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INTRODUCTION
The Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus), has been
introduced successfully to 6 countries from their
native range of India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh
(Long 1981). Peafowl were liberated into New
Zealand a number of times. Peafowl were rst
brought to New Zealand in 1842 by Mr. Petrie
(Long 1981) and then by acclimatisation societies
and individuals (Lamb 1964). Peafowl came from
Britain in 1842 or 1843, from India in 1854, and
other locations (Long 1981). Peafowl were rst
released onto Kawau I by Governor George Grey in
the 1860s (Long 1981; Heather & Robertson 1996).
Some releases of peafowl in New Zealand
were successful and feral populations are now
established on the Mahia Peninsula, and the upper
Wanganui River (Fleming 1947). Populations also
appear established on the south head of the Kaipara
Harbour, Pouto Lakes, Kaiwaka, Kawakawa Bay and
the western Hauraki Gulf, Whakapirau, and Waipu
Caves (unpubl. data). The range of the peafowl has
expanded during the past 30 years (Robertson et al.
2007), but populations remain precarious because
they are easily controlled (Marchant & Higgens
1993) and they have relatively low reproductive
rates (Johnsingh & Murali 1978; Galusha & English
1999). Wild and feral peafowl are generally secretive
but individuals can become tame when in contact
with humans (Sharma 1979; Marchant & Higgens
1993).
The birds liberated onto Kawau I by Grey died
out between 1886 (Colgan 1980) and 1923 (Wilson
1980) and the current population was introduced
between 1958 and 1989 (R. Mohring & J. Cook, pers.
comm.). Peafowl occupied an area of open parkland
(2.5 ha) and surrounding pine (Pinus spp.) forest.
The parkland comprises trees that are protected
from grazing by introduced dama wallaby (Macropus
eugenii), parma wallaby (M. parma) and swamp
Notornis, 2013, Vol. 60: 224-232
0029-4470 © The Ornithological Society of New Zealand, Inc.
Received 2 Sep 2011; accepted 20 Nov 2012
Correspondence: tbeauchamp@doc.govt.nz
Breeding and behaviour records of peafowl (Pavo cristatus) at Mansion
House Historic Reserve, Kawau Island, New Zealand, 1992-2010
A .J. BEAUCHAMP, 17 Bellbird Ave, Onerahi, Whangarei, New Zealand
Abstract Information was collected from a small population of peafowl living in Mansion House Historic Reserve,
Kawau Island, from 1995 to 2010. Peacocks used an exploded lek breeding system, and displayed at areas where human
and natural foods occurred. Mating took place between late Sep and mid Dec. Breeding was successful in the presence
of a substantial North Island weka (Gallirallus australis greyi) population. An average of 1.4 (SE = 0.6, n = 10) young were
edged per successful clutch. In the winter of 2004, all peahens disappeared and the population thereafter comprised
only males. Despite the absence of females, peacocks continued to display for 5 years after all peahens were lost. The
breeding biology of this introduced population appears to be similar to that in their native range.
Beauchamp, A.J. 2013. Breeding and behaviour records of peafowl (Pavo cristatus) at Mansion House Historic Reserve,
Kawau Island, New Zealand, 1992-2010. Notornis 60 (3): 224-232.
Keywords Peafowl; Pavo cristatus; wallaby; Kawau Island; introduced population
225
wallaby (Wallabia bicolor), as well as indigenous
trees that are unpalatable to wallabies.
The only potential predators of peafowl eggs
and young chicks on Kawau I are stoats (Mustela
erminea), Australasian harrier (Circus approximans)
and North Island weka (Gallirallus australis greyi).
During the course of this study from 1992-2009,
ship rats (Raus raus) were also common. Weka
were present in the same area as the peafowl and
the population was estimated to be between 10 and
20 pairs (Beauchamp & Chambers 2000; unpubl.
data).
This study reports on some aspects of the
breeding biology and breeding performance of the
introduced peafowl population living on Kawau
I. I also compare some aspects of their breeding
biology with other populations in New Zealand
and elsewhere.
METHODS
I collected information on the small population of
between 2 and 14 peafowl using the Mansion House
Historic Reserve gardens (Fig. 1) and surrounds
(22 ha) between Sep 1992 and Dec 2009 while
undertaking a more extensive study of North Island
weka within the same area (Beauchamp et al. 2000;
unpubl. data.). Observations took place throughout
the year but were limited to short (median 2, range
7 days) trips.
Between 1992 and 2001, I noted which peafowl
were present, collated data about the management
that had been undertaken in the population, and
gathered data on breeding performance and moult.
Breeding activity was dened by the absence of a
peahen at the roost site. From the 2001-02 breeding
season, I noted the temporal behaviour paerns at
display sites, the trees that peafowl roosted in and
the times that peafowl roosted and descended from
trees. All the peahens, a juvenile and 3 peacocks
disappeared in winter 2004. From Aug 2006 to Dec
2010, I recorded the location and rst behaviour of
the 3 remaining peacocks when I encountered them
and if possible what they were feeding on. Peacocks
were scored as feeding when the number of pecks
exceeded the number of steps. If steps exceeded
pecks the bird was scored as walking. Peacocks
were scored as standing when they stood still and
undertook no other behaviour besides calling,
but were resting if their feet were tucked under
and they were siing on the ground or on a fence.
Peacocks were scored as preening if their bills were
being run trough feathers and no distinction was
made between birds that were doing this standing
or resting. Peacocks were displaying when the tail
coverts were raised.
The gap between observations were at least 10
minutes and up to 4 hours and the breeding season
was dened by male display activity. Peacock
behaviour data was collected evenly throughout
daylight hours (ANOVA F1,6 = 2.56, P = 0.162),
and in proportion to the time spent collecting it
during the breeding (n = 431 h) and non-breeding
season (n = 359 h; χ² = 3.18, df = 2, P > 0.05). The core
Fig. 1. Peacock display
areas and roost trees
in the Mansion House
Historic Reserve, Kawau
I. Display areas were: 1,
workshop courtyard; 2,
tea room’s courtyard;
3, barbeque; 4, beach; 5
& 6, orchard; 7, central
valley; 8, pagoda and 9,
four track junction.
Breeding and behaviour of peacocks
226
breeding areas of each peacock were calculated as
the minimum polygon enclosing the display sites
used each breeding season.
Individual peahens were not able to be
distinguished, and young could only be identied
individually from their second year using neck
plumage. All peacocks (n = 6) had feather colour
paerns that made them recognisable at c. 200 m.
One peacock was an autosomal recessive white (from
a cohort before 1987). Two others were heterozygotes
(Marchant & Higgens 1993) and had white chins
and other white feathers. One individual lacked
his right middle front toe (from a cohort hatched
in 1989). Three males lacked any white feathers or
distinguishing markings but never occurred together
as adults during the study period (from cohorts in, c.
1989, 1999 & 2002). The 6 males are referred to here
as: “White”, “Three-toes”, “Two-toes”, “Old male”
“Bright Male” and “Solo”, respectively.
RESULTS
Nocturnal roosting and roost sites
Peafowl ew to trees on average 12.5 min (SE = 1.17,
range = -5 - 30, n = 42) after sunset and reached their
roost sites within 5 minutes. Peafowl only ew to
trees before sunset on wet and heavily overcast
evenings. First ights were at c. 45 degrees to
substantial side branches and then more limited
ights up to well used sites. The initial ights were
to branches 4.9 - 9.1 m high, and the nal roost sites
averaged 12.3 m (range 8 -15.2 m) high (n = 5).
All non-breeding peahens and young < 2 years
old roosted in a pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa)
adjacent to the workshop at heights between 7 m
and 19 m. This roost was observed in use repeatedly
between 1995 and 2004. They deserted this site in
2000 for 2 months after a peacock and 2 peahens
were shot at the roost site (B. Lumas, pers. comm.).
Incubating peahens stayed on their nests at night.
Peahens with young chicks roosted away from the
other peafowl in trees that were apparently easier for
their young to climb. One peahen used a camphor
tree (Cinnamonum camphora), and ascended it after
her chick had scaled the tree using its feet and wing
claws.
Mature peacocks either roosted in the same tree
with peahens and young, with another peacock, or
alone (Table 1). Peacocks used the same site over
an average of 3.4 years (SE = 0.63 , n = 10) between
Table 1. Trees used by peafowl for roosting and calling during the breeding season.
Breeding
season
Bunya-
bunya
Moreton
Bay g
Yellow
pohutu-
kawa
Tea Rooms
pohutu-
kawa
Workshop
pohutu-
kawa
Pagoda
lower
pine
Pagoda
upper
pine
Grey’s
slope
pine
Four
track
junction
pine
Palms
1997-98 - - -
Two toes,
Three toes
& White
Peahens
and
juveniles
- - - - -
2001-02 White Three-
toes -Old male &
Two toes
Bright2,
peahens &
juveniles
- - - - -
2002-03 White Three-
toes White1
Old male,
Two toes &
Bright
Solo2,
Peahens &
juveniles
- - - - -
2003-04 - Three-
toes -
Old male,
Two toes &
Solo2
Peahens &
juveniles White - - - -
2004-05 - - - Solo Two toes White - - - -
2005-06 - - - Solo Two toes White - - - -
2006-07 - - - Solo Two toes White - - - -
2007-08 - - - Solo Two toes White - Two
toes - -
2008-09 - - - Solo - White - Two
toes
Two
toes Solo1
2009-10 - - - - - - Solo - Two
toes -
2010-11 - - - Solo - - Solo - Two
toes -
1 moved to site after displacement.
2 immature males in third year.
Beauchamp
227
2001 and 2011. All sites were generally used in the
breeding and non-breeding season. In the 2006-07
breeding season Two toes roosted at the workshop.
From Jan 2007 he mixed his roosting between the
workshop and the Grey’s slope pine site, and then
used both sites in the 2007-08 breeding season. In the
2008-09 breeding season he roosted and called from
the Grey’s slope pine site alone. Generally peacocks
only deserted sites completely when they were
damaged or when something unusual happened at
the site or the only user of that site died. For example,
White deserted the bunya pine (Araucaria bidwillii)
after he crashed to the ground one evening (B.
Saunders. pers. comm.), Solo left his roost tree when
pursued by a tui (Prosthemadera novaeseelandiae)
and morepork (Ninox novaeseelandiae) that were
defending their young near his roost site, and Two-
toes left his tree after the branch that he used during
his ascent was cut. Solo investigated at least 3 sites
before returning to the Tea Rooms pohutukawa and
then moved about these sites.
Start of diurnal activity
Diurnal activity commenced when the peacocks
descended their trees on average 64 min (range 34 –
120, n = 16) min after sunrise in late-Sep – late-Dec
and on average 17 min (range 14 - 23 min, n = 7)
after sunrise in Apr – mid-Sep. Peahens and young
left the roosts before peacocks in summer but at
the same time as males at other times. Peacocks
glided down from the trees onto open ground over
distances of 30 - 50 m (n = 17). All peacocks typically
glided from their roost directly into their core areas.
The exception was Two toes from Nov 2006, who
roosted 90 m from his display area and walked to
it. The area became core in 2010 where he began
to display and call 20 m from the roost. Peacocks
were observed more frequently in the core breeding
areas during the breeding period (Fig. 2, χ² = 16.135,
df = 1, P < 0.001).
Foraging
Most intensive foraging took place in the rst hour
after birds decended from their nocturnal roosts
and the 2 hours before evening roosting (Fig. 3).
Foraging records at random encounters found
that peacocks foraged predominantly on Hydrocotyle
spp., which was the predominant pasture plant
(54%, n = 134), fallen owers and fruit of tree privet
(Ligustrum lucidum, 2%), fruit of Moreton Bay gs
(Ficus macrophylla, 19%) and Port Jackson gs (F.
rubiginosa, 1%), brush cherry (Syzygium australe,
7%), and boneseed (Chrysanthemoides monilifera, 0.7
%). Cicadas (Amphipsalta zealandica) were taken from
low shrubs (0.7 %). Peacocks moved to and from
fruit sources, by going around rather than through
the immediate connes of other male’s display
areas. Moreton Bay gs were abundant between
Sep and Nov (unpubl. data) and foraging bouts at
this time lasted less than 10 minutes. Most fruit and
ower parts were gathered from the ground but
bone seed, Agapanthus owers (0.7%), and sweet
pea shrub (Polygala myrtifolia) owers (1.4%) were
gathered from the bushes.
The Mansion House Bay anchorage was used
by 5 - 130 pleasure craft daily and the wharf was
used c. 10 times a day by ferries and water taxis.
The ferry-based visitors were present between
1100 h and 1630 h and peaked at c. 500 people per
day. Between Aug 2006 and Dec 2010, 10% of the
feeding records of peacocks comprised human
supplementary feeding.
During the Oct to late Dec display period, mature
peacocks stayed within their display regions from
either the time they descended from their trees, or
Fig. 2. The percent of time that mature peacocks were
scored in their core display zones during the breeding
season and the non-breeding season during Aug 2006 –
Dec 2010 at Mansion House, Kawau I.
Breeding and behaviour of peacocks
228
after a 10 - 30 minute feeding bout, until c. 2 hours
before sunset (Fig. 2). During the breeding season
peacocks fed less frequently in the morning (χ² =
10.7, df = 1, P < 0.01), spent more time standing (χ²
= 10.42, df = 1, P < 0.01), resting (χ² = 9.14, df = 1, P
< 0.01) and displaying (χ² = 23.61, df = 1, P < 0.001),
and less time walking (χ² = 5.62, df = 1, P < 0.02) than
later in the day. Outside of the breeding season the
time spent walking (χ² = 0.06, df = 1, P > 0.05) and
resting (χ² = 3.52, df = 1, P > 0.05) was not signicantly
dierent between the morning and afternoon, while
the time spent standing in the morning (χ² = 8.08, df =
1, P < 0.01) and feeding in the afternoon (χ² = 21.46, df
= 1, P < 0.001) were still signicantly greater.
After the display period ended peacocks moved
between sites and foraged with other peacocks. Twice
during this time in late Dec 2006, Solo and Two-toes
moved from foraging to a fast parallel walk with
slightly pued necks, 3 m apart through areas not
used for display, and over a distance of 120 m.
Display and breeding success
The earliest dates that tail displays were seen were
24 Sep 1994 (3 peacocks displaying) and 23 Sep 2006
(1 peacock displaying) and displays continued until
mid Dec in all years. Tail fan displays took place
within 10 minutes of descent from trees and peaked
mid morning (Fig. 5). They lasted on average for 5.4
minutes (SD = 6.4, n = 45).
Peacocks retained display areas for period
exceeding 10 years (Table 2). The overall area used
by the population for displaying remained constant
throughout the study until 2010 (2.28 ha), but the use
of each display site by individual peacocks diered
(Table 2). Between 2002 and 2005 most peacocks
used only one site (mean = 1.2, SE, = 0.1, n = 16) of
0.015 ha for display. Two-toes used the workshop
courtyard, the White male the citrus orchard and
longer grass margin behind Mansion House, Three-
toes used the pagoda, and the Old male used the tea
room’s roof and courtyard (Fig. 1).
In 2005, Solo took over the tea room’s courtyard
and retained the Pagoda (0.17 ha core area) and
White used the barbeque and retained use of the
Mansion House orchard and garden (core area 0.21
ha). In 2006, Two-toes added the central valley to his
display sites (core area 0.31 ha), and White added
the beach (core area 0.38 ha). In 2007 Solo expanded
his display area to include the pagoda (core area
0.21 ha; Fig. 1; Table 2). In 2010, after White was
killed by a dog, Solo expanded his core area to 5
display sites adding the back of Mansion House,
orchard and beach (core area 0.85 ha); and Two toes
used 3 sites including Four Track Junction (core
area 0.48 ha) which was near his roost and outside
the previous population display area.
The display sites were out of visual contact,
but within call range of each other, and peahens
visited the sites as a group. In the last 2 hours of
daylight peacocks left their display sites to forage,
and sometimes displayed at sites were females were
being fed by visitors. After 2004 when peahens
were absent, peacocks continued train displays at
their principal display and these food sites (Table 2).
They directed displays at paradise shelducks, mixed
grey/mallard ducks, weka and house sparrows
(Passer domesticus).
No copulations were seen. Nests of 5 and 6
eggs were found on 30 Nov 1996 and 14 Nov 1997,
respectively. The 1996 nest was 20 m from White’s
principal display site in dense tall (0.6 m high)
kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) in the orchard
area of the Mansion House fenced garden. The
1997 nest was 150 m from the display region in 30
cm high kikuyu on the top of a road cuing (1.8 m
high) in pine forest (Fig. 1).
Newly hatched peafowl chicks were seen between
mid-Oct and mid-Jan. Twenty three chicks (mean =
2.2, SE = 0.4 , n = 12 ) were seen in 8 of the 12 seasons
Fig. 3. Day time, non-roost site peacock behavior (Aug
2006 – Dec 2010): A, in the breeding season; and B, in the
non breeding season at Mansion House Historic Reserve.
Early morning = 2 hours from sunrise; morning = from 2
hours after sunrise to mid day; afternoon = from mid day
until 2 hours before sunset and evening = 2 hours before
sunset to sunset.
Beauchamp
229
that peahens were present, and 14 young were raised
during 7 of these seasons (Table 3). Breeding failed or
was not aempted in the dry springs and summers
of 1992, 1994, 1995 and 2001. All pre-edgling losses
took place within a month of chick appearance. The
tails of chicks were obvious at 4 months old and
when chicks were a third adult size (n = 3 clutches).
All young neared adult size at 8 months old and the
plumage in their rst year resembled peahens. In the
second year male young had more coloured throats
and fore-necks. Four peahens, 7 peacocks and 3
young of unknown sex were raised to 9 months or
more, and there was no evidence of a biased sex ratio
(χ² = 0.82, df = 1, P > 0.05). The age that peahens rst
breed was not determined. Peacocks left the group
of females and young and practiced tail displaying
at 3 years old, and mastered adult vocal and train
displaying at 6 years old.
Table 2. Display sites used by mature peacocks, Mansion House, Kawau I. Bold indicates areas where peacocks spent
the non-display period of daytime during the breeding period.
Breeding
season Workshop Tea
Rooms
Barbeque
& Fig
Front
Beach
Mansion
back door
Mansion
Orchard
Camphor
Tree Pagoda Four track
junction
Fig. 1 number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2001-02 Two toes Old male - - - White Two toes Three toes -
2002-03 Two toes Old male Old male - - White -Three toes -
2003-04 Two toes Old male Old male - White White -Three toes -
2004-05 Two toes Solo White White - White - - -
2005-06 Two toes Solo White White - White - - -
2006-07 Two toes Solo - White - White Two toes - -
2007-08 Two toes Solo -White White White - Solo -
2008-09 Two toes Solo - - White White - Solo -
2009-10 Two toes Solo - - Solo Solo Two toes Solo -
2010-11 Two toes Solo - Solo Solo Solo Two toes Solo Two toes
Table 3. Population size and breeding performance of the peafowl population at Mansion House Historic Reserve.
Breeding
season
Cocks
>2 years
old
Hens
>2 year
old
Hens
assumed to
have laid*
Hens
with
young
No. young/
clutch with hens
at < 14 days old
Male young
reared to >9
months
Female
young reared
to >9 months
Unsexed
young raised
to 9 months¹
1992-93 6 4 1 0 0 0 0 0
1993-94 6 4 1 1 2 0 0 0
1994-95 6 4 1 0 0 0 0 0
1995-96 6 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
1996-97 5232, 3 3 3 4 & 1 & 1 0 3 0
1997-98 5 3 4 2 1 & 1 1 0 0
1998-99 5 6 2 2 1 & 2 1 0 0
1999-00 5 6 2 1 3 1 0 2
2000-01 34442 2 3 2 1 0
2001-02 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0
2002-03 5 4 2 2 5 2 0 0
2003-04 6 4 2 2 1 & 3 0 0 1
2004-05 3505- - - - - -
Mean, se 5, 0.3 4.2, 0.3 1.6, 0.3 1.3, 0.3 2.2, 0.4 0.6, 0.2 0.3, 0.3 0.3, 0.2
* absence from roost trees indicating nesting (Galusha & English 1999); 1, young were caught and removed before they could be sexed; 2, cull and transfer of
older birds caused change in roost site; 3, peahen killed due to head and eye injury; 4, progressive capture and removal to lower numbers; 5, loss of 3 peacocks,
4 peahens and 1 juvenile.
Breeding and behaviour of peacocks
230
Moult
Peacocks started to moult feathers in their crest in
Dec and displays ceased in late Dec, a week before
the moult of the rst tail overcoverts (train). The
earliest that a mature peacock moulted his tail train
was 30 Dec and in all seasons the mature peacocks
lost the display feathers of their train before 18
Jan. Many feathers were discarded by roosting
peacocks at night. The last proximal eye feathers
were lost in early Apr. All other major body tracts
and the remiges commenced moult with train loss,
and head crest and body plumage replacement
continued until Jun. Preening was signicantly
more frequent in the non-breeding season (Fig.
3, χ² = 24.9, df = 1 P < 0.001). In mid Jul 2007, all 3
peacock's tail overcoverts were approximately 400
mm short of maximum length (based on a retained
feather on Solo's train) and maximum length was
obtained by early Sep.
DISCUSSION
This study reports on an introduced and relatively
tame peafowl population in a parkland habitat. The
small population bred at a low rate in the presence
of a weka population and despite living in a habitat
that is highly modied by wallabies. The population
was culled periodically to control its expansion,
and this provided means of examining how this
impacted on the distribution and behaviour of
individuals. Peacocks were remarkably stable in the
locations that they roosted and displayed within.
They continued to display 5 years after all peahens
were removed and showed no indication of moving
to nd peahens. The period of display and moult
remained unchanged.
Peacocks are exible in the way they use space,
and reach far greater densities in forested areas
of India than in drier rural parts (Yasmin 1997;
Veeramani & Sathyanarayana 1999). Wild forest
dwelling peafowl in India forage and drink most
actively at dawn and dusk (Avi & Ripley 1980;
Veeramani & Sathyanarayana 1999). They tend to
move about in ocks, as ocking allows greater
foraging due to shared vigilance for threats (Yasmin
& Yahya 2000).
Detailed time-budget studies of 3 wild peacocks
lacking human interaction during the breeding
season on Protection I (Galusha & Hill 1996) was
generally consistent with that found at Mansion
House. Standing and display were more frequent
in the morning and feeding and walking took
place more in the evening. Peahens that were not
breeding fed for the rst hour and then moved
between peacock display sites, alternating between
feeding, preening, siing and standing. They spent
the last 2 hours before sunset feeding (Galusha &
English 1999). Peahen dominance hierarchies, seen
in other populations (Galusha & English 1999) were
not obvious at Mansion House.
In India, peafowl spend the heat of the day
in thickets and peahens often place their nests in
these areas (Avi & Ripley 1980). On Kawau Island,
peafowl often roosted under verandas and on roofs
in shade, in the more undisturbed locations but still
near people.
On Protection I all of the peafowl roosted in a
number of dierent trees during the breeding season
(Galusha & Hill 1996; Galusha & English 1999). At
Mansion House the peafowl showed greater night
roost site delity. The peahen group used the same
tree between at least 1991 and 2004, and the males
returned to the same tree for many years. At many
other locations peafowl also use tall trees for roosting
(Avi & Ripley 1980; Veermani & Sathyanarayana
1999) and where predators were present, like large
cats, these trees had thorny undergrowth and climber
thickets (Trivedi & Johnsingh 1996). At Mansion
House most of the trees chosen had limited under-
storeys, lacked climbers, and had large side branches
Fig. 4. Peacock tail fan display
times (Sep 2006 – Dec 2010) at
Mansion House Historic Reserve.
Beauchamp
231
and expansive crowns and the peacocks roosted in
the mid to upper branches. However, a temporary
site used by Solo immediately after displacement
from his normal sites was placed over Indian date
palms (Phoenix rupicola) with thorns. At Kawakawa
Bay, Auckland, peafowl roost in kanuka (Kunzea
ericoides) less than 5 m from the ground (unpubl.
data).
The breeding season and dispersion of birds
appears to be adjusted to climatic conditions. In
the Kurukshetra district of Haryana, India, display
occurred during the pre-monsoon period in mid
May to late Jun. Egg laying took place from late Jul
to mid Aug and the rst young were seen in mid
Sep, long after display ceased. There was evidence
of peacocks displaying in leks, as well as male female
pairings and nest building (Chopra & Kumar 2010).
At the Izu Caus Park at Shizuoka, Japan, peacocks
displayed in leks between Apr and Jun, and laying
took place after late Jun, during the rainy season
(Takahashi & Hasegawa 2008). On the temperate
Protection I, Washington, USA, in a mixed forest
and meadow area of 4.8 ha, 3 peacocks had single
display areas of a few square metres and a home
range system with a combined peacock and peahen
loang area, but no overlap in foraging zones
(Galusha & Hill 1996). The breeding season there
was Feb - Jun and the rst clutches were laid in Apr
(Galusha & Redd 1982). The timing of the display
and lying period was similar to that on Kawau I,
where the appearance of young overlapped the
display period, and young were generally present
during peak invertebrate and fruit availability in
summer and autumn.
At Nuncham Courtney, England, 4 previously
gregarious adult peacocks established fully defended
territories at the start of the breeding season and
defended them against other mature males. The
central and smaller territories were considered
to be the beer placed and more defendable, and
displacement of a male occurred after a ght. The
largest territory was peripheral and held by a newly
mature male (Rands et al. 1984).
During this study the peacock population on
Kawau I was repeatedly disrupted by removal of
individuals, but the birds maintained the same
display sites over time. Peacocks stayed at display
sites during the morning and early afternoon, and
seldom did another mature peacock approach
them. However, when this occurred the intruder
was driven away. In the mid afternoon, looping and
foraging areas were used in common and peacocks
often foraged gregariously in the evening. Parallel
walking took place between 2 males then but did
not appear to be directed at dening a boundary.
Nest locations in India are often within grass
below thorn bushes (Chopra & Kumar 2010). On
Kawau I, peahen used the tracks near the extensive
thickets on the southern ridgeline which included
shrub pea (Polygala myrtifolia), lantana (Lantana
camara) and dense agapanthus (Agapanthus praecox)
but were never seen within the thickest areas. The
2 peafowl nests located at Mansion House Historic
Reserve were both within the only moderately high
kikuyu, and were placed in shorter grass than those
found on Protection I (Galusha & English 1999). No
other nest sites were found during extensive coverage
of the 22 ha area surrounding the display zones.
On Protection I females were absent from roost
sites once incubation began and spent only 5%
of the daylight foraging in 1 or 2 feeding periods
(Galusha & English 1999). At Mansion House
the peahen absence at roosting sites was used to
dene breeding aempts. New chicks appeared
between late Oct and mid Jan (c. 70 days) indicating
successful mating took place from late Sep to Dec
(Avi & Ripley 1980; Galusha & English 1999). The
breeding season duration was similar to that at
Tanil Nadu, and other places in India (Avi & Ripley
1980; Subramanian et al. 2001) and on Protection I
(Galusha & Hill 1996).
Peahens are reported to incubate from the last
egg of what can be a 5 – 10 egg clutch and desert their
nests after 1-2 days when only part of the clutch had
hatched (Johnsingh & Murali 1978). Consequently,
the small 1 - 4 chicks per clutch less than 14 days old
seen with females on Kawau I, and the subsequent
raising of 2 young maximum per female is not
unusual (Galusha & English 1999). The breeding
success seen at Mansion House in 1992 - 2003 (average
1.4 young per season), exceeded that on Protection
I in 1980 (none of 19 chicks; Galusha & McGinley-
Redd 1992), and 1998 (Galusha & English 1999). On
Protection I, peafowl left weak chicks behind when
they had stronger young (Galusha & English 1999).
The complete failure of breeding was more likely
to be due to avian predators and poor quantity of
arthropod foods. At Mansion House peafowl eggs
left after females deserted eggs were taken by weka.
Weka were seen with young peafowl chicks but it
was unknown if these were taken as healthy chicks or
were deserted by peahens (B. McKenzie, pers. comm.).
There was no evidence that the highly modied
environment caused by wallabies led to poor peahen
condition at mating and favoured female embryos
(Pike & Petrie 2005).
The lek breeding system of peafowl has had
much aention (Petrie et al. 1996; Pike & Petrie
2005; Loyau et al. 2005a; Roberts et al. 2006). In some
populations, peacocks display in visual contact with
each other (Petrie et al. 1999; Loyau et al. 2005b) while
in others they are only in vocal contact (Galusha &
Hill 1996). Release experiments have found that
closely related peacocks appear to recognise each
other and form kin groups at these display sites
which is independent of their upbringing (Petrie et
Breeding and behaviour of peacocks
232
al. 1999). Removal experiments have also shown that
peacocks favour displaying in sites where peahens
forage (Loyau et al. 2005b, 2007).
At Mansion House the peacocks used the vocal
contact display strategy described as an ‘exploded
lek’ (Galusha & Hill 1996). All sites chosen by
peacocks in the Mansion House gardens were
those where human food supplements were most
available, and 1 site was near the remaining area of
long grass favoured by females as a nest site. No
site appeared to provide greater overall access to
food and when peacocks were removed from any
site, there was site expansion but former display
sites were not deserted.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank the sta on Kawau I, who provided information
on breeding and maintained constant patience while
cleaning up of the decks and paths after peacocks. Barbara
McKenzie and Vic Saunders, Robin Mohring and Geo
Cook are thanked for historic information. Andrew
Townsend, and an anonymous reviewer are thanked for
constructive comments on drafts of this paper.
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Beauchamp
