaching efficacy subscales and the leadership style subscales. Accordingly, our results differ from the data published in the literature. The results from the regression analysis reveal that coaching efficacy does not directly affect the subscales of the leadership style, which differs from what is reported in the literature.
Enhancing motor skills has a significant impact on athletes’ field performance. Both sports depend on a combination of highlevels of physical, technical, and tactical ability. Тhe aim of this study was to examine the differences in the motor abilities and anthropometric characteristics of the football and basketball players aged 13-15 years. Thirty-six participants were divided in two groups (football players, (n=18; height:1.71 ± 8.5m; body mass: 20.1± 2.2 kg; age: 14.7 ± 0.3 years) and basketball players, n=18; height: 1.69± 10.9; body mass 3.4 ±20.6; age:0.7 ±14.1) aged 13-15 years old. Conducted motor abilities were 10m and 20m sprint, agility t-test, countermovement jump (CMJ), countermovement jump with arm swing (CMJa) and squat jump (SJ), while anthropometric characteristics were fat percentage, body mass index, muscle percentage, height, weight. Independent sample T-test revealed statistical significance only in fat percent-age (p=.003), muscle percentage (p=.002), agility (p=.000), and sprint (p=.000), while in the countermovement jump, countermovement jump with arm swing, squat jump, body mass index, height, and weight, there were no statistical significance. Athletes who play different sports have performed different results in agility test, speed test, fat percentage and muscle percentage. Football players achieved better results compared to basketball players, which is due to the character of the game, where players move within a wider space, as well as the different structure of the training process.
Introduction. One of the main goals of the Olympic weightlifting training process is to ensure a healthy motor training regime. Those activities are aimed at achieving tangible positive effects on the body, as well as providing adequate conditions for the physical development of trainees. Preparation under professional coaching in sports clubs guarantees the achievement of good sports performance. Methodology. The goal of this study is to identify the changes that occur in the physical performance of children (boys), under the influence of specialized training with the means of Olympic weightlifting. Eighteen (18) weightlifters aged 13 participated in the experiment. The study was conducted in two stages: the baseline data were collected in June 2020, and the final measurements were in June 2022. Results. Based on the results, we can conclude that the structured, specialized Olympic weightlifting training protocol positively affects explosive strength of lower limbs, speed, and flexibility in 13-year-old children. Discussion and conclusions. Habitual Olympic weightlifting training is not a very popular activity among children. It is generally considered risky and not appropriate for youngsters. However, our results painted a different picture, and based on them and our practical experience, in our opinion, if the methodology is properly modified, Olympic weightlifting is a powerful tool for the development of motor abilities in children.
The aim of the current thesis was to investigate athletes’ perceptions of coaching effectiveness in team and individual sports. The introduction reviews the literature on coaching effectiveness of direct relevance to this thesis. This chapter also identifies a number of theoretical frameworks for the investigation of coaching effectiveness in sports and subsequently uses these to inform the empirical studies that follow. The first of these Chapter 2, investigated a number of antecedents of athletes’ perceptions of their coach’s effectiveness, finding athlete sex, sport type (i.e., individual vs. team) coaching behaviour were all predictive of athletes’ perceptions of their coach’s effectiveness. Next, Chapter 3 focused on outcomes of athlete perceptions of their coach, showing such perceptions of coaching effectiveness were predictive of athlete-level outcomes representing all four of the key outcomes. This was shown in two separate samples of athletes representing a range of team and individual sports, one from the UK and one from Malaysia. Then, Chapter 4 investigated whether athletes’ perceptions of coaching effectiveness mediated longitudinal predictive effects of perceptions of a coach’s transformational leadership behaviour on three different athlete outcomes. This study demonstrated the longitudinal predictive effects of appropriate role model behaviour on antisocial teammate behaviour and individual consideration behaviour on trust were mediated by athletes’ perceptions of their coach’s effectiveness in character building and motivation, respectively. Finally, the present thesis extends the coaching effectiveness literature by furthering our understanding of antecedents and outcomes of coaching effectiveness in the team and individual sports, as well as the possible processes involved.
Youth sports coaches do not seem to have a clear understanding of mental imagery, although research has highlighted its benefits. This study tried to understand the perspective of national coaches regarding the importance of MI in practical settings, analysing how they understand, integrate, and encourage its use. A qualitative approach was used, where semi-structured interviews were conducted with 28 beach volleyball national team coaches, in the U-19 world championship. The analysis revealed that coaches broadly understood MI, considering it a valid complement to performance enhancement, but they employ it non-systematically and based on their empirical knowledge. Coaches also highlighted their attempt to encourage athletes to use MI (e.g., in the volleyball serve or in the rehearsal of a play). The importance of MI was recognised, although it is unclear how coaches should encourage athletes to use it, and how they can integrate it into real training environments.
Antrenör öz yeterliği, antrenörlerin sporcularının öğrenme ve performansını hangi ölçüde etkileyebileceklerine ilişkin, mesleki yetenek ve kapasitelerine yönelik inancı olarak açıklanabilir. Antrenör verimliliği üzerinde etkisi olan psikolojik yapılardan olan antrenör öz yeterliğinin doğru yöntemlerle ölçülebilmesi gerekir. Bu araştırmada, antrenörlerin öz yeterlik inançlarını ölçebilecek psikometrik özelliklerde bir ölçek geliştirilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmaya Türkiye'de çeşitli spor dallarında faal olarak antrenörlük yapan 320 antrenör (32,43± 8.06 yaş) katılmıştır. Ölçeğin geçerlik ve güvenirlik analizinde madde toplam puan ilişkisi, örneklem uygunluk katsayısı, açımlayıcı ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizleri ile Croanbah's Alfa Güvenirlik Katsayısı kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen bulgulara göre ölçek, toplam varyansın %61,487'sini açıklayan 21 madde, 5 faktörlü bir yapı olarak ortaya çıkmıştır. Ölçeğin birinci düzey DFA uyum indeksi değerleri madde-faktör yapısını doğrulamıştır. Ölçeğin bütününün Croanbah's Alfa Güvenirlik Katsayısı değeri .86'dır. Sonuç olarak, Antrenör Öz Yeterlik Ölçeği'nin (AÖYÖ) geçerli ve güvenilir bir ölçme aracı olduğu ve antrenörlerin öz yeterlik düzeylerini belirlemek için kullanılabileceği söylenebilir.
Sport coaches are critical human resources in sport organizations. Thus factors such as leadership style and mental and performance properties of the coaches play important role in athletes’ success. The objective of the present study was to determine the relation between emotional intelligence and leadership style with mediating role of efficacy among female coaches participating in female college Olympiad. The required data were collected by questionnaires of emotional intelligence (Shout, 1998), coaching efficacy (Myers et al, 2011) and leadership style (Chelladurai and Saleh, 1980) submitted to 90 female coaches participating in sport Olympiad. Although reliability and validity of these questionnaires had been already confirmed in many studies; their facial and content validity was approved by many university professors and their reliability was calculated by Cronbach’s alpha as 0.84, 0.77 and 0.91. Data were analyzed using multiple and double regression methods based on four-step model proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986). Results indicated that perceived ability of coaches regarding emotional intelligence including evaluation and exact monitoring of excitement changes during training and match time and the ability for optimal control and regulation of these excitements have positive influence on coaching confidence and their efficacy beliefs; and this relation results in taking a leadership style and behavior proportional to match and athlete’s condition and hence, enhances effectiveness of total coaching process. Moreover, this interaction can also promote athlete’s attitude and relation with his/her coach and thus their learning and performance.
The Oxford Handbook of Sport and Performance Psychology includes the latest research and applied perspectives from leaders in the field of performance psychology, presenting sport and performance psychology from myriad perspectives. It looks at individual psychological processes in performance such as attention, imagery, superior performance intelligence, motivation, anxiety, confidence, cognition, and emotion. Articles also consider the social psychological processes in performance including leadership, teamwork, coaching, relationships, moral behavior, and gender and cultural issues. The book further examines human development issues in performance, such as the development of talent and expertise, positive youth development, the role of the family, the end of involvement transitions, and both youth and masters-level sport and physical activity programs. Finally, the text looks at interventions in sport and performance psychology and counseling of performers in distress including such important issues for all performers as: appearance- and performance-enhancing drug use, injuries, managing pain, eating and weight issues, burnout, and the role of physical activity in maintaining health. The articles collected here also cover the history of sport and performance psychology; the scope and nature of the field; ethical issues in sport and performance psychology; performance psychology in the performing arts and other non-sporting fields; perfectionism and performance; the role of the performance coach and of the sport psychologist with a coach and team; supervision; and a look ahead to the future of the field.
This chapter examines the meta-imagery processes in elite sports performers. It explores the postulated nature and types of metacognition, and then considers the metacognitive processes in athletes. It discusses some of the possible reasons for the neglect of metaimagery processes in athletes. It examines the neglected role of meta-imagery processes in current theoretical models of imagery processes in athletes.
This study provides a comprehensive summary at how coaches (n = 214) used imagery. The results highlight the usefulness of Paivio's (1985) model and corresponding measure (SIQ: Hall et al., 1998) for use with coaches. Descriptive statistics for how often coaches used imagery, why they use imagery and their perceptions of the direction (effectiveness) of the images are provided at the subscale and item levels. Also described is the relationship between imagery use and effectiveness. Several personal, coaching, and imagery-related variables were also shown to be related to imagery use and perceptions of effectiveness.
The purpose of this validity study was to improve measurement of coaching efficacy, an important variable in models of coaching effectiveness. A revised version of the coaching efficacy scale (CES) was developed for head coaches of high school teams (CES II-HST). Data were collected from head coaches of 14 relevant high school sports (N = 799). Exploratory factor analysis (n = 250) and a conceptual understanding of the construct of interest led to the selection of 18 items. A single-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; n = 549) provided evidence for close model-data fit. A multigroup CFA provided evidence for factorial invariance by gender of the coach (n = 588).
Relationships among appraisal, coping responses, and identity-related constructs such as self-concept and self-esteem are examined. Emphasis is placed on the way in which selected coping strategies may invoke affect regulation, self-protection, and self-enhancement mechanisms to help athletes maintain a positive sense of self in threatening circumstances. The specific threatening circumstances considered are impending competition, performance slumps, injury, and transitional experiences. A conceptual model of identity-maintenance coping at the individual level is presented, and a parallel model is proposed for identity-maintenance at the group-level.
This study examined the effect of participation in a coaching education program compared to a control group on coaches' perceived coaching efficacy. The program consisted of two 6-hour sessions. The Coaching Efficacy Scale was used to determine the impact of the program on perceived coaching efficacy. Forty-six Michigan high school coaches and 14 coaching preparation students were recruited for the experimental (n = 36) and control groups (n = 24) for this study. The participants were asked to respond to pretest and posttest CES questionnaires that examined how confident they were in influencing the learning and performance of their athletes in four dimensions of coaching: character building, motivation, strategy, and technique. Results showed a significant effect for a coaching education program on the perceived efficacy levels of the trained coaches compared to control coaches.
The purpose of this research was to examine how high and low trait sport confident track and field athletes differed in their imagery content and imagery ability. NCAA Division I track and field athletes ( M age = 20.5 +/- 1.61 years; M = 7.15 +/- 3.3 years experience; N = 111, 44 males and 67 females) completed the following measures: Trait Sport Confidence Inventory (TSCI), Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), and Movement Imagery Questionnaire - Revised (MIQ-R). Profile analyses revealed that high trait sport confident athletes utilized each category of imagery (Motivational General - Mastery, Motivational General - Arousal, Motivational Specific, Cognitive General, and Cognitive Specific) significantly more than low trait sport confident athletes. No significant differences emerged between the groups on the two imagery ability scales. The results suggest that the high confident athletes used more imagery, but they did not have higher imagery skills than low confident athletes.
Martin, Moritz, and Hall's (1999) applied mental imagery model was developed to provide an organizational framework to guide future imagery usage research and application. The present study explores 2 aspects of the applied model: the relationship between imagery type and confidence, and 2 possible moderating variables, skill level of the athlete and sport type. One hundred and twenty-three female county netball players participated in the study; 55 from a low standard county and 68 from a high standard county. Participants were administered the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ). One week later, at a county netball match, the State Sport Confidence Inventory (SSCI) was administered. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that in the lower standard sample, mastery imagery and imagery related to strategies of the game accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in sport confidence. Additionally, imagery related to the emotions of playing predicted confidence negatively. With the higher standard sample, goal achievement oriented imagery was the only significant predictor of variance in confidence. The results are discussed in relation to the pertinence of, and function that, different imagery types have for performers.
This study presents the development and preliminary validation of the Collective Efficacy Questionnaire for Sports (CEQS). The study was conducted in 3 phases. In Phase 1, a 42-item questionnaire was developed and tested with 271 college-aged student-athletes. An exploratory factor analysis revealed 5 collective efficacy factors with 27 items retained. In Phase 2, again using college-aged student-athletes (N = 286), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported a 5-factor, 20-item measure. These factors were named Ability, Effort, Preparation, Persistence, and Unity. In Phase 3, preliminary support for the construct validity (i.e., convergent, predictive, and discriminant validity) of the CEQS was obtained by examining correlations among the CEQS subscales and a measure of team cohesion (Group Environment Questionnaire; Widmeyer, Brawley, & Carron, 1985). A second CFA was conducted on the CEQS to cross-validate the measure. Combined results establish preliminary support for the CEQS.
Aligned with competitive anxiety research in athletics, this study explored audition anxiety and the role of imagery in the anxiety-performance relationship among 131 female auditioning ballet dancers. A better understanding of how auditioning dancers experience anxiety and associated image content can help train dancers preparing for anxiety-provoking, high-stakes performances. The CSAI-2 assessing competitive state anxiety and confidence and the SIQ assessing the cognitive and motivational functions of imagery were slightly modified for administration in the audition context. The MIQ-R was used to assess movement imagery. All instrument subscales, with the exception of the CG-Strategies subscale of the SIQ, demonstrated adequate internal consistency. Ballet dancers' scores were similar to those reported by aesthetic sport athletes. Obtaining a position with a dance company was used as a proxy for defining success. Successful dancers with prior audition success were more confident than those without prior success and unsuccessful dancers with, and without, prior success. As a group, successful dancers experienced less cognitive anxiety and more somatic anxiety than unsuccessful dancers. Although imagery ability and image content did not differentiate dancers by performance, confident dancers had higher kinesthetic imagery ability and used more mastery and less arousal imagery than less confident dancers. In contrast, cognitively and somatically anxious dancers used less mastery and more arousal imagery. The athletic paradigm appears to be an appropriate framework for studying performance-related anxiety among dancers. Dancers and practitioners are encouraged to focus on mastery images for increasing confidence and decreasing anxiety. Dancers with prior audition success may be incorporating theses experiences in generating arousal imagery shown to predicted somatic anxiety, anxiety that does not appear to be detrimental to performance when cognitive anxiety is controlled.
The purpose of this study was to identify sources of coaching‐efficacy information to compare with those presented in the Coaching‐Efficacy model (Feltz, Chase, Moritz, & Sullivan, 1999). Using a structured interview format with 12 of the coaches of high‐school boys’ basketball used in the Feltz et al. study, the coaches were asked to identify the information they select to form their coaching efficacy beliefs. An inductive content analysis of the sources of coaching efficacy indicated that coaches selected Player Development most often, followed by Coaches’ Development, Knowledge/Preparation, Leadership Skills, Player Support, and Past Experience. These sources were found to be similar to the proposed sources in the Coaching‐Efficacy model (Feltz, et al.) and previous work in self‐efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977).
19 female college athletes imagined 4 scenes during which their heart rates were recorded. Ss tended to show increases in heart rate when imagining scenes with which they had personal experience and which would involve cardiovascular activation if experienced in real life. Nonsignificant heart rate changes were found when the scene involved activation but was one with which Ss did not have personal experience. Results are discussed in terms of P. J. Lang's (see record
1981-00036-001) bio-informational theory of emotional imagery. It is suggested that the theory has implications for imagery rehearsal in sport psychology and can account for a variety of findings in the mental practice literature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Assessed the use of imagery by athletes by administering a 37-item questionnaire to 253 males and 128 females from 6 sports. Males (mean age 19.72 yrs) were significantly older than females (mean age 16.69 yrs). Ss reported using imagery more with competition than with practice. The motivational function of imagery was found to be important. Ss indicated that they do not have structured or regular imagery sessions. The level at which athletes were competing (recreational/house league, local competitive, provincial competitive, national/international competitive) was found to influence imagery use. The higher the competitive level, the more often the Ss reported using imagery in practice, in competition, and before an event. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A longstanding research question in the sport psychology literature has been whether a given amount of mental practice prior to performing a motor skill will enhance one's subsequent performance. The research literature, however, has not provided any clear-cut answers to this question and this has prompted the present, more comprehensive review of existing research using the meta-analytic strategy proposed by Glass (1977). From the 60 studies yielding 146 effect sizes the overall average effect size was .48, which suggests, as did Richardson (1967a), that mentally practicing a motor skill influences performance somewhat better than no practice at all. Effect sizes were also compared on a number of variables thought to moderate the effects of mental practice. Results from these comparisons indicated that studies employing cognitive tasks had larger average effect sizes than motor or strength tasks and that published studies had larger average effect sizes than unpublished studies. These findings are discus...
Mental practice is the cognitive rehearsal of a task prior to performance. Although most researchers contend that mental practice is an effective means of enhancing performance, a clear consensus is precluded because (a) mental practice is often defined so loosely as to include almost any type of mental preparation and (b) empirical results are inconclusive. A meta-analysis of the literature on mental practice was conducted to determine the effect of mental practice on performance and to identify conditions under which mental practice is most effective. Results indicated that mental practice has a positive and significant effect on performance, and the effectiveness of mental practice was moderated by the type of task, the retention interval between practice and performance, and the length or duration of the mental practice intervention.
Despite the advocacy of a confidence-enhancing function of mental imagery, the relationship between confidence and imagery has received little attention from sport researchers. The primary purpose of the present study was to identify the specific image content of confident athletes. Fifty-seven elite competitive rollerskaters completed the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised (MIQ-R), the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), and the State Sport Confidence Inventory (SSCI). Results revealed that high sport-confident athletes used more mastery and arousal imagery, and had better kinesthetic and visual imagery ability than low sport-confident athletes did. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis revealed that mastery imagery accounted for the majority of variance in SSCI scores (20%). The results of this study suggest that when it comes to sport confidence, the imaged rehearsal of specific sport skills may not be as important as the imagery of sport-related mastery experiences and emotions.
The purpose of this study was to examine whether a relationship exists between self-efficacy and the use of imagery by athletes involved in individual sports. It was expected that athletes who were high in self-efficacy would more likely use imagery than those who were low in self-efficacy. Fifty varsity athletes involved in wrestling, rowing, and track and field completed both the Sport Imagery Questionnaire [1] and a self-efficacy questionnaire. Results revealed that athletes who are high in self-efficacy in competition situations tend to use more motivational imagery than their low self-efficacy counterparts. No such differences were found for cognitive imagery use in competition, or for the use of either motivational or cognitive imagery in practice.
A multiple-baseline-across-subjects design was used to investigate the effect of mental imagery training on the magnitude of individuals' self-efficacy for a dart throwing task. Six (n = 6) subjects were administered a 15-session mental imagery training program following baseline sessions of varying lengths. Each imagery session included a relaxation component, followed by specific imagery training. Subjects were then asked to stand, perform a one minute centering exercise, and to image successful performance of the task. This was immediately followed by the completion of a self-efficacy and imagery rating scale, and actual performance of the task while blindfolded. Two subjects showed that their self-efficacy magnitude for the task had increased as a result of the imagery training. All subjects reported an improvement in their overall ability to image the task as a result of the intervention. It was concluded that imagery was able to enhance self-efficacy magnitude for the dart throwing task in subjects who were high ability imagers, had previous experience at throwing darts, believed in the performance-enhancing capabilities of mental imagery training, and had been exposed to relaxation and imagery procedures prior to the study.
This experiment examined the interaction between two imagery functions (Cognitive Specific, CS; and Motivation - General Mastery, MG-M) and two imagery directions (facultative, debilitative) on self-efficacy and performance in golf putting. Eighty-three participants were randomly assigned to one of 7 conditions: (a) CS + facilitative imagery, (b) CS + debilitative imagery, (c) MG-M + facilitative imagery, (d) MG-M + debilitative imagery, (e) CS imagery only, (f) MG-M imagery only, (g) no imagery (stretching) control group. A 3 (imagery direction) × 3 (imagery function) × 2 (gender) ANCOVA with pretest scores used as the covariate was used. Results showed a main effect for performance; means were higher for the facilitative group compared to the debilitative group. For self-efficacy, there was a significant imagery direction by imagery function by gender interaction. These findings suggest imagery direction and imagery function can affect self-efficacy and performance and that males and females respond differently to imagery interventions.
This study examined the effectiveness of mental practice techniques for improving figure skating performance, self-efficacy, and self-confidence for competition. Two interventions, paper freestyle drawing (PFD) and walk through on floor (WTF), were compared to a stretching control group. Participants (n = 27), ages 10 to 18 years, were members of the United States Figure Skating Association and were randomly assigned to one of the three groups. The study included procedural reliability checks such as pre-and post-manipulation checks; structured seminars; and homework workbooks. Results indicated that the two mental practice groups significantly improved their performance ratings in jumps and spins, and their competition confidence compared to the stretching control group. Results also indicated that the WTF mental practice group increased their spinning self-efficacy beliefs compared to the PFD mental practice treatment and the stretching control group.
The Sports Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) was developed to assess the motivational and cognitive functions of imagery proposed by Paivio's Analytic Framework of Imagery Effects (1985). The present article reports three experiments designed to validate the content and construct properties of the SIQ. Initially, items were developed through a thorough literature review, other imagery questionnaires, and the expert evaluations of research professionals and elite athletes. In Experiments 1 and 2, the items on the SIQ were found to separate into distinct factors. These factors corresponded well with the functions of imagery proposed by Paivio. Experiment 3 was designed to assess construct and predictive validity in a sample of 271 athletes competing in individual and team sports. Again results revealed the existence of five distinct factors corresponding with the motivational and cognitive functions of imagery proposed. Predictive validity of the SIQ was supported in that greater imagery use was associated with successful performance. Finally, differences between individual and team sport athletes were observed with respect to the functions of imagery use. Overall, the results of these experiments indicate that the SIQ may be a useful tool for helping understand how athletes use different types of imagery.
This study compared coaches' assessments of their own coaching efficacy with their athletes' perceptions of the coaches' efficacy. Coaching efficacy was measured with the Coaching Efficacy Scale. Participants were 9 football coaches and 76 football players from the same team. Analysis indicated coaches were confident in their coaching abilities (range 6.5 to 9.0 on a 9-point scale). For 7 of the 9 coaches the coaches' ratings of themselves were higher than the athletes' ratings. For the other 2 coaches, athletes' ratings of coaches' efficacy were higher than the coaches' ratings of themselves. All coaches' ratings fell within the 95% confidence interval based on the athletes' ratings of the coaches' efficacy. Results are discussed in terms of the interplay between athletes and coaches efficacy beliefs and its influence on behavior.
Many dance teachers and coaches use mental imagery in the planning, implementation, and evaluation of their teaching and coaching. Coaches and dance teachers often direct athletes/dancers to use imagery during practice, competition, and performance. The purpose of this study was to compare the imagery used by dance teachers, figure skating coaches, and soccer coaches. Forty-nine subjects were given the Imagery Use Questionnaire for coaches and dance instructors. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each of the questions pertaining specifically to imagery use. Correlational analyses were conducted on selected items, and t-tests were undertaken on all imagery use items to examine differences in responses between dance teachers, figure skating coaches, and soccer coaches. Variables were then selected on the basis of the correlation analyses and t-tests for inclusion in a discriminant function analysis. The purpose of this analysis was to reveal on which variables in the questionnaire the groups were most distinctly different. The results indicated that on several variables (use of kinesthetic imagery, metaphorical imagery) there were significant differences in the manner in which dance teachers, figure skating coaches, and soccer coaches used mental imagery.
Imagery has been proposed to be an effective strategy for controlling levels of competitive anxiety, but little b known about how imagery functions to achieve this. This study explored the relationship between imagery use. imagery ability. competitive anxiety and performance. Fifty-seven Junior North American Roller Skating Championship competitors completed the revised Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ-R), the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory—2 (CSAI-2). Results from stepwise multiple regression analyses revealed visual imagery ability and motivational arousal imagery to be predictors of cognitive state anxiety. Visual imagery ability also predicted somatic state anxiety. while motivational mastery imagery was a predictor of self-confidence. With respect to the relationship between imagery use and imagery ability, high imagery ability was associated with higher imagery use. Finally, self-confidence and kinesthetic imagery ability scores correctly classified a majority of the subjects as medalists versus non-medalists. These results suggest that imagery can be used to help control competitive anxiety levels and enhance self-confidence.
Discusses the development and implementation of a performance enhancement program for a major college football team that used imagery training techniques in conjunction with a process-oriented approach to performance. Data on the individual players' game grades, their evaluation of the enhancement program, and their strategy for reaching an optimal mental state were collected. 86% of the starters evaluated the program's overall value to the team as being significant. Multiple regression analyses were used to predict starters' game grades and consistency ratings from the athletes' preparation and performance (readiness) strategies. Details of the imagery training procedures and other enhancement techniques are included. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research examining imagery use by athletes is reviewed within the context of an applied model for sport. The model conceptualizes the sport situation, the type of imagery used, and imagery ability as factors that influence how imagery use can affect an athlete. Three broad categories of imagery effects are examined: (a) skill and strategy learning and performance, (b) cognitive modification, and (c) arousal and anxiety regulation. Recommendations are offered for the operationalization and measurement of constructs within the model, and suggestions are provided for how the model may guide future research and application. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compared the hypothesis that positive mood is the main active component of imagery effectiveness with the alternative hypothesis that the content of the mental image is an important component of its effectiveness. In Exp 1, 52 males (aged 18–30 yrs) used task relevant imagery, task irrelevant imagery, or a distraction control procedure before performing an analog task. Ss in the task relevant condition showed significantly greater improvements over baseline. Exp 2 involved 142 males (aged 15–30 yrs) and included assessment of mood state following psyching up. Again the task relevant group showed significantly greater improvements, which were not related to mood states. Content of mental imagery was crucial in determining its effect on performance. The effect does not appear to depend on alterations of mood state and may operate through cognitive preparation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Assigned 120 undergraduates to 1 of 3 conditions: mastery imagery plus feedback, feedback alone, or control condition. Ss also completed background, self-efficacy, and postexperimental questionnaires. Ss in the imagery-plus-feedback condition were told that one of the pair (always the S) would receive imagery exposure while the other (always the confederate) would wait outside. Ss performed 2 trials against the confederate, who always won by 10 sec. Results show a significant increase for the imagery group after brief exposure. Imagery Ss had significantly higher efficacy scores than feedback alone or control Ss after each performance trial. Imagery Ss initially had significantly longer performance times than did feedback alone or control Ss. Performance feedback alone did not influence efficacy beliefs or performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Determined whether Ss who used mental imagery would spend more time practicing a golf putting task and would have higher task specific self-efficacy than would controls. 39 beginner golfers were assigned to either an imagery treatment condition (performance plus outcome imagery or performance imagery) or a no imagery (control) condition. During the first 3 sessions all Ss were taught how to putt a golf ball. Imagery treatment Ss also participated in an imagery training program designed for the golf putting task. Ss in the performance imagery group spent significantly more time practicing the golf putting task than did controls. Ss who used imagery also set higher goals for themselves, had more realistic self-expectations, and adhered more to their training programs outside of the lab. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A male gymnast who had represented his country in Olympic gymnastics and had developed a maladaptive mental approach to performing on the pommelled horse in competition was given stress inoculation training in order to help him overcome his difficulties. Preliminary interviews revealed that immediately before competing he became very tense, his arms started to shake and he had doubts about being able to complete his routine. In addition, he was unable to use visualization, a technique which he used for mental preparation on the other five pieces of apparatus in Olympic gymnastics competitions. Further interviews also strongly suggested that the subject had developed an unconscious set of negative self-statements. An intervention programme comprising 12 sessions of training in relaxation, visualization and making positive self-statements was implemented. Recorded interviews and comments made by the subject on completion of the training indicated that the programme had been successful. For many years the subject had experienced problems performing on the pommelled horse and he had frequently suffered falls in competition. Towards the end of the stress management training programme his performance began to improve. He also became more confident and he used his stress coping skills in competition. In the National Championships he was able to relax, visualize his routine and make positive self-statements. Shortly after this competition he successfully completed his routine to a high standard without any falls to win the individual title in the Midlands Regional Championships. In a subsequent international match he again successfully performed his routine to a high standard.
The authors present a conceptual model of coaching efficacy and develop a reliable and valid instrument to measure the concept and to examine its hypothesized sources and outcomes. Coaching efficacy is defined as the extent to which coaches believe they have the capacity to affect the learning and performance of their athletes. Using high school coaches, confirmatory factor analysis supported 4 dimensions of the Coaching Efficacy Scale: game strategy, motivation, teaching technique, and character building. Marginal support was also found for 1 general coaching efficacy factor that explained the correlations among the 4 first-order factors. Using a separate sample of high school basketball coaches, coaching efficacy was predicted by a coach's past success, coaching experience, perceived player talent, and social support. In turn, coaching efficacy predicted coaching behavior, player satisfaction, and current success. Results establish preliminary support for the conceptual model of coaching efficacy. (P
Thesis (M.E.)--Michigan State University. Dept. of Physical Education and Exercise Science, 1996. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 145-152).
Anecdotal and research evidence suggest that imagery rehearsal can improve performance in a variety of sports activities at least some of the time. However, the reasons for the effects (or lack of them) are unclear. This paper proposes a conceptual framework that could be used to evaluate the available research literature and guide further research on the use of imagery techniques to modify performance. The framework is based on evidence that imagery mediates behaviour through either cognitive or motivational mechanisms, which affect specific or general response systems. Special emphasis is given to task analysis and the functions of memory and verbal mechanisms in imagery rehearsal.
Visualization: What you see is what you get [Videotape]. (Available from the Coaching Association of Canada
- C Botterill
- T Orlick
Botterill, C., & Orlick, T. (Producers). (1988). Visualization: What you see is what you get
[Videotape]. (Available from the Coaching Association of Canada, 1600 James Naismith
Drive, Gloucester, ON K1B 5N4 Canada).
Mistakes worth making: How to turn sports errors into athletic excellence
- S H Brown
Brown, S.H. (2003). Mistakes worth making: How to turn sports errors into athletic excellence. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Introduction to motor behavior: A neuropsychological approach
- G Sage
Sage, G. (1977). Introduction to motor behavior: A neuropsychological approach (2 nd ed.).
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
The relationship between personal and sportrelated coaching characteristics and coaching confi dence
- S E Short
- L Ross-Stewart
Short, S.E., & Ross-Stewart, L. (2005). The relationship between personal and sportrelated coaching characteristics and coaching confi dence. Manuscript submitted for
publication.
How coaches use imagery
- S E Short
- G B Ulland
Short, S.E., & Ulland, G.B. (2005). How coaches use imagery. Manuscript in preparation.
The relationship between cognitive anxiety and imagery use
- E A Vadocz
- C R Hall
- S E Moritz
Vadocz, E.A., Hall, C.R., & Moritz, S.E. (1997). The relationship between cognitive anxiety
and imagery use. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, 241-253.
Coachesʼ and athletesʼ perceptions of effi cacy-enhancing techniques
- T M Vargas-Tonsing
- N D Myers
- D L Feltz
Vargas-Tonsing, T.M, Myers, N.D, & Feltz, D.L. (2004). Coachesʼ and athletesʼ perceptions
of effi cacy-enhancing techniques. The Sport Psychologist, 18, 341-349.
Manuscript submitted: March 23, 2005
Revision received: August 29, 2005