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FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 1
Promoting Conservation, Research and
Education for the World’s Amphibians
Issue 116 (October 2015)
www.amphibians.org
ISSN: 1026-0269
eISSN: 1817-3934
Volume 23, number 4
FrogLog
REGIONAL EDITION:
ASIA, RUSSIA AND OCEANIA
A calling male Malabar Tree Toad. Photo: Gururaja KV.
Salamanders Lost, Salamanders Found,
Salamanders Saved
Do All Threatened Amphibians Belong
on the Ark?
Mapping the Malabar Tree Toad
And Much More!
2 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
CONTENTS
FrogLog
3 Editorial
NEWS FROM THE ASA & ASG
Recent Publications 51 | Internships & Employment 58 | Funding Opportunities 58 | Author Instructions 61
NEWS FROM ASIA, RUSSIA & OCEANIA
39 Mapping the Malabar Tree Toad—a Citizen Science
Initiative in Conserving an Endangered Toad in the
Western Ghats of India
41 Bridging Gaps between Scientists and Citizens:
Uncovering the World of Frogs and Toads in Honey
Valley, Coorg, Karnataka, India
44 IdenticationofTadpolesofanEndemicGenus
Nyctibatrachus from Central Western Ghats India
46 Rhacophorid Frogs Breeding in Bamboo: Discovery of a
Novel Reproductive Mode from Western Ghats
50 Rapid Decline and Extinction of a Montane Frog
Population in Southern Australia Follows Detection of Bd
16 The Global Ranavirus Reporting System is LIVE!
16 The Third International Symposium on Ranaviruses
17 What Works in Conservation
18 An Update from the Global Ranavirus Consortium
19 Saving Salamanders with Citizen Science
20 Crowdfunding for Chytrid 2.0 (Batrachochytrium
salamandrivorans) in Belgium
21 A Decade on From the Global Amphibian Assessment:
How Have the World’s Zoos Responded?
23 Amphibians and Conservation Breeding Programs: Do
All Threatened Amphibians Belong on the Ark?
27 Lazarus Toads: What Can They Tell Us About Amphibian
Conservation
28 Developing Madagascar’s Amphibian Husbandry
Capacity with Institutional Internships
30 Amphibians in a Changing World: A Global Look at
Their Conservation Status
32 Frog eat Frog
34 Genetic Erosion: Menace for Amphibian Species
Viability?
36 Garden Management Could Help Reduce Amphibian
Disease: Citizen Science in the UK
37 Part One: Within The Public Water Column: Eurycea
sosorum
NEWS FROM THE AMPHIBIAN COMMUNITY
4 Salamanders Lost, Salamanders Found, Salamanders
Saved
6 ASG Chile Leads Update of the Extinction Risk of Chilean
Amphibians for The IUCN Red List of Threatened
SpeciesTM
8 Targeted Habitat Protection and its Effects on the
Extinction Risk of Threatened Amphibians
11 The Disappearing Frogs Project Leaps into Action to
Fund Amphibian Conservation Seed Grants
12 Sex in the Lab: Using a New Technique to Facilitate
Breeding in Tree Frogs
13 Returning From the Brink: Rebounding Amphibian
Populations in a Pathogen Enzootic Environment
14 Where is Calilegua’s Marsupial Frog?
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 3
Please consider the environment before
printing this publication.
Reduce, reuse, recycle.
Editorial Oce
Global Wildlife Conservation
PO Box 129, Austin, TX 78767, USA
froglog@amphibians.org
ASG Secretariat
Phillip J. Bishop
ASG Co-Chair
Ariadne Angulo
ASG Co-Chair
Sally Wren
ASGProgramOfcer
Jos Kielgast
ASGProgramOfcer
Helen Meredith
ASGProgramOfcer
Leida Dos Santos
ASGProgramOfcer
Jennifer Luedtke
Amphibian RLA Coordinator
Editorial
FrogLog Editorial Committee
Candace M. Hansen-Hendrikx
Editor-in-Chief
Craig Hassapakis
Editor
Lindsay Renick Mayer
Editor
FrogLog
Candace M. Hansen-Hendrikx
Editor-in-Chief FrogLog Editorial Board
Phillip J. Bishop
Don Church
Ariadne Angulo
James P. Lewis
Candace M. Hansen-Hendrikx
Dear FrogLoggers,
This nal edition of FrogLog for 2015 truly does meet two of the broad goals laid out
for this magazine. Firstly, this edition shares so many exciting updates that illustrate
the incredible progress being made on all fronts of amphibian conservation. You will
discover how two rare salamander species that were lost to science for nearly 40 years were
not only recently rediscovered, but how the Amphibian Survival Alliance and a consortium of
international groups protected some of their last remaining habitat just in the nick of time. You
will also read how ASG Chile lead the update for the extinction risk for Chilean amphibians
and how this has highlighted a need for local herpetologists to generate data on population
ecology that will contribute to the conservation of these species. In addition to this, you will
discover how art is not just increasing the public’s awareness of the plight of amphibians, but
is also highlighting the opportunities that exist for the public to make a dierence for amphib-
ians. And on the disease front, you will learn about the launch of the new Global Ranavirus
Reporting System, a model for future infectious disease reporting and biosurveillance.
Secondly, this edition highlights some of the key questions that all of us—as amphibian con-
servationists, researchers, educators and enthusiasts alike—should be asking both ourselves
and the community. What are some of the eects of targeted habitat protection on the extinc-
tion risk of Threatened amphibians? It’s been a decade since the Global Amphibian Assessment
so how have the world’s zoos responded? When it comes to amphibian conservation breeding
programs, do all Threatened amphibians belong on the Ark? What can Lazarus Toads tell us
about amphibian conservation? What role can institutional internships play in developing the
amphibian husbandry capacity of a country like Madagascar? How can we bridge the gaps
between scientists and citizens? Can changing garden management practices help reduce am-
phibian diseases?
As you ip through the pages of FrogLog you will see that we have lots of updates and lots
of questions. We hope you enjoy this edition and thank you for making 2015 a fantastic year
for amphibian conservations all around the world and let’s work together to make 2016 even
better!
4 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
NEWS FROM THE ASA AND ASG
Two rare salamander species lost to science for nearly 40
years have not only been recently rediscovered, but the Am-
phibian Survival Alliance and a consortium of international
groups has protected some of the last remaining forest home of the
salamanders just in the nick of time.
Critical habitat of the Finca Chiblac Salamander (Bradytriton silus)
and the Long-limbed Salamander (Nyctanolis pernix) in Guatema-
la’s Cuchumatanes mountain range had been slated for imminent
clearing for coee production.
“The Cuchumatanes mountains are as beautiful as they are di-
verse—from azure waters of secluded lakes to mist-shrouded for-
ests, their magic is enhanced by the rediscovery of long-lost species
and the promise of nding more. To protect this area is to realize
the vision of Carlos Vasquez, Marco Cerezo and other Guatemalans
who have worked tirelessly towards another inspiring conserva-
tion success,” said Robin Moore, conservation ocer for the Am-
phibian Survival Alliance.
In the 1970s, a young Paul Elias and Jeremy Jackson entered the
cloud forests of the Cuchumatanes and discovered two entirely
new salamander species, the Finca Chiblac and Long-limbed Sal-
amanders. These two turned out to be missing links that tied to-
gether the evolutionary tree of New World tropical salamanders.
The salamanders went unseen for more than three decades. Then,
in 2014, Carlos Vasquez, coordinator of the amphibian conservation
program at FUNDAECO, led an international team of scientists that
included Elias and Jackson to the site where he had rediscovered
them more than 30 years later.
“To see this reserve take shape under the imaginative genius of
Carlos Vasquez and partners, and to be able to help that happen in
a small way, is the culmination of a forty year dream for me,” Elias
said. “This incredibly biodiverse cloud forest on the oldest moun-
Salamanders Lost, Salamanders Found, Salamanders
Saved
A Long-limbed Salamander (Nyctanolis pernix) spotted by Jeremy Jackson 38 years
after he last saw the species. Photo: Robin Moore.
The Finca Chiblac Salamander, Bolitoglossa silus, is a monotypic species found only in
the Cuchumatanes mountains. Discovered in 1977, the species went undetected for over
three decades before being rediscovered by Carlos Vasquez. Photo: Hussain Aga Khan.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 5
tain block in Central America is home to the missing-link species
and genera we found there all those years ago. Many other species
of great interest have already been found and many more will fol-
low at this exceptional site.”
Along with the Amphibian Survival Alliance, a number of orga-
nizations came together to purchase the property, called Finca San
Isidro, before it could be cleared for coee production later this
year. Those groups are FUNDAECO, World Land Trust, Global
Wildlife Conservation, Rainforest Trust and the International Con-
servation Fund of Canada. One of the property’s parcels will be
named after philanthropist Andrew Sabin, who has supported the
conservation of amphibians in Guatemala and worldwide.
“The establishment of the San Isidro Amphibian Reserve as the
rst Nature Reserve in the Western Highlands of Guatemala is a
great conservation success,” said Marco Cerezo, executive director
of FUNDAECO, the local NGO that helped identify the 2,000-acre
parcel of land and will oversee management of the property. “It
marks the beginning of a regional eort to support the protection
of forests in the northwest of Guatemala, a region of exceptional
biodiversity. Thanks to all our partners that came together to create
this sanctuary for unique and endangered amphibians.”
Finca San Isidro is home to a treasure trove of amphibian spe-
cies, including the recently discovered Cuchumatan Golden Toad
(Incilius aurarius) and the beautiful Black-eyed Treefrog (Agalychnis
moreletii). Elias and Jackson discovered Jackson’s Climbing Sala-
mander (Bolitoglossa jacksoni) within a few hundred meters of the
reserve. The amphibian has evaded detection for 38 years, making
it one of the world’s Top 10 “Most Wanted” Amphibians. Ten of the
20 amphibian species that live in or near Finca San Isidro are clas-
sied as Critically Endangered or Endangered by the IUCN Red
List. The remoteness of the Cuchumatanes mountain range has
protected much of the forest to date, but increasing pressures from
the coee industry put these forests at risk. Local and international
scientists and conservationists have identied the area as one of the
highest priorities for immediate conservation action.
The Black-eyed Leaf frog, Agalychnis moreletii, is a Critically Endangered frog that breeds
in the pools protected in the new reserve. Photo: Robin Moore.
The Cuchumatan Golden Toad, Incilius aurarius, from the
Cuchumatanes mountains of Guatemala was discovered
and described as recently as 2012. Photo: Robin Moore.
6 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
Twelve years have elapsed since the rst workshop aimed
at assessing the extinction risk of Chilean amphibians oc-
curred, with their resulting classication being published
in The IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM (Universidad de
Concepción, October 2003). Since then, new and dierent lines of
research have contributed additional knowledge for this taxonomic
group (1–4). Much of this work has comprised of updates on dis-
tribution ranges, identication of relevant threats, evaluation of
taxonomic identity and studies on ecological features for several
anuran species inhabiting Chile (salamanders and caecilians are not
present in Chile). There are also newly described endemic species
that have increased the number of species for the country. Given
this and the fact that IUCN Red List assessments have a shelf life
of ten years or less, it was imperative to make eorts to update the
conservation status of Chilean amphibians so that a valid list was
current and useful.
Organized by the Chilean branch of the IUCN SSC Amphibian
Specialist Group (ASG), an assessment process to update the con-
servation status of Chilean amphibians for The IUCN Red List of
Threatened SpeciesTM was initiated in May 2015. The assessment
process followed three steps: 1) compilation of existing published
information, 2) a public consultation period to collect any relevant
information needed for the extinction risk assessment, and 3) an
expert workshop facilitated by two experienced Specialist Group
Chairs and the participation of 19 local herpetologists belonging to
dierent institutions, including academia, NGOs and government
agencies (Fig. 1). The workshop was hosted by the Universidad An-
dres Bello (UNAB), Santiago, Chile, on 9–10 July 2015. The event
was funded by the Outreach Scheme of the Dirección de Extensión
Académica-UNAB, with additional funding kindly provided by the
IUCN Species Survival Commission.
At the time of writing this note, the assessments were being pre-
pared for the next step in the assessment process, an external re-
view on the application of the IUCN Red List methodology based
on existing documentation. Once this process is completed, species
proles, along with their range maps, will be submitted for publica-
tion on the IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM. Although there
is a possibility that changes could arise from the review process,
workshop results are summarized here.
Sixty-one species were assessed, encompassing 97% of the na-
tive anuran species previously identied for the country (5). One
assessment concluded that Telmatobius peruvianus is not present in
Chile (although it is still present in Peru), as previous records from
Putre in northern Chile, have been assigned to T. marmoratus based
on phylogenetic analyses (6). Also, the recently revalidated Telmato-
bius laevis (7), was not assessed at the workshop given that no new
data exist for this species since its original description in 1902 and
therefore to date no natural population can be assigned to this spe-
cies. From the species evaluated, 72% were identied as endemic
to Chile. If species having marginal distribution in Argentina are
included, this percentage increases to 90%. In addition, four species
were assessed for the rst time; three recently discovered species:
Alsodes cantillanensis (8), Eupsophus altor (9) and Telmatobufo ignotus
(10); and one taxonomic re-validation: Alsodes coppingeri (11).
Changes in the number of species within each conservation cat-
egory are shown in Fig. 2. The percentage of Threatened species
(i.e., Critically Endangered [CR], Endangered [EN] and Vulnerable
[VU]) increased from 38 to 47%. This increase is explained by the
addition into the Threatened categories of recently discovered or
previously described Data Decient (DD) species (Fig. 2C). It is
important to note that DD does not mean that the species is not
of conservation concern, but appropriate data on its distribution
and/or population is needed to make a consistent assessment of
its risk of extinction. Almost half of the assessed species (45%) ex-
perienced a change in category. Seven DD species changed their
category as follows: Least Concern (LC; one species), VU (2 spp.),
EN (1 sp.) and CR (3 spp.). The species that changed from DD to
CR were Telmatobius dankoi, T. fronteriensis and T. vilamensis, all
ASG Chile Leads Update of the Extinction Risk
of Chilean Amphibians for The IUCN Red List of
Threatened SpeciesTM
1Centro de Investigación para la Sustentabilidad, Universidad Andres Bello,
Santiago, Chile, 2ONG Ranita de Darwin, Santiago, Chile, 3Departamento
de Zoología, Universidad de Concepción, 4Departamento de Ciencias
Básicas, Campus Los Ángeles, Universidad de Concepción, 5Red Chilena
de Herpetología, 6Centro de Estudios Agrarios y Ambientales, Valdivia,
Chile, 7Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Limnológicas, Universidad Austral
de Chile, Valdivia, Chile, 8Centro de Gestión Ambiental y Biodiversidad,
Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias, Universidad de Chile,
Santiago, Chile, 9Laboratorio de Genética y Evolución, Facultad de
Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile, 10Instituto de Ecología y
Biodiversidad, 11Programa de Fisiología y Biofísica, Facultad de Medicina,
Universidad de Chile, 12Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas,
Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile, 13Programa de Bachillerato en
Ciencias, Universidad Santo Tomás, Santiago, Chile, 14Universidad del Bío-
Bío, Chillán, Chile 15IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group.
By 1Claudio Soto-Azat, 1,2Andrés Valenzuela-Sánchez, 3Juan Carlos Ortiz, 4Helen Díaz-Páez, 3Camila Castro, 5Andrés Charrier, 3Claudio Correa,
6,7César Cuevas, 8Gabriel Lobos, 9,10Marco A. Mendez, 11Mario Penna, 1AlexandraPeñael-Ricaurte,12Felipe Rabanal, 13Claudia M. Vélez-R,
14Marcela A. Vidal & 15Ariadne Angulo.
Fig. 1: Herpetologists at the workshop, Universidad Andres Bello. From left to right in
upper row: Mario Penna, Edgardo Flores, Juan Carlos Ortiz, Claudia Vélez, Camila Castro,
Felipe Rabanal, Claudio Correa, Marco Mendez, Sandra Díaz, Mariella Superina, Reinaldo
Avilés, César Cuevas, Claudio Soto, Andrés Charrier and Ariadne Angulo. Lower row:
Andrés Valenzuela and Charif Tala. Absent from the picture: Marcela Vidal, Helen Diaz
and Alexandra Peñafiel. Photo: Claudio Soto-Azat.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 7
from northern Chile (Fig. 3). When DD species are not considered,
changes in categories involve six up-listings and 12 down-listings.
Among the latter, only two species were removed from a Threat-
ened status. Two CR species were considered as Possibly Extinct
(a tag used in conjunction with the CR category to describe those
instances where there is a possibility a species may be extinct):
Rhinoderma rufum and Telmatobius pefauri. In fact, R. rufum has not
been recorded since 1980, despite numerous attempts to nd it
(12,13). The reasons for the sudden decline of this species are not
fully understood, but the extensive habitat loss across its historical
distribution and possibly chytridiomycosis could have played an
important role (13). On the other hand, Telmatobius pefauri is only
known from its holotype, collected in 1976 at the locality of Mur-
muntani in northern Chile (14). This species has not been observed
since, in spite of attempts to nd it.
The main threats identied for Chilean amphibians (3,4,15) are:
a) water scarcity due to anthropogenic modication of natural
systems, b) mining activities in northern and central Chile; c) im-
pacts related to agriculture, d) residential development in central
and southern Chile, e) exotic tree plantations, and f) anthropogenic
res in southern Chile, which cause loss of habitat and refuges. In
addition, livestock pressure and invasive species (particularly sal-
monids and the African Clawed Frog Xenopus laevis) were cited as
threats to amphibians across the country.
Following IUCN criteria for assessing species in one of the
Threatened categories, most (76%) of the amphibians were catego-
rized by their restricted geographic range (criteria B1 and B2). An-
other 10% were assessed according to a population size reduction
(criteria A) and 14% following very small or restricted populations
(criteria C). This overview highlights an imperative necessity for
local herpetologists to conduct studies and generate data on popu-
lation ecology, helping make assessment more informative in the
future, with the nal purpose of contributing to the conservation
of these species.
Acknowledgments:
We are very grateful to all those herpetologists who made
possible this fruitful assessment process. Special thanks to Dr.
Mariella Superina, Chair of the IUCN SSC Anteater, Sloth and
Armadillo Specialist Group, who acted as expert facilitator at the
workshop. We would also wish to extend our acknowledgements
to all the people who supported the assessment process, providing
valuable information through the open consultation period, and to
the IUCN SSC Amphibian Red List Authority and IUCN Red List
Unit for processing these assessments. We believe the workshop
results will be an important contribution to the conservation of
these amazing animals.
References:
1. F. E. Rabanal, J. J. Nuñez, Anbios de los bosques templados de Chile
(Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile, 2008).
2. M. A. Vidal, A. Labra, Eds, Herpetología de Chile (Science Verlag, Santiago,
Chile, 2008).
3. C. Soto-Azat, A. Valenzuela-Sánchez, Eds, Conservación de anbios de Chile
(Univ. Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile, 2012).
4. G. Lobos et al., Anbios de Chile, un desafío para la conservación (Ministerio
del Medio Ambiente, Fundación Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias y Pecuarias
de la Univ. de Chile y Red Chilena de Herpetología, Santiago de Chile, 2013).
5. D. R. Frost, Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0.
http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/amphibia/index.html (2015).
6. P. A. Saéz et al., Zool. J. Lin. Soc., 171, 769 (2014).
7. C. C. Cuevas, Herpetol. J., 23, 145 (2013).
8. A. Charrier, C. Correa, C. Castro, M. A. Méndez, Zootaxa, 3,915, 540 (2015).
9. J. J. Nuñez, F. Rabanal, J. R. Formas, Zootaxa 3,305, 53 (2012).
10. C. C. Cuevas, Gayana 74, 102 (2010).
11. J. R. Formas, J. J. Nuñez, C. C. Cuevas, Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat., 81, 3 (2008).
12. J. Bourke, K. Busse, W Böhme, North-West. J. Zool. 8, 99 (2012).
13. C. Soto-Azat et al., PLOS One 8: e79862 (2013).
14. A. Veloso, L. Trueb, Occas. Pap. Mus. Nat. Hist. (Lawrence), 1 (1976).
n
n
h
Fig. 2: Percentage of Chilean amphibian species within each conservation category at A)
present (IUCN Red List assessments, accessed on 20 August 2015), and B) under the new
proposed assessments. The changes in these percentages per category are presented
in C), where negative values (blue) indicate a decrease in the percentage of species
within the category, while the positive values (red) indicates an increase. CR: Critically
Endangered; VU: Vulnerable; EN: Endangered; NT: Near Threatened; LC: Least Concern;
DD: Data Deficient.
Fig. 3: Telmatobius vilamensis from northern Chile. Previously assessed as Data Deficient
and now proposed as Critically Endangered as a result of the Chilean IUCN Red List
workshop. Photo: Felipe Rabanal.
8 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
The rst comprehensive Global Amphibian Assessment
(GAA), published in 2004, helped shed light on the scope
of the amphibian decline phenomenon and elevated aware-
ness of amphibians as a group in need of targeted conservation
intervention. One of the key ndings of the GAA was that habitat
loss and fragmentation are the most pervasive threats to amphib-
ians globally (1). Informed by the GAA, several multi-stakeholder
initiatives have focused on habitat protection with the express pur-
pose of conserving Threatened amphibian species. As a result, new
conservation areas (areas protected through various designations,
such as private and forest reserves or community stewardship proj-
ects) have been established in regions with high concentrations of
Threatened amphibians in Guatemala, Colombia, Madagascar, and
Sri Lanka. Extinction risk assessments can act as valuable baselines
for evaluating and monitoring the long-term success of the new
reserves. On the tenth anniversary of the GAA, the Amphibian
Specialist Group (ASG) updated extinction risk assessments for 32
Threatened amphibians that occur at these sites, drawing on infor-
mation about the status of species and conservation areas provided
by local biologists and conservation organizations.
In Guatemala, rapid deforestation threatens the Caribbean re-
gion of the country, recognized for its diverse fauna that includes
an unusually large number of endemic and Threatened amphibian
species. Local NGO, Fundación para el Ecodesarrollo y la Con-
servación (FUNDAECO), along with multiple international orga-
nizations, established the Sierra Caral Amphibian Conservation
Reserve on the slopes of the Sierra Caral mountains that run along
the border with Honduras. The core area of the reserve, which was
instrumental for the subsequent expansion of the Reserva Hídrica
y Forestal Sierra Caral, encompasses 2,400 ha of wet tropical for-
est etched with a network of streams and rivers (2)(Table 1). The
new protected area harbors nearly a dozen Threatened amphibian
species; nine of these species were recently reassessed and include
the Endangered Copan Brook Frog, Duellmanohyla soralia and
Dunn’s climbing salamander, Bolitoglossa dunni. Sierra Caral not
only serves as a key site for local species conservation, but sits be-
tween several other protected areas, such as the Copán and Cusuco
National Parks in Honduras. Therefore, the protected status will
help maintain connectivity among these parks, which are nested
within the Mesoamerican Corridor. Acquisition of the land and the
subsequent designation of Sierra Caral as a national protected area
by Guatemala’s congress represents a landmark success for biodi-
versity conservation in Guatemala and the region. The long-term
ecacy of the Sierra Caral reserve, however, depends on balancing
the protection of habitat within core areas, with sustainable land
use by surrounding communities.
Colombia is a center of remarkable amphibian species richness,
second only to Brazil in total number of native species (3). The ASG
reassessed the extinction risk of thirteen species that occur in re-
cently created reserves protecting small and medium-sized tracts of
megadiverse subtropical forest in the Colombian Andes. These new
sites add to a network of 25 reserves that are managed by the Co-
lombian conservation organization ProAves (4). El Dorado Reserve
helps conserve a locally-important watershed in the Sierra Nevada
de Santa Marta and is home to 14 endemic amphibian species (Table
1). Among these amphibians, several are now listed as Endangered
on The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, such as the harlequin
frogs Atelopus laetissimus and Atelopus nahumae. Farther south, the
Ranita Dorada Amphibian Reserve has been lauded as the world’s
rst amphibian-focused conservation area with the express objec-
tive of protecting nine Threatened amphibian species occurring
within the small forest remnant. In 2006 and 2007, Colombian her-
petologists described two new brightly-colored dendrobatid spe-
cies, Andinobates dorisswansonae and Andinobates tolimense, thought
to only occur within the isolated forest fragment. Located in a re-
Targeted Habitat Protection and its Effects on the
Extinction Risk of Threatened Amphibians
By Justin Nowakowski & Ariadne Angulo
Conservation area Country Designation Year established Area (ha)
Sierra Caral Guatemala National forest reserve 2012 2.447 Ye s 12 1,5,6,7,8, 12,13
El Dorado Colombia Private reserve 2006 1024 Yes 5 2, 5, 12
Ranita Dorada Colombia Private reserve 2008 120 - 9 2,5,11
La Forzosa Colombia Private reserve 2006 1324 Yes
11a2, 5
Roncesvalles Colombia Private reserve 2009 4072 - ≥2 2, 5
Morningside Sri Lanka National forest reserve* - 1000 - 13 3, 5, 6, 7, 9
Fohisokina Madagascar Community stewardship 2009 300 - ≥1 4, 5, 6, 10
1FUNDAECO, 2ProAves, 3Sri Lanka Forest Department, 4FOMISAME, 5IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, 6Conservation International, 7International Conservation
Fund of Canada, 8Global Wildlife Conservation, 9Wildlife Heritage Trust, 10Man and the Environment, 11Dendrobatidae Nederland, 12American Bird Conservancy,13Rainforest Trust,
*The ownership of this site has transferred to the Sri Lankan Forest Department, but it is awaiting official designation as a reserve
aNumber of Threatened species known from the immediate area, but not necessarily recorded inside the reserve
No.Threatened
amphibians present
Founding
partners
Recognized as
AZE site?
Table 1. New conservation areas in four countries providing habitat protection for Threatened amphibians.
Duellmanohyla soralia. Photo: Robin Moore.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 9
Atelopus laetissimus. Photo: Fundacion ProAves.
gion heavily transformed by coee production and cattle ranch-
ing, the forest was in immediate danger of being cleared, which
prompted the rapid purchase of the land through partnerships
between ProAves, IUCN Netherlands, Conservation International
and Dendrobatidae Nederland.
The IUCN Red List assessments also included species from the
La Forzosa reserve located in the cordillera central of Colombia
near the town of Anori. La Forzosa was established in large part to
preserve habitat for an Endangered bird, the Arrierito Antioqueño,
but also extends crucial habitat protection to at least ve Threat-
ened amphibian species in the area. In the Andean highlands of
the department of Tolima, a mosaic of forest patches and páramo
are protected within the Roncesvalles reserve and are home to the
Critically Endangered harlequin toad, Atelopus simulatus and the
Endangered Herveo Plump Toad, Osornophryne percrassa. ProAves
is currently working with local land owners to establish refores-
tation projects and manage existing forests on private lands near
these smaller reserves in an eort to increase connectivity among
vital patches of remnant habitat.
On the other side of the globe, 70% of Sri Lanka´s amphibian fau-
na is Threatened with extinction or already extinct, driven largely
by clearing of vast swaths of forest for housing and agricultural
production (3). Less than 5% of the country’s original cloud forest
remains and is, therefore, in urgent need of protection. The ASG,
along with Conservation International, the International Con-
servation Fund of Canada, and local partners, including Wildlife
Heritage Trust and the Forest Department of Sri Lanka, prioritized
protection of an important tract of remaining cloud forest known
as Morningside Forest, located adjacent to the Sinharaja World
Heritage Site in southeastern Sri Lanka. The ASG re-evaluated
the status of nine species of Endangered or Critically Endangered
frogs occurring within Morningside. Most of the Threatened spe-
cies belong to the genus Pseudophilautus, a group characterized by
direct development, sensitivity to habitat alteration and micro-en-
demism. Throughout Sri Lanka, 19 of the 67 Pseudophilautus species
known from the country are considered Extinct, often having been
recorded from only a single locality. Morningside Forest is now
managed by the Forest Department of Sri Lanka, a crucial step to-
wards conserving this highly threatened amphibian fauna. Current
priorities for the site include working with private land owners to
increase sustainability of tea and cardamom production on inhold-
ings and on neighboring properties.
Atelopus nahumae. Photo: Fundacion ProAves.
10 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
Madagascar represents another important hotspot of amphib-
ian species richness, home to numerous Threatened and endemic
species that are found nowhere else (3). One of these species, the
Endangered Mantella cowanii, was the focus of eorts to protect
critical savannah and stream habitat at a highland site in Antoetra,
Madagascar. In previous decades, the black and orange-colored M.
cowanii had declined in abundance as a result of widespread habi-
tat loss, frequent brush res, and overharvesting for the illegal pet
trade (5). Through a concerted public awareness campaign, ASG
Madagascar, Conservation International and the community orga-
nization, FOMISAME, generated local support for protecting an
important area of M. cowanii habitat (6). FOMISAME has worked
to promote ecotourism at the site and to establish sustainable plan-
tations and aquaculture to help relieve pressure on core habitat.
Now, as a result of capacity building, local community members
patrol and manage the site. Regular monitoring of M. cowanii in-
dicates that population densities have increased at Antoetra since
its designation as a reserve (7). The project exemplies the value of
pairing habitat protection with information campaigns and capac-
ity building as well as the potential for community stewardship of
Threatened habitats and species.
Following the securement of the new conservation areas
(achieved at dierent times over the last decade), the ASG has
prioritized reassessment of Threatened species occurring at these
sites. Notably, of the 32 reassessed Threatened amphibians that had
received habitat protection, none was reassessed at a higher threat
category as a result of genuine change in species status. In fact, two
dendrobatid frogs, A. dorisswansonae and A. tolimensis, were down-
listed from Critically Endangered and Endangered, respectively, to
Vulnerable, representing a genuine change in their status result-
ing from the protection of habitat within the Ranita Dorada Forest
Reserve. Many of the species changed categories and/or criteria
largely as a result of new information on range size or, conversely,
a lack of information on population trends or status. The latter sce-
nario highlights a common and crucial need for increased survey
eorts to ll large information gaps concerning the distribution
and populations status of rare and endemic species, species most
likely to be threatened with extinction. The vast majority of species
were reassessed under criteria B1ab(iii), reecting restricted extent
of occurrence, severely fragmented populations or reduced num-
ber of threat-dened locations, and continuing decline in the extent
or quality of habitat.
Because of the new habitat protection, the amphibians within the
borders of conservation areas are likely better o than they were ten
years ago, and they have an advantage over the 50% of all range-
restricted amphibian species that currently do not occur within any
protected area (8). These eorts represent important amphibian
conservation success stories; they demonstrate that, with multi-
stakeholder commitment and engagement and diverse habitat pro-
tection approaches, it is possible
to advance amphibian conserva-
tion in the context of very dier-
ent political and cultural settings.
Not only are many described spe-
cies aorded habitat protection,
but it is likely that new species
will soon be discovered in these
areas of extraordinary endemism.
As some of the rst conserva-
tion areas established, in part, to
safeguard Threatened amphibian
assemblages, the conservation
community will focus attention
toward these sites as valuable
models that will inform future
amphibian conservation action.
References:
1. S. Stuart et al., Amphibians of the World (Lynx Edicions, Spain; IUCN,
Switzerland; Conservation International, Virginia, 2004); http://www.
amphibians.org/publications/threatened-amphibians-of-the-world/
2. FUNDAECO, Estudio Técnico— Área de protección especial Sierra Caral.
(FUNDAECO, Guatemala, 2011); http://www.fundaeco.org.
3. J. Vié, C. Hilton-Taylor, S. Stuart, Wildlife in a Changing World– An Analysis
of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN, Switzerland, 2009);
http://www.iucnredlist.org/about/publication.
4. Fundación ProAves, Reservas de ProAves, http://www.proaves.org/reservas-
de-proaves/ (2015).
5. N. Rabibisoa, Mantella cowanii Action Plan. (Conservation International,
Madagascar, 2008); www.sahonagasy.org.
6. F. Andreone, F. Rabemananjara, N.Rabibisoa, H. Rahantalisoa, J.
Rakotondrasoa, FrogLog 21, 38–40 (2013).
7. N. Rabibisoa et al., FrogLog 21, 50–51 (2013).
8. J. Nori et al., Biological Conservation 191, 367–374 (2015).
Andinobates doriswainsonae. Photo: Fundacion ProAves.
Deforestation in the Sierra Caral of Guatemala. Photo: Robin Moore.
Deforestation in Santa Marta, Colombia.
Photo: Robin Moore.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 11
In 2015 the Disappearing Frogs Project partnered with the Am-
phibian Survival Alliance to raise awareness of global amphib-
ian declines, inspire people to take personal action to protect
these incredible species, while also providing a unique opportunity
for artists to support amphibian conservation, education and re-
search.
Created in 2013 by Charlotte, North Carolina-based artist Terry
Thirion, the Disappearing Frogs Project concept brings synergy
between artists and scientists to the public, communicating the un-
precedented global amphibian decline and potential eects of spe-
cies extinction. Awareness in the community is being raised, hearts
of the public are being touched, and the Disappearing Frogs Project
is inspiring people to get involved and to take personal action.
Engaging the senses our exhibitions allow art and science to inter-
sect in a non-threatening way. While being surrounded visibly by
the beauty and unique works of art one is also beckoned to listen to
the multidisciplinary scientists invited to present real-time research
communicating complex ideas as it relates to species loss in a form
that is understandable to the public. These dedicated individuals
passionately convey the critical issues aecting amphibians global-
ly thus substantiating the eorts of the DFP to raise awareness and
to challenge the public to be better stewards of our environment.
Together, the core strengths of the Disappearing Frogs Project and
the Amphibian Survival Alliance oers unique synergies that not
only help to increase the public’s awareness of the plight of am-
phibians, but most importantly highlight the opportunities that
exist for the public to help conserve amphibians and make a dier-
ence on the ground.
“By partnering with the Alliance, the Disappearing Frogs Project
is truly having a global impact for amphibians around the world.
They are helping to protect habitat, support research and engage
people around the amazing world of amphibians,” said James Lew-
is, director of operations with the Amphibian Survival Alliance.
Amphibian Survival Alliance seed grants are often seen as a vital
funding source to kick start projects and encourage innovative ap-
proaches to addressing the amphibian conservation issues of today.
“The work that these grassroots biologists are doing is so vital to
the survival of our amphibians and knowing that simultaneously
artists are making a dierence working in their studios painting,
drawing and sculpting makes me smile” said Terry Thirion, found-
er and artistic director with the Disappearing Frogs Project.
The following three Amphibian Survival Alliance seed grants
awardees were funded with support from the Disappearing Frogs
Project:
●Sex in the lab: Using a new technique to facilitate breeding in
Tree Frogs;
●Returning from the brink: Rebounding amphibian popula-
tions in a pathogen enzootic environment; and
●Conservation status of Telmatobius intermedius and other am-
phibians in the Pampa Galeras National Reserve—Barbara
D’Achille, Ayacucho, Peru.
“Amphibians are at the intersection of our arts and science exhibi-
tions. It’s gratifying to know the eort we put into these events can
be directly invested in the dedicated scientists working to enhance
the viability of frogs globally. Supporting seed grants gives the
Disappearing Frogs Project a unique way to be intimately involved
with real-time conservation and research eorts. For example, we
are thrilled to oer nancial support for the “Sex in the Lab” proj-
ect because they too use ART to rescue species of amphibians that
are experiencing declines and facing extinction. Art comes in many
forms. In this case ART—Assisted Reproductive Technologies—
represents a technique which uses hormones to stimulate egg and
sperm production to aid in breeding,” said Pam Hopkins, regional
director of communications with the Disappearing Frogs Project.
The Alliance has secured limited funding for this initiative but
we are looking to work with other groups to develop collaborative
Seed Grants similar to this initiative with the Disappearing Frogs
Project. These types of vital projects would not be possible without
this type of incredible support and illustrate that successful am-
phibian conservation outcomes don’t always require a substantial
investment - a little bit goes a long way. If you are interested in
learning more or would like to explore ways in which your organi-
zation can get involved with it, please contact Candace M. Hansen-
Hendrikx, director of communications and partnerships with the
Amphibian Survival Alliance.
The Disappearing Frogs Project Leaps into Action to
Fund Amphibian Conservation Seed Grants
By Candace M. Hansen-Hendrikx, Pam Hopkins & Terry Thirion
Pam Hopkins and Terry Thirion at the 2015 Disappearing Frogs Project in Rock Hill, South
Carolina. Photo: Robert Fitzpatrick.
12 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
Over the past 30–100 years amphibians have experienced
worldwide population declines. With a staggering 32%
of the Earth’s amphibian species facing imminent decline,
the use of captive breeding has emerged to prevent extinction.
One method, assisted reproductive technologies (ART), uses hor-
mones to stimulate egg and sperm production to aid in breeding
and has been successfully used for years in mammals, shes, and
birds, with more recent applications in frogs. In light of the current
amphibian extinction crisis, ART is recognized as an increasingly
important avenue for rescuing the 100s of species of amphibians
that are experiencing declines and face extinction.
The treefrogs of the Neotropical subfamily Phyllomedusinae, are
a large group of colorful leaf frogs distributed throughout Cen-
tral and South America. I will test two hormone doses to examine
which is most eective at inducing spermiation (males) and ovula-
tion (females) among Red-eyed Treefrogs. Previous research using
ART indicates that hormone protocols are expected to be similar for
closely related species. Although our focal species are not currently
declining, making them ideal for large-scale, manipulative experi-
ments, many of their closest relatives are listed on the International
Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List as imperiled.
Thus, my research will have a direct impact on informing captive
breeding and management and the conservation and preservation
of 8 imperiled species of leaf frog.
Each individual will be injected with either zero, two or four
ug/g body weight GnRH. For males, I will examine the viability of
each sperm sample by imaging sperm stained with sperm staining
dye (propidium iodide and SYBR 14), under orescent microscopy,
allowing for a count of live vs. dead sperm in each sample (see im-
age). I will evaluate spermic urine from each individual every three,
seven, 12, 24 hours to produce a sperm response curve for viabil-
ity and production of each individual. Females will be injected via
the same protocol. Comparison of the viability and production of
sperm produced by each male, and egg clutch size by each female
will be evaluated to compare for each individual dose.
Amphibians are facing an extinction rate (32% of the 7,405 de-
scribed species) that is greater than that of either birds (12%) or
mammals (22%). Since 1980 it is estimated that almost 170 species
of amphibians are extinct. Thus, with my research I hope to develop
techniques on this species that will give us a clearer understanding
of hormone doses and breeding techniques needed to conserve and
breed other members of the group (a subfamily consisting of ve
genera and 59 species, 8 of which are listed as Endangered or Criti-
cally Endangered).
This project has been supported by the Amphibian Survival Alliance’s
Seed Grant Program, along with a contribution to the program made by
the Disappearing Frogs Project. If you would like to further support this
project or invest in the Amphibian Survival Alliance’s Seed Grant pro-
gram as the Disappearing Frogs Project did, please contact Candace M.
Hansen-Hendrikx, Director of Communications & Partnerships.
By Leah Jacobs
Sex in the Lab: Using a New Technique to Facilitate
Breeding in Tree Frogs
Leah Jacobs, Master’s student, California State University, Northridge, holding one of her
Red-eyed Treefrogs. Photo: Leah Jacobs.
Red-eyed Treefrog. Photo: Leah Jacobs.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 13
Amphibian declines and disappearances have long captured
our attention, but in recent years there have been numer-
ous reports of once “lost” amphibians being rediscovered.
Many of these amphibians are from populations or species that are
believed to have declined due to Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd).
Populations from groups like Atelopus or stream-breeding Hy-
lidae, that were known to be heavily aected by the Bd epidemic,
have now begun to rebound or become more easily detectable
in certain areas. Our focal species (Rhinella margaritifera, Atelopus
varius, A. limosus, Duellmanohyla uranochroa, Lithobates vibicarius)
all come from areas where they were known to have declined and
where Bd is present.
With this study we hope to increase understanding of how time
since decline, infection dynamics, genetics and changing suscep-
tibility play a role in these rebounding populations. We are us-
ing environmental DNA analyses to nd additional eld sites by
screening for genetic material of focal species. Sites are being sur-
veyed to assess the dynamics within rebounding populations and
the prevalence of Bd in these regions. These populations will be as-
sessed using restriction enzyme associated DNA sequencing (RAD-
Seq) techniques to improve analyses of the genetic structure of
these populations. Finally, Bd susceptibility trials will be conducted
to understand rapid adaptation and change in the host-pathogen
system.
By increasing our understanding of how these populations have
been able to return with Bd still present in the environment we can
hopefully aid in the conservation of species still aected by Bd or
similar pathogens in other areas.
This project has been supported by the Amphibian Survival Alliance’s
Seed Grant Program, along with contribution to the program made by the
Disappearing Frogs Project. If you would like to further support this proj-
ect or invest in the Amphibian Survival Alliance’s Seed Grant program as
the Disappearing Frogs Project did, please contact Candace M. Hansen-
Hendrikx, Director of Communications & Partnerships.
By Alexander Shepack
Returning From the Brink: Rebounding Amphibian
Populations in a Pathogen Enzootic Environment
Duellmanohyla uranochroa. Photo: Alexander Shepack.
Atelopus limosus. Photo: Alexander Shepack.
14 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
This project is part of a conservation program that is focused
on the long-term preservation of the three species of mar-
supial frogs in the Yungas Andean forest of Northwestern
Argentina. Of particular concern is determining the conservation
status of Calilegua’s Marsupial Frog (Gastrotheca christiani) due not
only to the sudden lack of registries in the wild since 1996, but also
due to evidence of a severe population decline. The Endangered
Gastrotheca christiani is in the 250 “lost frogs” list of the IUCN SSC
Amphibian Specialist Group. This project aims to determine if the
Calilegua’s Marsupial Frog is still extant as a keystone for any fu-
ture conservation eort.
We will perform eld search campaigns in the Calilegua National
Park and surrounding localities to obtain new registries (photo-
graphic/call recordings) of the missing Calilegua’s Marsupial Frog.
These search eorts, employing visual and aural encounter surveys
combined with playbacks at xed point, will be complemented
with the training park rangers of Calilegua National Park in am-
phibian species recognition and monitoring techniques. In the near
future we hope to receive further funding to incorporate passive
monitoring techniques with automated recording devices (froglog-
gers) to increase the detection probability. Moreover, frogloggers
may also be very eective as a long term monitoring tool in case of
rediscovering the Calilegua’s Marsupial Frog.
This project has been supported by the Amphibian Survival Alliance’s
Seed Grant Program. If you would like to further support this project or
invest in the Amphibian Survival Alliance’s Seed Grant program please
contact Candace M. Hansen-Hendrikx, Director of Communications &
Partnerships.
Where is Calilegua’s Marsupial Frog?
By Mauricio Sebastián Akmentins
One of the last specimens registered of Gastrotheca christiani in 1996 near Calilegua
National Park, Jujuy province, Argentina. Photo: Marcos Vaira.
Photo: Mauricio Sebastián Akmentins.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 15
Sharing research and strategies to empower
the future of amphibian conservation
Potchefstroom, South Africa
18
th
– 21
st
January 2016
Optional field trip to Pilanesberg
National Park: 22
nd
- 23
rd
January
For ongoing updates please see
http://www.amphibians.org/acrs/
Email: acrs@amphibians.org
Or sign-up to the ASA mailing list at:
http://www.amphibians.org/subscribe/
16 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
NEWS FROM THE AMPHIBIAN COMMUNITY
We are pleased to announce the release of the Global Rana-
virus Reporting System (GRRS, https://mantle.oi/grrs).
The GRRS was built using the EcoHealth Alliance’s
Mantle platform in consultation with scientists from the US For-
est Service, the Global Ranavirus Consortium and EcoHealth. The
GRRS is an open-source web platform designed for the storage,
sharing, and visualization of world Ranavirus surveillance data, in-
cluding diagnostics and genetic isolate dierences, and is designed
to meet the needs of a wide variety of users inclusive of natural
resource managers and researchers. Ranavirus scientists in the eld
or the lab will be able to upload datasets in multiple formats to the
system, where they will be stored for easy download and analysis.
GRRS users have ne-grained access controls to protect and share
their uploaded datasets, and examine datasets in views appropri-
ate to their content (e.g., tables, maps and charts). The GRRS will
rapidly advance the scientic community’s understanding of rana-
virus epidemiology, and help natural resource agencies and other
organizations respond intelligently to new outbreaks. The GRRS
will become a model for future infectious disease reporting and
biosurveillance.
QUOTES FROM GRRS BETATESTERS:
“Ranaviruses can have severe impacts on amphibians at the com-
munity level and the GRRS provides a great tool to implement bet-
ter recording of surveillance eort. GRRS has the potential to pro-
vide a stronger link between research and wildlife management.”
Dr. Stephen Price, post-doctoral research associate, University Col-
lege London.
“Ranavirus is a global problem, much like malaria or AIDS. Map-
ping its distribution will help preserve biodiversity.” Dr. David
Lesbarrères, Associate Professor, Department of Biology, Lauren-
tian University.
“The Global Ranavirus Reporting System lls a critical gap in
ranavirus research by providing a user friendly platform for data
entry and extraction that will be invaluable for researchers and
managers seeking to understand ranavirus epidemiology at mul-
tiple scales.” Dr. Jason Hoverman, Assistant Professor, Department
of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University.
The Global Ranavirus Reporting System is LIVE!
Ranaviruses are globally distributed emerging pathogens of
lower vertebrates (1). Members of this group of pathogens
have been linked to amphibian declines (e.g., 2 and 3), as
well as, countless morbidity and mortality events (1).
Following the First International Symposium on Ranaviruses in
2011, the Global Ranavirus Consortium (GRC) was formed. The
GRC is an international organization made up of researchers, scien-
tists, managers and veterinarians, and others whose goals include
the facilitation of communication and collaboration in the Ranavi-
rus research community (www.ranavirus.org). In 2013, the Second
International Symposium on Ranaviruses was held in Knoxville,
TN, USA concurrently with the Wildlife Disease Association’s In-
ternational Meeting. Planning began soon thereafter for the Third
International Symposium on Ranaviruses. (Information on previ-
ous Ranavirus Symposia can be found at www.ranavirus.org/sym-
posium).
The Third International Symposium on Ranaviruses was held
on May 30 – June 2, 2015 at the Hilton – University of Florida, in
Gainesville, Florida, USA. Over 70 people from nine dierent coun-
tries attended. The symposium consisted of two days of talks, with
over 30 presentations given from experts in all areas of Ranavirus
biology. Professor Dr. Richard Whittington (University of Sydney
Australia) opened the meeting with an expansive keynote address.
During the meeting, attendees had ample opportunities to discuss
urgent research needs during sessions facilitated by leading experts
in Ecology, Stressors, and Surveillance, Pathology and Diagnostics,
Virology and Immunology, and Evolution, Phylogenetics and Tax-
onomy. (Session summaries will be available soon at www.ranavi-
rus.org/symposium).
Attendees also took part in a wide variety of workshops and eld
trips. Importantly, trainings were provided on the design of Rana-
virus surveillance studies and data analysis (lead by Drs. Gray and
Brunner) and sterile sample collection from ranavirus hosts and
molecular diagnostics (lead by Drs. Miller and Hick), were held
at the Emerging Pathogens Institute at the University of Florida.
These workshops provided attendees with an overview of how to
properly design disease surveillance studies, collect sterile samples
from carcasses and gave them an introduction to the molecular di-
agnostic methods used to detect Ranavirus.
More information on the Third International Symposium on
Ranaviruses can be found at www.ranavirus.org/symposia
Once nalized, dates and locations of the 2017 and 2019 symposia
will be announced on the GRC website (www.ranavirus.org).
References:
1. Duus et al. Distribution and Host Range of Ranaviruses. In Gray, M.J. and
V.G. Chinchar Eds, “Ranaviruses: Lethal Pathogens of Ectothermic Vertebrates”
Springer Online (2015).
2. Teacher et al. Anim. Conserv. 13, 514 (2010).
3. Price et al. Curr. Biol. 24, 2586 (2014).
1 Certied Reptile Monitor and Licensed Turtle Rehabilitator, New York,
USA; Email: turtleadvocate@gmail.com 2 Department of Biology, Gordon
State College, Barnesville, Georgia, USA; Email: aduus@gordonstate.edu
By 1Patricia Johnson & 2Amanda Duffus
The Third International Symposium on Ranaviruses
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 17
Are you working to conserve a particular group of species
or habitat and would like to know the range of dierent
interventions you could carry out? Would you like to know
whether those interventions have been tested and have been found
to be eective (or not)?
What Works in Conservation aims to help answer these questions.
The newly published book provides an assessment, by panels of
experts, of the eectiveness of a wide range of conservation actions
based on the available scientic evidence. These include 98 inter-
ventions for the conservation of amphibian populations, ranging
from creating ponds to releasing captive bred animals. As well as
amphibians, there are chapters covering birds, bats, bees, biodi-
versity in European farmland and control of invasive freshwater
species. The full evidence on which the assessments are based is
described in the associated Conservation Evidence synopses, includ-
ing: Amphibian Conservation—Global evidence for the eects of interven-
tions (1). What Works in Conservation provides key messages from
the summarized evidence and the assessment of eectiveness for
each intervention and is freely available, along with all synopses, at
www.conservationevidence.com.
What Works in Conservation is designed for anyone who has to
make decisions about how best to support or conserve biodiversity.
This includes land managers, conservationists, farmers, campaign-
ers, advisors or consultants, policymakers, researchers or people
taking action to protect local wildlife. The resource aims to support
decision-making by assessing what evidence there is (or is not)
about the eects that your planned actions could have on the target
group of species or habitat. It is designed as a starting point and
before making any nal decisions about implementing interven-
tions it is important that you read the more detailed summarized
evidence online at www.conservationevidence.com, to assess their
relevance for your specic study species or system.
Summarized evidence for 98 conservation interventions within
the Amphibian Conservation synopsis was assessed by a panel
of 28 amphibian experts. Each intervention was then assigned to
a category of eectiveness based on a combination of the assess-
ment of the size of the benet and/or harm, and the strength of the
evidence. An example of a table of eectiveness from What Works in
Conservation, for interventions for amphibians to mitigate against
the threats from transportation and service corridors, is shown be-
low. Each intervention is linked to the summarized evidence online.
For 31 of the 129 interventions listed within the Amphibian Con-
servation synopsis, we did not nd any published evidence of ef-
fectiveness and so the interventions could not be assessed. Despite
our search eort it is possible that some evidence was missed, but it
is also likely that the eects of many conservation projects have not
been monitored, or results have not been made widely available.
We need you to help this change for the better! Details for submit-
ting case studies on the eects of conservation interventions to the
journal Conservation Evidence can be found on our website: http://
conservationevidence. com/collection/view.
References:
1. Sutherland, W.J., Dicks, L.V. Ockendon, N. and Smith, R.K. (2015) What
Works in Conservation. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers. www.
conservationevidence.com/
What Works in Conservation
An example table from What Works in Conservation (Sutherland et al. 2015).
By Rebecca Smith
Basedonthecollatedevidence,whatisthecurrentassessmentoftheeffectivenessof
interventionsforamphibiansformitigatingthethreatoftransportation/servicecorridors?
Beneficial
Likelytobebeneficial
•
Closeroadsduringseasonalamphibianmigration
• Modificationofgullypotsandkerbs
Tradeoffbetween
benefitandharms
•
Installbarrierfencingalongroads
• Installculvertsortunnelsasroadcrossings
Unknowneffectiveness
(limitedevidence)
•
Signagetowarnmotorists
Unlikelytobe
beneficial
•
Usehumanstoassistmigratingamphibiansacrossroads
Likelytobeineffective
orharmful
Noevidencefound
18 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
The Global Ranavirus Consortium
(GRC), Inc. was formed in 2011
and is a world-wide organization
dedicated to advancement of all areas of
Ranavirus biology. Ranaviruses are emerg-
ing pathogens of lower vertebrate species.
They have been associated with countless
morbidity and mortality events (1), and
even population declines of amphibians in
some locations (e.g. 2).
In the past three years, the GRC has been
busy. In 2013, the Second International
Symposium on Ranaviruses was held in
Knoxville, TN USA in association with the
62nd International Meeting of the Wildlife
Disease Association. The outcomes of this
meeting, which can be found at www.rana-
virus.org/symposium, were instrumental
in planning future GRC activities, as well
as, inuencing the direction of ranavirus
research in many areas. At the symposium,
the newly elected GRC board met for the
rst time and set out a list of tasks to be ac-
complished by the 2015 symposium.
The GRC has a new website, www.rana-
virus.org, that is lled with important in-
formation on ranaviruses, a reference list
of most articles that have been published
on ranaviruses, a list of labs that can diag-
nose Ranavirus infections, and many other
resources that are of use to anyone who
is studying amphibians and may come
across ranavirus-infected animals. In 2015, the GRC also published
the rst comprehensive text on ranaviruses, edited by Dr. Mat-
thew Gray and Dr. V. Gregory Chinchar. This text is open access
and is available through Springer Online at http://link.springer.
com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-13755-1 (hard copies may also be
purchased through this site). In 2015, the GRC also oered charter
membership to support the collaborative, interdisciplinary mission
of the GRC. You can become a member for a nominal annual fee at
http://www.ranavirus.org/get-involved/. Funds raised are used
to maintain the website, various outreach activities, and support of
the biennial symposia. Please consider joining!
The Third International Symposium on Ranaviruses was held in
May in Gainesville, FL USA, as part of the Aquatic Animal Health
2015 meeting. The GRC Board met again and the GRC held its rst
general business meeting. The GRC passed the bylaws that had pre-
viously been drafted and approved by the GRC Board. The GRC
is currently working on its web presence in social media and are
working to design a Facebook page. Its Twitter handle is @Rana-
virusGRC.
In conjunction with the GRC Regional Representatives, several
outreach activities were identied, including a possible online
course on ranaviruses and a Common Midwife Toad Virus summit
in Europe in 2016. The GRC recently released a call for proposals to
host the International Symposium on Ranaviruses in 2017 and 2019.
More information about GRC activities is at: www.ranavirus.org.
Inquiries about the GRC can be directed to Dr. Amanda Duus,
the Secretary/Treasurer at aduffus@gordonstate.edu.
References:
1. Duus et al. In: Gray MJ and Chinchar VG, edits. Ranaviruses: Lethal
Pathogens of Ectothermic Vertebrates, Springer (2015).
2. Price et al., Curr. Biol. 24, 2586 (2014).
An Update from the Global Ranavirus Consortium
By 1Amanda L. J. Duffus, 2Jesse L. Brunner & 3Matthew J. Gray
1 Department of Biology, Gordon State College, Barnesville, GA USA.
2School of Biological Science, University of Washington, Pullman, WA
USA. 3 Center for Wildlife Health, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN
USA.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 19
A
newly discovered salamander disease is spreading around
the world and we need your help to nd out where it’s go-
ing! Please join our citizen science project to save the sala-
manders: https://www.inaturalist.org/projects/saving-salaman-
ders-with-citizen-science
If you nd a dead or sick salamander in the wild, please take
pictures and upload them to this iNaturalist project as soon as pos-
sible! Here are some important project details:
Species identication is NOT necessary. If you cannot identify the
type of salamander because they are too long dead, or simply be-
cause you don’t know salamanders, that’s ok. All dead salamander
photos are important records!
If your salamander is not dead, but has skin sores or other un-
usual marks, we also want you to take a photo and report these.
Your photos don’t have to be pretty and you don’t need a fancy
camera! Feel free to use the camera on your phone. A blurry picture
is always better than no picture.
Record this simple information along with your photo:
●Date
●Location
●Number of dead salamanders you saw (i.e., if you nd a pond
with 20 dead salamanders, you might only take a picture of a
few, but can report 20)
●Species (your best guess is great, but it’s ok if you have no idea,
just call it a salamander)
●Suspected cause of death (i.e,. was it hit by a car, stepped on,
partially eaten by an animal? etc.). Please always make a com-
ment in the description box about this observation. If you tell
us there was no obvious reason why it was dead, this is very
helpful because we can rule out non-disease factors like road-
kill, predation, etc.
The emerging infectious disease we are specically worried
about is caused by a newly discovered species of chytrid fungus
(Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, or “Bsal”). The faster we can
detect its arrival in a new region, the greater our chances to protect
the salamanders from disease, decline and extinction.
It appears that Bsal originated in Asia long ago, and recently
started to spread around the world by the international trade in sal-
amanders. It recently invaded Europe, and is now causing alarm-
ing declines in Fire Salamander populations. According to recent
surveys, it has not yet arrived in the USA—the global hotspot of
salamander diversity—but an outbreak may happen at any mo-
ment. Outside Asia, Bsal has so far only been detected in Europe
(the Netherlands, Belgium and the UK). To help monitor its con-
tinued spread, we are seeking records of dead salamanders found
ANYWHERE.
With your help, we might be able to detect salamander disease
outbreaks much faster than with traditional eld surveys alone.
So next time you go for a short walk in the park or a long hike in
the wilderness, keep your eyes peeled and camera (phone) ready
for salamanders! Whether you see just one dead salamander or a
bunch, everything you see is important. So please join this project
and help us save the salamanders!
Please note: If you suspect you might have visited an area expe-
riencing a disease outbreak, you should sterilize your boots with a
10% bleach solution when you get home to make sure you do not
accidentally spread disease to the next place you go for a hike.
Please contact us at DeadSalamanders@gmail.com with any
questions or concerns.
By Jonathan E. Kolby
Saving Salamanders with Citizen Science
Plethodon cinereus. Photo: Jonathan E. Kolby.
20 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
That amphibians are the most imperilled group of terrestrial
vertebrates is a fact we are all well aware of in the amphibian
conservation community. Over 40% of all species are endan-
gered in their existence and one of the greatest threats are emerging
infectious diseases (1). The single celled fungus Batrachochytrium
dendrobatidis (Bd) causes the disease chytridiomycosis and has al-
ready aected over 500 species (www.bd-maps.net). High elevation
species in Central America and Australia, but also in various other
locations, have been particularly hard hit by this disease (2). Vre-
denburg et al., noted: “The eect of chytridiomycosis on amphibians
has been described as the greatest loss of vertebrate biodiversity at-
tributable to disease in recorded history” (3). Recently we learned
that Bd is not alone. In 2013 a new chytrid species called B. sala-
mandrivorans (Bsal) has been described, originating from Asia and
has entered Europe via the pet trade and caused the near extinction
of a population of Fire Salamanders (Salamandra salamandra terres-
tris) in the Netherlands (4). Not long after Bsal was identied in the
Netherlands it was found in two Fire Salamander populations in
Belgium causing mortalities and population declines. Bsal has also
been conrmed in Alpine Newts (Ichthyosaura alpestris) in Belgium
where it has caused mortality in one population of Alpine Newts.
A study published in 2014 showed that all European salamanders
and newts were highly susceptible to Bsal in the laboratory and
died soon after infection, as do some North American species (5). In
Europe we could lose up to 44 species and even more in the Ameri-
cas (more than 300)! This is no longer a problem limited to just the
Netherlands and Belgium but could become a global problem very
soon! A recently published paper by Yap (et al.,) warning about the
potential biodiversity crisis if Bsal is introduced in North America
highlights this very real threat (6).
Can the fungus be stopped or halted? We think that with the
results of a study we’d like to perform in the Belgian province of
Wallonia we will have a better understanding of the ecology of this
disease in the wild. This study will attempt to nd out where Bsal
occurs, how fast it spreads, how it spreads, which host species are
aected and how it impacts salamander populations. The results of
this study can then be applied to other locations when and where
outbreaks occur in the future. Wallonia is a very important place
to study this fungus for it is the gateway to large re salamander
populations (and other species) in France, Germany and Luxem-
bourg. We plan to collect non-invasive skin samples in the eld
from salamanders in locations where Bsal has not been documented
yet or is suspected to be. The swab samples will be sent to Ghent
University in Belgium for analysis. The scientists that originally
discovered the fungus, Dr. An Martel and Dr. Frank Pasmans, will
perform the analysis.
Unfortunately very little funds are available for this study and this
is where you can help! Amphibian Survival Alliance (ASA) partner
The Wandering Herpetologist initiated a crowdfunding campaign
in order to raise money for this much needed study! Our campaign
can be found on crowdfunding page and ASA partner WorthWild.
You can make a “pledge” or follow our campaign by subscribing.
Lots of updates will be uploaded in the next few weeks including
a brand new video! We have yet to go live but making a pledge
makes all the dierence in the world and shows that the amphibian
conservation community supports this initiative! No donation is to
little or too much, all is welcome! Questions about this campaign?
Please email Tariq Stark and Sara Viernum (wanderingherpetolo-
gist@gmail.com) or take a look on our website www.wandering-
herpetologist.com. You can nd our campaign at: http://www.
worthwild.com/prelaunches/17. This campaign is supported by
Ghent University, Nature conservation organization Natagora (Bel-
gium), Reptile, Amphibian and Fish Conservation the Netherlands
(RAVON) and the ASA. By donating you actively contribute to this
study and salamander conservation in Europe. Thank you!
References:
1. Stuart et al., Science 306, 1,783-1,786 (2004).
2. Berger et al., PNAS 95, 9,031-9,036 (1998).
3. V.T. Vredenburg, R.A. Knapp, T. Tunstall, C. J. Briggs, PNAS 107, 9,689-9,694
(2010).
4. Martel et al., PNAS 110, 15,325-15,329 (2013).
5. Martel et al., Science 346, 630-631 (2014).
6. T.A. Yap, M.K. Koo, R.F. Ambrose, D.B. Wake, V.T. Vredenburg, Science, 349,
481-482 (2015).
7. http://www.bd-maps.net/surveillance/default.asp
Crowdfunding for Chytrid 2.0 (Batrachochytrium
salamandrivorans) in Belgium
By Tariq Stark, Sara Viernum, Steven Allain, Myra Spiller & Veronica Reeves
How we like to see them: a healthy and gorgeous Fire Salamander found in Wallonia! But
for how long? Photo: Tariq Stark.
Tariq Stark and Carlijn Laurijssens swabbing a Fire Salamander (Salamandra salamandra
terrestris). Photo: Peter de Koning.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 21
Target 12 of the Aichi Biodiversity Targets states that, “By
2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been
prevented” (http://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/). If we are
to meet this target then the huge conservation challenge posed by
global amphibian declines, brought to the world’s attention by the
2004 Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA), must be addressed.
Key actions and issues required to address the crisis were out-
lined in the subsequent Amphibian Conservation Action Plan one
of which was ex situ captive breeding and the need to establish
multiple captive amphibian programs to safeguard those species
most at risk (1) The global zoo and aquarium community (hereafter
zoos) represent one of the most inuential and important groups of
institutions to undertake such programs (2,3). Globally, zoos have
contributed substantially to the recovery of 17 out of 68 vertebrate
species including at least one amphibian species, Alytes muletensis
(4,5).
Ten years on from the GAA, the overall feeling in the conserva-
tion community has been one of disappointment at the slowness
of the response to the amphibian crisis with many conservation
organizations still not addressing the issue (6,7). A similarly slow
response had been suggested amongst the zoo community, with
amphibians being seriously underrepresented in both collections
and in situ projects supported by zoos (8,9).
As part of Durrell’s Saving Amphibians From Extinction (SAFE)
Programme we set out to assess what the response within the inter-
national zoo community had been; identifying areas of success but
also gaps. Using information from the International Species Infor-
mation System (ISIS) zoo network, we examined trends in global
zoo amphibian holdings across species, zoo region and species
geographical region of origin from 1994 to 2014. These trends were
compared before and after the 2004 GAA to assess whether any
changes occurred and whether zoo amphibian conservation eort
had increased. The full results of this have study have recently been
published in Conservation Biology and presented below is a short
synopsis of the principle ndings.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Over the last 20 years it appears that zoos at the global level
have put more eort into globally threatened species (GTS) than
non-globally threatened species, which is reected in a number of
metrics. Firstly, the proportion of amphibian holdings that were
GTS increased from 17.2% in 1994 to 23.9% in 2014. Secondly, the
proportion of all amphibian individuals held that were GTS in-
creased much faster than the proportion of holdings that were GTS,
from 16.2% in 2004 to 43.9% in 2014. This is also reected in the
proportion of GTS with metapopulations (i.e., the total number of
A Decade on From the Global Amphibian Assessment:
How Have the World’s Zoos Responded?
By Jeff Dawson
Alytes muletensis - Mallorcan Midwife Toad, one amphibian species that has seen a genuine
improvement in status due to the conservation action of zoos Photo: Dawn Fleming.
22 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
individuals held across all zoos) greater than 250 which increased
signicantly more than the corresponding proportions of non-GTS.
While very positive and encouraging, the absolute numbers and
proportions of GTS held in zoos in 2014 was still very low with
only 121 species or 6.2% of all globally threatened amphibians be-
ing held. This is a much smaller gure than for birds 15.9%, mam-
mals 23% and reptiles 38% (data from 8). Additionally while 23.9%
of all amphibians held by zoos were GTS an estimated 41% of those
in the wild are threatened with extinction. To reach a similar com-
position in zoos, as would be expected if a random global sample
were to be taken, would take a further 21 years to reach at current
rates of change.
Perhaps even more surprising and worrying are those gures re-
lating to the 801 species assessed by Amphibian Ark through their
Conservation Needs Assessments as being ex situ priority species.
Containing both GTS and non-GTS, only 76 of these AArk species
were held in zoos over the last 20 years with no dierence in hold-
ings in years before or after their assessment year.
Clear dierences were found in holdings of GTS based on the
species region of origin. The best represented i.e., regions with the
highest proportion of all GTS held in zoos globally, in 2014 were
North America (45.6%), Oceania (23.6%) and Europe (15.6%) while
South America (2.1%) and Asia (2.6%) were the most poorly rep-
resented. When looking at the proportion of species held from a
specic region that were globally threatened then Oceania and Ca-
ribbean saw the greatest increase, especially in the last 10 years, in-
dicating that zoos holding species from those regions have changed
their collections signicantly in favor of GTS.
Dierences were also found in the holdings at the regional
zoo level. European zoos held a lower proportion of GTS in 2014
(17.6%) than zoos in North America (24.4%) and the Rest of the
World (20.8%) and unlike the other two regions this had not in-
creased since 2004.
MAIN CONCLUSIONS
Encouragingly, zoos have put increased eorts into amphibians
over the last 20, and in particular the last 10 years. Whether this is a
direct response to the amphibian crisis or simply reects a change
in general policy however is unclear. Should similar changes also
be seen among bird and mammal holdings then it likely indicates
the latter. What is apparent though is that more focus is needed on
ex situ conservation priority species and clear gaps exist in eorts
in relation to certain regions.
It is therefore crucial to understand the barriers to increasing
numbers of globally threatened and ex situ priority species in zoos
and to understand why certain regional faunas are severely under-
represented. With this knowledge, measures can be undertaken to
increase numbers and proportions of globally threatened and con-
servation priority amphibians held, such as improving the level of
husbandry expertise.
The study also highlights another key issue; the lack of accessible
and complete information on amphibian holdings. Although ISIS
is the most comprehensive database available, it is not complete
and there are potentially many other amphibian captive programs
not being publically recorded. This complete data set is critical
if the full response to the crisis is to be assessed, identing gaps
and opportunities within these eorts and further developing an
evidence-based approach to amphibian conservation planning at a
global level, helping achieve Aichi Target 12 and prevent the am-
phibian crisis becoming a catastrophe.
Full paper reference: J. Dawson, F. Patel, R. A. Griths, R. P.
Young, Assessing the global zoo response to the amphibian crisis
through 20-year trends in captive collections, Conservation Biology
DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12563 (2015).
References:
1. J. R. Mendelson III JR, et al., in: Amphibian Conservation Action Plan, 36-37. Eds.
C. Gascon et al. Eds. (IUCN/SSC Amphibian Specialist Group, IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland, 2007) pp. 36–37.
2. D. J. Pritchard, J. E. Fa, S. Oldeld, S. R. Harrop, Oryx 46, 18–23 (2011).
3. T. M. Martin, H. Lurbiecki, J. B. Joy, O. A. Mooers, Animal Conservation 1, 7
89–96 (2014).
4. M. Homann et al., Science 330, 1,503–1,509 (2010).
5. D. A. Conde, N. Flessness, F. Colchero, O. R. Jones, A. Scheuerlein, Science 331,
1,390-1,391 (2011).
6. S. N. Stuart, Alytes 29, 9–12 (2012).
7. P. J. Bishop, et al., S.A.P.I.EN.S 5.2 http://sapiens.revues.org/1406 (2012).
8. D. A. Conde et al., PLoS One 8 e80311 (2013).
9. M. Gusset, G. Dick, International Zoo Yearbook 44, 183–191 (2010).
Biosecure breeding unit for the Critically Endangered Mountain Chicken Leptodactylus
fallax at Durrell Wildlife Park, Jersey Photo: Matt Goetz/Durrell.
Eleutherodatylus nortoni listed as Critically Endangered and an Amphibian Ark ex situ
Research Species that is not in any zoos Photo: Jeff Dawson/Durrell.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 23
In 2005, the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (ACAP)
was produced by the IUCN/SSC to outline the threats faced
by amphibians worldwide and the conservation steps neces-
sary to protect them (1). A key component of this document, and
the one that caught the attention of zoos, conservationists and the
public globally, was the concept of conservation breeding programs
(CBPs) and ark populations. In the face of rapid, enigmatic and
catastrophic declines, populations of amphibians could be collected
from the wild and held in breeding centers until the coast was clear
for reintroductions to take place. The Amphibian Ark was launched
to co-ordinate captive programs in zoos, aquaria and academic in-
stitutions around the world, and the 2008 Year of the Frog focussed
media attention on the ex situ management of threatened amphib-
ians.
However, despite a few notable ex situ successes, the hype around
CBPs has not translated into a multitude of successful programs
and many CBPs have met with little or no success even after more
than a decade of eorts in some cases (2). Problems have included
basic husbandry and captive reproduction, making meaningful
progress against threats in the eld, particularly emerging infec-
tious diseases, and the management of disease transfer between
wild and captive populations, particularly in programs based out-
side the natural range of focal species. All of these issues led to a
recent reconsideration of the ex situ model as a means to conserve
threatened amphibian species and the widely held notion that all
amphibians are suitable for CBPs.
In a recent paper in the journal Biodiversity and Conservation,
authors from ZSL and Paignton Zoo in the UK and Perth Zoo in
Australia critically appraise each of the key factors often cited
as predisposing amphibians for CBPs. These include supposed
general attributes of amphibians such as small body size and as-
sociated low space requirements, high fecundity, applicability of
reproductive technologies, short generation time, lack of parental
care, hard-wired behavior, low maintenance requirements, the cost
eectiveness of such programs compared with programs for other
vertebrates, the success of several amphibian CBPs and reintroduc-
tions and because capacity exists in the private and zoo sectors (3-7).
Tapley et al. demonstrate not only how many species fall outside of
By 1Christopher J. Michaels, 1Benjamin Tapley, 2KayBradeld&3Mike Bungard
1Zoological Society of London, UK; 2Perth Zoo, Australia; 3Paignton Zoo,
UK.
Amphibians and Conservation Breeding Programs: Do
All Threatened Amphibians Belong on the Ark?
Chinese Giant Salamander. Photo: Benjamin Tapley / ZSL.
24 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
these generalized assumptions, but also that the process of choos-
ing which species to include in CBPs is a complex one that requires
detailed insight into the biology as well as the conservation needs
of individual species. Given that the capacity for species CBPs in
the conservation community is an order of magnitude smaller than
the number of species requiring such programs for their short term
survival (8), it is critical that species are properly assessed not only
for their need for CBPs, but also their suitability for such programs.
SMALL SIZE AND LOW SPACE REQUIREMENTS
Many amphibian species are small, but there is huge variation
across the class; Asian Giant Salamanders, Goliath Frogs and
Mountain Chicken Frogs, to name just a few, are by no means
small and the space required to hold viable captive populations
may therefore be prohibitive. Irrespective of body size, the behav-
ior and locomotion of many amphibian species necessitates a large
captive environment. Many anuran species can clear several me-
ters in a single jump, and are highly prone to physical injury and
stress if contained within too small a space. Still other species are
highly territorial and, particularly when combined with large body
size, therefore have large space requirements for their size. These
features do not necessarily preclude these species from involve-
ment in CBPs, but highlight the fact that in many cases large and
therefore costly facilities will be required to maintain the suggested
minimum breeding population size of 20 pairs of animals, particu-
larly when there must be capacity to hold animals separately at
times, and to house all life stages appropriately.
HIGH FECUNDITY AND SHORT GENERATION TIME
Large clutch size and rapid maturation have been suggested
to be benecial for CBPs as large numbers of individuals can be
produced in a short period of time. Although many anurans (and
particularly lowland, tropical species) t this generalization, there
is huge variation in clutch size across the amphibia, ranging from
a single egg per clutch to more than 45,000 in some anuran species.
Not only do some amphibians have small clutch sizes even in com-
parison with mammals or birds, but those with smaller numbers
of ospring may be more likely to need ex situ intervention (9).
A large proportion of amphibians actually have a relatively long
generation time, with temperate species in particular sometimes
taking years or even decades to reach reproductive age. Species
with such slow maturation rates may require substantially more
time and resources to see a project through to completion as they
will take proportionately longer to generate cohorts of captive bred
animals for release. Conversely, large clutch sizes and short genera-
tion time may create diculties in eective population manage-
ment and particularly in reducing the eect of selection for captive
environments, which can lead to animals maladapted for reintro-
duction to the wild. In either case, appropriate facilities, timescales
and population management strategies will be dierent and thus
Mountain Chicken Frog. Photo: Benjamin Tapley / ZSL.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 25
require specic planning prior to the commencement of the pro-
gram as well as adequate funding.
HARD-WIRED BEHAVIOR
The role of learning in amphibian behavior is becoming more
widely accepted (10), hence the CBPs cannot necessarily rely on
instinct to program behaviors necessary for survival in the wild.
While mammals and birds rely much more heavily on social learn-
ing to develop their behavioral repertoires, the eects of learn-
ing with real-world consequences for survival are now known in
amphibians; e.g., larval Hellbender Salamanders were trained to
avoid the chemical cues of Rainbow Trout, an introduced predator
to which naive salamanders exhibit no aversive behavior (11).
EASY TO MAINTAIN AND BREED
Amphibians are highly sensitive to their environment and as
such are extremely demanding in captivity, often requiring very
specic conditions in order to survive and reproduce. The vast
majority of amphibian species have not been maintained in captiv-
ity before and, for the hundreds of highly threatened and poorly
known species that may be considered for CBPs, any husbandry
protocols would be a matter of informed guesswork. Fundamen-
tal husbandry issues have been the main cause of failure for a
number of otherwise well-resourced programs (see 2 for review).
Aside from the specic environmental requirements of individual
species, a number of broad areas of amphibian husbandry are still
poorly understood. Nutritional disorders are still common in many
captive amphibians, as animals are limited to a handful of readily
available prey items and the optimal dosage for supplements is not
known. Research into the relationships between dierent aspects
of lighting, notably UVB provision and amphibian health is also
in its infancy. In many cases, recent research has only opened up
further questions.
Assisted Reproductive Techniques (ART) have been proposed
to overcome the “captive breeding crisis” created by the diculty
in stimulating many amphibians to reproduce in captivity. Such
articial treatments can also be used to control paternity and po-
tentially select for disease resistance, as well as to provide gametes
for transfer between facilities instead of adult amphibians (12–14).
Although in some cases such techniques may be appropriate, in
general failure to breed in captivity is the result of improper hus-
bandry and a lack of appropriate reproductive stimuli. ART in
these cases simply treats the symptom rather than the cause, and
may have long term detrimental eects on tness through both di-
rect eects and by inuencing sexual and natural selection (15–17).
Perhaps more importantly, although protocols for ART are to an
extent predicted by phylogeny (18), precise dosages can be dicult
to determine (17; 19) and improper dosages can have detrimental
or lethal eects (20). CBPs should therefore not rely on these tech-
niques as a quick-x to gaps in husbandry knowledge; an under-
standing of reproductive cues is an important aspect in determin-
ing the chances of successfully maintaining a species in captivity.
The quality of captive bred stock is an important determinant of
reintroduction success. Therefore, once breeding techniques have
been developed, care must be taken to ensure that the captive en-
vironment does not produce animals that cannot survive in nature
as a result of either environmental or inherited eects. Amphibians
can adapt rapidly to a changing physical environment; European
Moor Frogs (Rana arvalis), for example, quickly adapt through both
genetic and non-genetic inherited means to water sources of dif-
ferent pH (21–23). Genetic adaptation to captivity can impact abil-
ity to survive with other species; captive bred Mallorcan Midwife
Toad tadpoles (Alytes muletensis) lose their anti-predator behavior
after being reared in the absence of predators for several genera-
tions (26). The problem of adaptation to captivity requires a greater
depth of information about the precise biotic and abiotic conditions
experienced by a population in the wild, and potentially about how
those conditions may change before the species is reintroduced.
COST EFFECTIVENESS
Amphibian CBPs will generally require less funding than those
for large avian or mammalian species, however, the high tech-
nological requirements to successfully maintain most species in
captivity, particularly outside of their natural range, can lead to
substantial costs. Many amphibians require completely dierent
environments at dierent stages of their life cycle and a number
of dierent types of enclosure may be needed in tandem to main-
tain breeding populations. In the case of very large species or those
requiring large amounts of space, the costs could exceed those of
programs for some middle-sized mammals or birds.
Due to the time required to ameliorate many threats in the wild,
and to produce release cohorts of slow-reproducing species, am-
phibian CBPs may need to run for signicant periods of time.
Captive populations of the Kihansi Spray Toad (Nectophrynoides
asperginis) were established in the US in 2000 (24), the rst releases
happened in 2012 and the project still continues, 15 years later, in
an eort to secure the species in the wild. Similarly, frogs of the 20
species involved in the Panama Amphibian Rescue and Conserva-
tion Project (formerly EVACC) were collected between 2001–2005
and as yet there have been no releases (25).
The costs of an amphibian CBP usually are not insurmountable,
but any project must take into account both the full requirements to
house species appropriately and also the longitudinal commitment
for funding required to see a project through from initiation to se-
curing a species in the wild and eventual redundancy of a facility.
REINTRODUCTIONS CAN WORK
The eventual goal of most CBPs is to create self-sustaining wild
populations of target species by releasing captive bred individuals.
This requires an appropriately designed and funded captive breed-
ing facility, subject to the caveats already discussed above, but also
a concrete plan of how to ensure that releases happen and are suc-
cessful. It is one thing to “rescue” animals from a rapidly declining
population and quite another to design a CBP with a well-dened
end point, both in terms of goals and a timeline. CBPs must work
in tandem with in situ projects designed to ameliorate threats in the
wild so that reintroduced animals do not simply succumb to the
threats that necessitated ex situ intervention. This means that the
nature of threats must be carefully factored into the process of pri-
oritizing species for CBPs. Some of the most dramatic amphibian
declines have been precipitated by emerging infectious diseases,
often in association with climate change. Both of these have proven
very dicult to tackle in the wild and many programs dealing with
disease-threatened species have no dened timeline or end point
as the means to tackle these pathogens has not yet been developed.
Such species may end up in a captive limbo, with no way to return
to the wild while resources are diverted away from other species
that could be reintroduced within a relatively short timescale.
26 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
CAPACITY EXISTS
The original model for amphibian CBPs was to use the resources
and skill sets available in zoos and aquaria to run ex situ programs.
This model largely involved moving species across the world from
where threat levels are typically highest and where resources, skill
sets and organization (i.e., capacity) are typically lowest, to institu-
tions in the US and Europe, where capacity is greater, but conserva-
tion need is lower. Even where species were to stay in country, they
would typically be moved to an existing institution outside of their
actual geographic distribution.
Unfortunately, this model has several fundamental issues. Firstly,
the removal of animals from their range country and the running
of projects by foreign institutions and individuals raises ethical and
legal issues. Exporting animals, when this is even a legal possibil-
ity, may disenfranchise key stakeholders in situ and compromise
the ability to ameliorate threats in nature. Secondly, facilities in the
US and Europe, as well as the cost of transporting animals and per-
sonnel between these regions and range states, are comparatively
expensive, which can compromise long term funding for projects.
Lastly, zoos and aquaria, wherever in the world they exist, are po-
tential sources of pathogen transfer and other forms of contamina-
tion, including hybridization. Holding animals for release along-
side cosmopolitan animal collections creates a very real threat of
pathogen acquisition and the potential to do more harm than good
when animals are released. This scenario played out in Mallorca,
when captive bred Midwife Toads were released along with Bd,
previously unknown on the island (27). The fact that the fungus
was unknown to science at the time stresses the importance of bi-
osecurity in the face of both known and unknown pathogens. The
private sector can oer a huge range of highly specialist skills to
CBPs, with large numbers of hobbyists, particularly in the US and
Europe, able to maintain and breed a vast array of species. As such,
these individuals can provide vital information on the husbandry
and biology of conservation targets. In some cases, private indi-
viduals may be involved in CBPs, but the same biosecurity risks
apply to these cases as to the zoo and aquaria setting. The high
turnover of sta and changing interests in both the zoo and private
sectors can also jeopardize CBPs that may need to run for decades.
The CBP model now adopted by Amphibian Ark is to host
dedicated facilities within the country and ideally within the dis-
tributional range of the target species. This minimizes the risk of
disease transfer both to and from captive animals. Dedicated pro-
grams may also be staed by individuals with skill sets honed to
target species. This type of in-country program also facilitates the
involvement of range-state stakeholders and the combination of in-
and ex-situ aspects of conservation. However, many areas of high
conservation interest have limited capacity, with poor infrastruc-
ture, funding availability, access to specialist technology, skill sets
and organization. Moreover, some areas may actually be politically
unstable or unsafe. 92% of Haiti’s amphibian fauna is threatened
with extinction, for example, but political unrest and extreme pov-
erty in the country make it impractical to obtain funds and safely
establish a CBP there.
All of these issues must be taken into account when a species is
considered for a CBP and, if dedicated facilities with appropriate
capacity cannot be established within the range of a particular spe-
cies, the dicult decision not to develop an ex situ program may be
the most appropriate option.
THE BIGGER PICTURE
Amphibian CBPs can be a critical and useful part of amphibian
conservation, as shown by those projects that have underpinned or
at least contributed to the safeguarding of species. However, for too
long they have been considered a panacea for amphibian declines.
Currently, resources may be channelled to species that are not suit-
able candidates for CBPs on the basis of particular characteristics
and/or where threats in the wild cannot be tackled, in particular
infectious disease, and therefore for which no goals and end-points
can be dened. Moreover, the practicality of meeting husbandry
and biosecurity needs for the potentially long duration of a CBP,
including nancial implications, is often not explicitly considered
in assessing the appropriateness of a proposed program. By con-
sidering these aspects, resources can be directed to those species
which both require ex situ intervention to survive and for which
there is a likelihood of a CBP ultimately succeeding.
Source article: Tapley, B., Bradeld, K., Michaels, C.J. and Bun-
gard, M. (2015). Amphibians and conservation breeding pro-
grammes: do all threatened amphibians belong on the ark? Biodi-
versity and Conservation. doi: 10.1007/s10531-015-0966-9. Accessible
at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-015-0966-9
References:
1. C. Gascon et al., Eds., Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (IUCN/SSC
Amphibian Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland, 2007).
2. C. J. Michaels, B. Gini, R. F. Preziosi, Herpetol. J. 24, 135 (2014).
3. Q. C. Bloxam, S. J. Tonge, Biodivers. Conserv. 4, 636 (1995).
4. A. Balmford, G. M. Mace, N. Leader-Williams, Conserv. Biol. 10, 719 (1996).
5. R. A. Griths, L. Pavajeau, Conserv. Biol. 22, 852 (2008).
6. R. K. Browne, K. Wolfram, G. Garcia, M. Bagaturov, Z. J. J. M. Pereboom.
Amphib. Reptile Conserv. 5, 1 (2011).
7. R. K. Smith, W. J. Sutherland, Amphibian conservation: global evidence for the
eects of interventions (Pelagic Publishing, Exeter, UK, 2014).
8. K. Zippel et al., Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 6, 340 (2011).
9. J. Bielby et al., Conserv. Lett. 1, 82 (2008).
10. C. J. Michaels, J. R. Downie, R. Campbell-Palmer, Amphib. Reptile Conser. 8, 7
(2014).
11. A. L. Crane, A. Mathis, Zoo Biol. 30, 611 (2011).
12. A. J. Kouba, C. K. Vance, E. L. Willis, Theriogenology 71, 214 (2009).
13. A. J. Kouba et al., in Amphibian Husbandry Resource Guide, Edition 2.0. (AZA
ATAG, 2012) chap. 2.
14. J. Clulow et al., Repro. Biol. Endocrin. doi: 10.1186/1477-7827-10-60 (2012).
15. C. Wedekind, Conserv. Biol. 16, 1204 (2002).
16. E.J. Maruska, Int. Zoo. Yearb. 24, 56 (1986).
17. R. K. Browne et al., Appl. Herpetol. 15, 81 (2008).
18. A. J. Silla, J. D. Roberts, Gen. Comp. Endocr. 179, 128 (2012).
19. R. M. Mann, R. V. Hyne, C. B. Choung, Zoo Biol. 29, 774 (2010).
20. S. F. Michael et al., Repro. Biol. Endocrin. doi:10.1186/1477-7827-2-6 (2004).
21. K. R. Ra ̈sa ̈nen, A. Laurila, J. Merila ̈, Evolution 57, 352 (2003).
22. C. Andre ́n, M. Ma ̊rde ́n, G. Nilson, Oikos 56, 215 (1989).
23. J. Merila ̈ et al., Conserv. Genet. 5, 513 (2004).
24. A. A. Rija, F. H. Khatibu, E. M. Kohi, R. Muheto, Status and reintroduction of
the Kihansi spray toad Nectophrynoides asperginis in Kihansi gorge: challenges
and opportunities. In: Proceedings of the 7th TAWIRI Scientic Conference
(Tanzania Wildlife Institute, Arusha, Tanzania 2011).
25. R. Gagliardo et al. Int. Zoo. Yearb. 42, 124 (2008).
26. F. J. L. Kraaijeveld-Smit, R. A. Griths, R. D. Moore, T. J. C. Beebee, J. Appl.
Ecol. 43, 360 (2006).
27. S. F. Walker et al., Curr. Biol. 18, 853 (2008).
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 27
CREA, a Marin based conservation non-prot and Amphib-
ian Survival Alliance partner became the subject of New
Scientist magazine’s rst photo driven feature in its 60-year
history. CREA’s work to save the beautiful, endangered Harlequin
Toad (Atelopus limosus) is oering new hope for the species’ recov-
ery in the face of a devastating disease.
Amphibian populations around the globe have been in free-fall
for the last few decades. The culprit, a deadly fungus known as
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd for short) and identied only as
recently as 1997, has been responsible for wiping out many species
seemingly overnight.
But in a handful of locations there are, it turns out, a few surpris-
ing survivors of this deadly disease.
Conservation through Research Education and Action (CREA),
which undertakes amphibian research at their Cocobolo Nature
Reserve in Central Panama, recently made a wonderful discovery.
Atelopus limosus, one species that is virtually extinct in the wild due
to Bd, was reported not only to be surviving the Bd wave but also to
be breeding. New Scientist (Aug 15th 2015) recently published an ar-
ticle on these Lazarus Frogs and on the research that is taking place
at Cocobolo into why this population, like a few others in Costa
Rica, may have survived.
Dr. Michael Roy, CREA’s founder, noted that “uncovering the
mechanisms by which these populations survive may be critical for
creating a conservation plan for wild amphibian populations and
planned reintroduction eorts, in the face of Bd. This discovery
has presented us with a golden conservation opportunity but we
desperately need funding to take advantage of it and expand our
research. The outcome of our work has the potential not only to
save A. limosus, but also aid in the management of endangered frogs
and toads all over the world.”
“The fact that some of these species are reappearing years or even
decades after they were last seen is enormously encouraging,” says
Robin Moore, conservation ocer with the Amphibian Survival Al-
liance. “After decades of witnessing rampant declines, these glim-
mers of hope are much-needed morale boosters.”
CREA is currently seeking international partners to collaborate on
research and education programs at the Cocobolo Nature Reserve,
especially those that support conservation eorts for Atelopus. Visit
www.crea-panama.org to learn more.
Lazarus Toads: What Can They Tell Us About
Amphibian Conservation
By Michael Roy
Surviving Atelopus limosus at Cocobolo Nature Reserve. Photo: Clay Bolt | www.claybolt.com.
28 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
A
core component of Durrell’s Saving Amphibians From Ex-
tinction (SAFE) Program (www.durell.org/safe) is aiding
the development of ex situ conservation activities in areas
and for species where captive breeding is needed and appropriate.
Madagascar is one such place where the development of in-country
captive breeding capacity is most denitely needed. As well as the
primary threat of habitat loss, the new and yet unknown threat of
chytrid in the country means that for a number of species captive
breeding may become a necessity to help ensure their survival.
As part of Durrell’s SAFE program work in Madagascar we have
been working with local NGO’s Association Mitsinjo and Madagas-
car Fauna and Flora Group (MFG) to develop amphibian captive
breeding capacity in country.
Of course, it is highly fortunate that Mitsinjo, based near Andasi-
be, already manage a fantastic community run bio-secure amphib-
ian conservation center. This is an ideal model for both establish-
ing and running other such centers within Madagascar and as an
in-country resource expertise and knowledge. Previously Durrell
has helped utilize this knowledge by facilitating a number of train-
ing exchanges between Mitsinjo and a new breeding center at Parc
Ivoloina, run by MFG, to help ensure enclosure set up and protocols
are properly established. As and when more centers are planned
in Madagascar Mitsinjo sta will be at the forefront leading train-
ing activities and helping develop a network of in-country captive
breeding expertise.
Durrell itself also has great experience in the captive breeding
and management of amphibians through our Wildlife Park in Jer-
sey and an important part of Durrell’s philosophy is to integrate
and link Park based activities with our eld conservation work. We
want to do this through the SAFE Program to develop capacity and
skills and as such, earlier this year we ran the rst of what we hope
is a regular series of internships with Durrell’s Herpetology team.
One of Mitsinjo’s amphibian technicians Jeanne Soamiarimampi-
onona—or Mampy as she prefers to be known—spent a month
working with the team at the Durrell Wildlife Park in Jersey.
This was an invaluable opportunity for Mampy, who had never
before left Madagascar—to get experience working for an extended
period of time in a world leading herpetology department and de-
velop her own knowledge and skills. Mampy spent time working
alongside Durrell sta and volunteers in all areas and programs, in-
cluding learning the dierent food cultivation methods and work-
ing in our biosecure breeding facility for the Critically Endangered
Mountain Chicken (Leptodactylus fallax). Importantly it also gave
her constant exposure to the application of all the various protocols
involved in the running of the department including biosecurity
and detailed daily record keeping. In addition, her time at Dur-
rell allowed her to see animals that she had never seen before not
only amphibians but Gorillas, Fruit Bats and Komodo Dragons. In
Mampy’s own words, “I’m very satised and proudly going back
to my country with the large knowledge I have got from Durrell
Wildlife Conservation Trust and apply it to our amphibian conser-
vation program in Andasibe Madagascar.”
Of course, the true impact of any training intervention is how
trainees subsequently utilize the knowledge and implement the
Developing Madagascar’s Amphibian Husbandry
Capacity with Institutional Internships
By Jeff Dawson
Mampy working in Durrell’s biosecure Mountain Chicken breeding room. Photo: Durrell.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 29
skills learned. It is therefore fantastic to hear that since returning
to Andasibe, she has been doing just that. According to Devin Ed-
monds, Mitsinjo’s Amphibian Conservation Director, upon her re-
turn Mampy instigated some experimental cultures for springtails,
one of the food sources raised, based on what she had learned in
Jersey. These have been so successful that they are now planning
on switching all their springtail cultures to this new method.
Spending time working in a facility such as Durrell’s with so
many strict protocols, especially around biosecurity, means new
knowledge learned becomes instilled in the learner. Since return-
ing Mampy has been able to strengthen and further instill this
ethos amongst the team at Mitsinjo. This perhaps reects one of the
most important aspects that internship style interventions like this
can deliver, improving an individual’s condence and self-belief.
Having the condence to pass on knowledge, inuence others and
implement changes is hugely important if the training undertaken
by an individual is to be disseminated through an organization.
Indeed, as Devin report’s even though it was just one individual
who went on the training trip it has given a lift to the whole team,
boosting motivation which is really encouraging to hear.
Looking to the future the hope and plan is that the team at
Mitsinjo, bolstered by such training interventions will be able to
further share their skills and knowledge with other captive cen-
ters in Madagascar to develop a network of skilled technicians and
practitioners within the country. As mentioned Parc Ivoloina is the
rst of these and Durrell were very pleased to be able to host Parc
Ivoloina’s Director Bernard Iambana for two weeks in June in be-
tween meetings in the US and UK.
During this time Bernard was able to spend a week working
with the Herpetology team and get rst-hand insights into what
protocols are used and their importance. Having this knowledge
and understanding will hopefully enable Bernard to be better able
to guide the development of the captive breeding center at Parc
Ivoloina, including identifying key areas to focus on.
At Durrell, we hope that Mampy will be the rst of a regular
series of amphibian captive husbandry internships. Not only will
this help develop in-country capacity in this area but from an in-
stitutional perspective will help link our park based sta in with
our conservation programs and utilizing the full range of exper-
tise that Durrell as an organization has. On a wider scale this type
of intervention, could also be a highly productive way for zoos to
contribute to amphibian conservation that utilizes their expertise
and engages their park sta.
Mampy with Durrell herpetology staff Tom Wells and Dan Lay. Photo: Durrell.
Mampy’s favourite amphibian in the collection - Strawberry Poison-dart Frog, Oophaga
pumilio. Photo: Matt Goetz.
Mampy working at the Mitsinjo facility in Andasibe. Photo: Jeff Dawson.
30 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
Currently, more than 40% of extant amphibian species are
threatened with extinction and a quarter of them still lack
information to be classied as threatened, being therefore
enlisted as Data Decient by the International Union for the Con-
servation of Nature (IUCN) (1,2). Furthermore, amphibians are the
greatest underrepresented group in the global network of protected
areas (PAs) worldwide.
A decade ago, some studies showed that around 17% of amphib-
ian species lived completely outside of protected areas (3). Obvi-
ously, the underrepresentation of amphibians in protected areas is
much higher for range-restricted species that inhabit highly human-
modied landscapes. Even in face of this worrying scenario, since
2004 not a single update has been published showing amphibian
species represented inside PAs at the global scale. Actually, there is
a large gap of information, especially if we consider that today data
on the distribution of many amphibian species are available, and
the areas covered by PAs has increased over the last ten years from
11% to more than 13% worldwide (4).
We have recently lled this gap by publishing a new and com-
prehensive overview on the ability of the global network of PAs
to protect amphibian species (5). We also oered new information
about the overlap of species’ distributions with dierent types of
human land-use around the globe. In this study, we considered dif-
ferent amphibian taxa and geographic regions, making a particular
distinction between gap species (i.e., those completely outside PAs)
and range-restricted species (i.e., those with geographic distribu-
tions smaller than 10,000 km2) (5).
Our analyses revealed that almost 25% of all amphibians, which
is more than 1,500 species, still remain totally outside protected ar-
eas. Moreover, 1,119 species have less than 5% of their geographic
distribution represented in protected areas. Although we have
more protection (about 10% more area designated as protected and
13,000 additional reserves), the proportion of amphibian species
falling outside these protected areas has also increased. In reality,
only a few designated reserves perform by avoid species loss or
reducing species’ extinction risk.
While this situation seems to be paradoxical, it was actually
expected due to how protected areas are selected. Within govern-
ments and all administrative levels authorities tend to establish
residual reserves, that is, reserves located in places where human
interests are minimal. These places play a minor role in protecting
biodiversity, given that threated species are precisely where human
impacts are higher.
This is why continents harboring a large proportion of gap spe-
cies (such as Latin America, Asia and Africa) are being highly im-
pacted by human activities. On average, 65% of every gap-species’
distribution is now inside human-modied landscapes. Africa has
the largest proportion of species aected by human impacts with
only 16% of gap species’free from human inuences. In several key
Amphibians in a Changing World: A Global Look at
Their Conservation Status
By 1Rafael Loyola, 1Priscila Lemes, 2Nicolás Urbina-Cardona, 3Diego Baldo, 4Julián Lescano & 4Javier Nori
1Laboratório de Biogeograa da Conservação, Departmento de Ecologia,
Universidade Federal de Goiás, CP 131, CEP 74001–970, Goiânia, Goiás,
Brazil. 2Department of Ecology and Territory, Faculty of Environmental
and Rural Studies, Ponticia Universidad Javeriana, Bogota, Colombia.
3Laboratorio de Genética Evolutiva, Instituto de Biología Subtropical
(CONICET-UNaM), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Químicas y Naturales,
Universidad Nacional de Misiones, N3300LQF Posadas, Argentina. 4Centro
de Zoología Aplicada, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales,
Universidad Nacional de Córdoba and Instituto de Diversidad y Ecología
Animal—Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientícas y Técnicas
and Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Córdoba, Córdoba, X5000AVP,
Argentina.
Fig. 1: Histograms showing the percentage of the distribution of the species included
in PAs for each species and the number of species assigned to each IUCN status when
considering all species and only the gap species. All histograms discriminate range-
restricted species. Amphibian species: Hemiphractus bubalus.
Fig. 2: Map showing the number of unprotected species per unit area in the world’s
countries and pie charts with the percentage of species occurring in different protected
area management categories. This figure is illustrated with an amphibian species from
each continent: Eurycea latitance (North America), Hemiphractus bubalus (Latin America),
Rana pyrenaica (Europe), Mantella aurantiaca (Africa), Helioporus australiacus (Oceania)
and Philautus umbra (Asia).
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 31
regions (such as part of tropical Andes, Southeast Asia and central
Africa), the combined eect of low levels of protection and a steady
human inuence will inevitably aggravate the current crisis sce-
nario for amphibians by further declines and extinctions. Tenacity
must be shown by the public and the scientic community to ur-
gently implement conservation policies, including governmental
and social initiatives aimed at strategically expanding the current
network of Protected Areas for greater conservation purposes.
More than area protection, we need reserves that make a dif-
ference for conservation. That is, new protected areas should be
established where they would produce the largest impact on am-
phibian conservation. By impact, we mean an explicit evaluation
(or simulation) of what would have happened if there had been
no conservation intervention or establishment of protected areas
(6). Only with such evaluation we will be able to estimate the real
impact new reserves would have on amphibian conservation. In
addition, growing the size of the global network of protected areas
will not be enough, as we observed.
Furthermore, it is important to note that 45% of gap species are
currently classied as Data Decient by the IUCN. Many of these
species inhabit highly disturbed environments. Data Decient spe-
cies are usually ignored or considered as species of least concern
in conservation policies, plans and recommendations (2). Hence, it
is essential to increase our knowledge on many biological aspects
of these species, such as taxonomy, systematics, demography, ecol-
ogy, natural history and threats, in order to generate adequate con-
servation policies.
This brief overview highlights important issues, which can
potentially increase the current crisis faced by amphibians, but
points out several challenges and opportunities towards creating
more comprehensive amphibian conservation strategies in the next
decade. It is essential to consider amphibians when developing
conservation policies that lead to the implementation and manage-
ment of new protected areas. It is critical to increase funding for
scientic research to expand our knowledge of amphibian species,
especially on those tropical key topics mentioned above.
Finally, we need to start planning for positive impacts of conser-
vation intervention, carefully measured and monitored, so we can
foster the establishment of protected areas that will make a real
dierence in avoiding amphibian species loss and reducing their
extinction risk. With that in mind, and the new and improved pro-
tected areas strategies established, we are hopeful that amphibian
conservation will reach a vastly improved level of animal species
conservation and protection worldwide.
Acknowledgements:
This work was supported by “Escala Docente” of the Asociación
de Universidades Grupo Montevideo (AUGM) together with the
Pro-secretary of International Relations of National University
of Córdoba (UNC) and the Coordination Oce of International
Aairs of Federal University of Goiás (UFG). RL’s research has been
constantly funded by CNPq (grants #308532/2014-7, 479959/2013-
7, 407094/ 2013-0, 563621/2010-9) and the O Boticário Group
Foundation for the Protection of Nature (PROG_0008_2013).
DB acknowledges ANPCyT for their nancial support: PICTs
1524/2011, 1895/2011, 2687/2012, PIP 112201101/00875. PL has
received a fellowship from CNPq (grant #150480/2014-8). JN
and JL’s research has been funded by Ministerio de Ciencia,
Tecnología e Innovación Productiva (MINCyT, PID 2010, proyecto
#000113/2011), Fondo para la Investigación Cientíca y Tecnológica
(FONCYT, PICT-2013-1607).
References:
1. S. L. Pimm et al., The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction,
distribution, and protection. Science. 344, 1246752 (2014).
2. J. Nori, R. Loyola, On the Worrying Fate of Data Decient Amphibians. PLoS
ONE. 10, e0125055 (2015).
3. A. S. L. Rodrigues et al., Eectiveness of the global protected area network in
representing species diversity. Nature. 428, 640–643 (2004).
4. IUCN, UNEP, The World Database of Protedted Areas (WDPA). UNEP-
WCMC. Cambridge, UK. www.protectedplanet.net (2013).
5. J. Nori et al., Amphibian conservation, land-use changes and protected areas: A
global overview. Biol. Conserv. 191, 367–374 (2015).
6. P. J. Ferraro, S. K. Pattanayak, Money for Nothing? A Call for Empirical
Evaluation of Biodiversity Conservation Investments. PLoS Biol. 4, e115 (2006).
Fig. 3: Percentage of spatial overlap between species’ geographic distribution and different types of human land use in the world’s continents. Amphibian species: Atelopus certus.
32 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
Frogs can be voracious predators, and we usually think of
their prey as insects and other small invertebrates. Genera-
tions of herpetologists have extracted stomach contents to
see what frogs eat. The results are not what we might have expected
however, as their capacity to feed on relatively large items such as
reptiles, birds or mammals is surprising (1). Not least among these
larger prey items are other frogs. Some species are notorious frog
eaters, such as the South American Horned Frogs (genus Cera-
tophrys), the African Bullfrogs (genus Pyxicephalus) and the North
American Bull Frog (Lithobates catesbianus). But are these the only
frogs eating frogs? What variables are inuencing this behavior?
A common hypothesis is that bigger frogs are more likely to con-
sume other frogs. However, this has yet to be tested across taxa and
maybe there are other characteristics that are strongly associated
with frogs that eat other frogs. We decided to investigate the extent
of anurophagy (literally “feeding on frogs”; from Latin prex an,-
“not” + Ancient Greek ourá, “tail” and from Ancient Greek-phagia,
from phagein,“eat”) at the population level to ask how widespread
it is in frogs. In addition, we wanted to determine the inuence of
some key variables: habitat, diversity and invasiveness. To accom-
plish this we conducted a literature review of post-metamorphic
diet in Anura (2). The ease of stomach content analyses through dis-
section or stomach ushing has produced an extensive literature on
frog diet. From each paper we extracted the species name, total prey
items, total anurans eaten (eggs, larvae and post-metamorphics), lo-
cation and mean body size. Moreover, we also considered for each
record: species taxonomic position at family and superfamily level,
anuran species diversity at the study site, habitat, cannibalism oc-
currence and if the studied population was native or invasive. In
total we analyzed data from 355 cases in 323 papers representing
228 species. Our results show that anurophagy is not uncommon,
with the predation on eggs, tadpoles or post-metamorphic frogs
reported in more than 20% of cases. Ranoidea and Pipoidea were
observed feeding on other frogs more frequently than other super-
families, showing how the phylogenetic position is correlated with
anurophagy. Correcting for this taxonomic eect, we conrmed the
size hypothesis, with large frogs more likely to feed on other frogs.
For every additional millimetre in the body size, the likelihood of
observing frogs in the diet increased 2.8%. We also found that habi-
tat and anuran diversity play a role in determining whether a frog
species showed anurophagy. More specically, generalist species
consume signicantly more frogs than forest, shrubland and grass-
land species, and frogs from sites with high anuran species diversity
were more likely to consume frogs. On the other hand, cannibalistic
species (i.e., species that had conspecics among their prey items)
were not observed to have more frogs in their diet if compared with
non-cannibalistic species. Last but not least, invasive anurans were
40% more likely to consume frogs than non-invasive ones.
While the positive eect of body size on the capacity to prey on
other frogs is fairly straightforward to interpret, other factors such
as habitat or anuran diversity are more dicult to put into context.
Generalist species should have the capacity to use a larger spectrum
of microhabitats and show a more exible behavior, having a higher
possibility to come across other frogs to feed on. For analogous rea-
sons, anuran diversity could act as a proxy of higher frog abun-
dance in the ecosystem or determine a more diversied niche parti-
tioning—both elements that should cause higher encounter rate of
one anuran with another (especially when one is generalist). These
areas seem ripe for further investigation. Our nding that invasive
species were more likely to be predators of other frogs, even after
accounting for the eect of body size, is an important result. How-
ever, dietary data for invasive species was limited and we encour-
age more research on this topic. From a conservation perspective, it
has to be noted that native frog populations are currently declining
across the globe (3) and introduced amphibians are at least partially
driving this decline (4). Since the amphibian trade is potentially
causing new frog introductions (5) and some countries are currently
compiling list of species that should not be traded, we suggest that
large generalist species, and especially ranids and pipids, should
be of particular concern because of their tendency to feed on other
frogs, especially in areas characterized by high anuran diversity.
Acknowledgments:
We would like to thank our co-authors: André de Villiers,
Mohlamatsane Mokhatla, Sarah Davies, Shelley Edwards and Res
Altwegg. In addition, we would like to thank James Vonesh for
comments and suggestions to the text, Les Minter for sharing the
photo of Pyxicephalus adspersus and the many amphibian workers
who have conducted studies on anuran diet.
References:
1. L. F. Toledo, R. S. Ribeiro, C. F. Haddad, J. Zool. 271, 170–177 (2007).
2. G. J. Measey et al., PeerJ 3:e1204 https://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.1204 (2015).
3. J. P. Collins, M. L. Crump, T. E. Lovejoy III, Extinction in Our Times: Global
Amphibian Decline (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK, 2009).
4. G. M. Bucciarelli, A. R. Blaustein, T. S. Garcia, L. B. Kats, Copeia 4, 611–632
(2014).
5. M. A. Schlaepfer, C. Hoover, C. K. Dodd, BioScience 55, 256–264 (2005).
Frog eat Frog
By 1Giovanni Vimercati & 2John Measey
Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany & Zoology, Stellenbosch
University, Stellenbosch,South Africa; 1gvimercati@outlook.com; 2john@
measey.com
Cannibalism in the African Bullfrog Pyxicephalus adspersus in Polokwane, Limpopo
Province, S. Africa. Photo: Les Minter.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 33
An adult African Clawed Frog Xenopus laevis regurgitates a Clicking Stream Frog Strongylopus grayii. Photo: John Measey.
34 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
Almost half of all known amphibian species are threatened
with extinction and it is hypothesized that a decrease in the
genetic variability of their natural populations may worsen
this scenario (1-3). Indeed, the maintenance of genetic variability is
important to prevent the loss of the evolutionary potential of popu-
lations/species and, therefore, the loss of their capacity to handle
environmental changes (4-12). The genetic structure of natural
amphibian populations arises from past events and present evolu-
tionary processes. The former are shaped by biogeography of the
single species, while the latter occur due to micro- or macroevolu-
tion (6). Furthermore, since amphibian populations usually hold a
small number of individuals, which will contribute to the gene pool
each mating season, it is expected that they would be easily aected
by inbreeding enhanced by genetic erosion (sensu loss of genetic
variation in a population), which could drive local populations to
extinction (4,12).
Genetic erosion may be promoted by factors like: drift, includ-
ing bottlenecks and mutational meltdown (6,8,9,11). Thus, studying
and understanding the inuence of environmental changes in the
genetic diversity of amphibian populations is of utmost importance
to plan for accurate conservation strategies and prevent further spe-
cies loss. Chemical contamination may impact the genetic diversity
of exposed populations by causing genetic erosion, which in turn
may lead to the loss of alleles in the population (6,8,9). Genetic ero-
sion can also increase the susceptibility to other stressors. It is pos-
sible to dierentiate genetic erosion from other evolutionary pro-
cesses if we identify a population in which sensitive genotypes are
absent in a polluted site and tolerant genotypes are present at both
polluted and reference sites. This genetic erosion at the impacted
site should have been caused by contaminant-driven natural selec-
tion (6,8,9). Genetic erosion can also be due to contaminant-driven
random genetic drift (including bottleneck eects), which may lead
to inbreeding (6). This is crucial for amphibians as their popula-
tions commonly have an eective size (Ne) lower than 100. When
compared with census size (Nc), this makes them very susceptible
to genetic depletion (4,12).
Amphibians are also susceptible to a wide range of stressors and
are considered to be highly sensitive to environmental alterations.
Habitat fragmentation, climate change, diseases, introduction of al-
lochthonous species, pollution and water acidication have been
described, among others, as factors responsible for amphibian de-
clines (1-3). Decreased genetic variation can cause reduced tness
and lack of adaptability to such varying and changing environ-
By 1E. Fasola, 2R. Ribeiro & 1I. Lopes
1Department of Biology & CESAM (Centre for Environmental and Marine
Studies), University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro,
Portugal. 2CFE (Centre for Functional Ecology), Department of Life
Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456
Coimbra, Portugal.
Genetic Erosion: Menace for Amphibian Species
Viability?
Pelophylax perezi. Photo: E. Fasola.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 35
ments. Genetic erosion can impact amphibian populations causing:
1) reduction of tness, 2) reduced phenotypic plasticity, 3) failing
of protective co-tolerance eects, 4) tradeos between tness and
genetically determined tolerance mechanisms, and 5) increased
susceptibility to pathogens.
In the rst of these scenarios, genetic-tness-correlations are
explored. In some amphibian species, heterozygous individuals
show increased tness in comparison to homozygous ones sug-
gesting that individual genetic variability should be correlated
with a higher tness (6,13–19). The second point analyzes how or-
ganisms cope with changing environments with “phenotypic plas-
ticity” capabilities. These represent the ability of a certain genotype
to generate dierent phenotypes. Phenotypic plasticity helps in-
dividuals to face abrupt habitat variations because each genotype
can retain adequate tness components for future use in popula-
tions. However plasticity has a genetic basis and genetic variation
for plastic responses is observed. Thus, genetic erosion may aect
plastic responses too (6,15,20–25).
The third point tackles how a single-stressor perspective is in-
adequate because individuals, populations and ecosystems are
aected by multiple stressors occurring simultaneously (6,26–29).
Amphibian populations may be forced beyond their tolerance
limits and genetic erosion may occur. Individuals use co-tolerance
mechanisms to face these situations decreasing genetic variability
lowering the adaptive potential towards multiple stressors (6,30).
In these dicult scenarios, trade-os occur when the ability of an
organism to perform in one ecological scenario suers at the ex-
pense of its abilities to perform in other dierent situations.
In addition, genetic erosion can bear tness costs associated with
altered physiological processes. These costs can aect population
viability or reproductive processes lowering eective size (Ne) or
increasing inbreeding (6,18,31).
Finally, in the fth scenario, inbred populations could be tolerant
to one pathogen, but are possibly susceptible to most other unre-
lated pathogens. Furthermore, an allele that provides tolerance to
an infectious disease could be negative when the pathogen is ab-
sent, because of possible pleiotropy eects. Hence, heterozygosity
is very important for the functioning of the immune system. Actu-
ally, the loss of genetic diversity decreases tolerance to pathogens.
Therefore, it would be crucial to monitor amphibian populations’
genetic variability in a world in which they are exposed to many
infectious agents like Ranavirus or Batracochytrium dendrobatidis
(6,32).
In conclusion, amphibian populations represent good indica-
tors to assess the impacts of contaminant-driven genetic erosion.
There is some evidence correlating lower genetic diversity with
decreased: tness, environmental plasticity and tolerance mecha-
nisms towards pollution or pathogens (6). However focused re-
search is needed to understand the structure of genetic erosion in
microevolutionary processes.
Acknowledgments:
This work was supported by funding FEDER through COMPETE
- Programa Operacional Factores de Competitividade and by FCT
Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia through the project: PTDC/
BIA-BIC/3488/2012, within the CESAM’s strategic program (UID/
AMB/50017/2013)
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Pelophylax perezi. Photo: E. Fasola.
36 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
Our recent study uses a long-term citizen science dataset to
identify a range of variables associated with disease in wild
Common Frogs (Rana temporaria) in the UK (1). Emerging
diseases are one of many threats facing amphibians across the globe
(2,3). Ranavirus, caused by a double stranded DNA virus (4), is one
disease causing notable die-os of amphibians across Europe, North
America and Asia (5–10). The disease has been implicated in the de-
cline of amphibian populations in Europe (9,10), including declines
of over 80% in Common Frogs in the UK (9).Ranavirus was thought
to have been rst introduced into the UK through the international
pet trade (11). Unsolicited reports of unusual frog mortalities in the
thousands led to a nation=wide campaign to better understand the
spread and drivers of the disease. This campaign was named the
Frog Mortality Project, and resulted in a dataset that now spans
two decades. The dataset has been administered by Froglife, with
each mortality event listing signs of disease, and details about the
garden, pond ecology and management. In the UK, amphibians
are commonly found in urban and suburban garden ponds lend-
ing themselves well to pond owner population monitoring. Using
population size estimates, recorded signs of disease and a range of
environmental variables, we used this dataset to better understand
the ecology of the disease and to determine if there were associa-
tions between garden management and the incidence (how likely
a population was to get infected) or prevalence (how many frogs
within each population became infected) of Ranavirus (1).
Our results suggest that the reduction of common garden chemi-
cals and limiting the introduction of non-natives such as orna-
mental sh, could help reduce Ranavirus prevalence in Common
Frog populations. We also provide insight into the complexities of
transmission dynamics of Ranavirus in the wild with frog popula-
tion density and the presence of potential hosts increasing Rana-
virus prevalence; this highlights the generalist nature of the virus
and how it can be an infector of whole amphibian communities.
The negative impacts of anthropogenic chemicals for wildlife are
well documented (12–14) and our study contributes to this body of
research, suggesting the use of herbicides and slug pellets increases
disease prevalence. Pesticides are known to cause immunosuppres-
sion in amphibians (15) and have been shown to increase Ranavirus
susceptibility in salamanders in controlled conditions (16,17). Pes-
ticide and herbicide free gardens will encourage a healthier eco-
system, with healthy slug and snail eating amphibian populations
negating the need for use of these pesticides.
Fish presence increased the prevalence of Ranavirus, though the
exact mechanism behind this pattern is currently unknown. We hy-
pothesize that ornamental sh could be increasing the density of
susceptible hosts, amplifying environmental levels of virus or inu-
encing immune function through energy trade-os. Fish species are
known to be susceptible to Ranavirus with the ability to infect am-
phibian species in experimental conditions (18). Indeed, in the wild
Ranavirus has been extracted from sh and amphibian species that
live in the same place (19), suggesting that transmission is likely to
occur in situ too. Alternatively, the presence of sh could cause re-
duced immune function if for example, predator presence reduces
foraging opportunities. Fish are known predators of tadpoles (20)
and tadpoles have been shown to exhibit reduced immune function
in the presence of another predator, the dragony larvae (21). The
impact of sh presence on Common Frog immune function how-
ever requires further investigation.
Our study highlights the immense value of citizen science proj-
ects identifying large-scale trends useful for conservation eorts.
The importance of amphibians for ecosystem functions (22), cou-
pled with knowledge that amphibians are the most threatened tax-
onomic group (23), makes identifying positive management actions
as important as ever. We hope that the enthusiasm of UK citizens in
contributing to the Frog Mortality Project demonstrates their dedi-
cation to amphibian conservation eorts. We are optimistic that our
ndings could encourage the implementation of wildlife friendly
gardening approaches to reduce Ranavirus prevalence and to im-
prove the health of ecosystems as a whole.
If you nd an amphibian that is unwell in the UK, you can now
report it to the Garden Wildlife Health Project.
Acknowledgments:
For further details on statistical approaches and all variables
tested, please see the original paper at PLOS ONE: A.C. North, D.
J. Hodgson, S. J. Price, A. G. F. Griths. PLOS ONE. DOI: 10.1371/
journal.pone.0127037. (2015). We would like to thank charity
Froglife for providing the Frog Mortality Project dataset, and to
pond owners for submitting their records to the project.
References:
1. A.C. North, D. J. Hodgson, S. J. Price, A. G. F. Griths. PLOS ONE (Need volume
number, etc.) (2015). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127037. Skerratt LF, Berger L,
Speare R, Cashins S, McDonald KR, et al. EcoHealth. 4, 125–134 (2007).
2. J. P. Collins, A. Storfer. Divers Distrib. 9, 89–98 (2003).
3. V. G. Chinchar. Arch Virol. 147, 447–470 (2002).
4. D. Miller, M. Gray, A. Storfer. Viruses. 3, 2,351–2,373 (2011).
5. P. Daszak, L. Berger, A. A. Cunningham, A. D. Hyatt, D. E. Green, et al. Divers
Distrib. 9, 141–150 (1999).
6. D. E. Green, K. A. Converse, A. K. Schrader. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 969, 323–339
(2002).
7. A. Balseiro, K. P. Dalton, A. D. Cerro, I. Marquez, F. Parra et al. Vet J. 186,
256–258 (2010).
8. A. G. F. Teacher, A. A. Cunningham, T. W. J. Garner. Anim Conserv. 13, 514–522
(2010).
9. S. J. Price, T. W. J. Garner, R. A. Nichols, F. Balloux, C. Ayres et al. Curr Biol. 24,
2,586–2,591 (2014).
10. A. A. Cunningham, P. Daszak, J. P. Rodriguez. J Parasitol. 89, S78–S83 (2003)
11. J. A. Skinner, K. A. Lewis, K .S. Bardon, P. Tucker, J. A. Catt et al. J Environ
Manage. 50, 111–128 (1997).
12. A. Kleinkauf, D. W. MacDonald, F. H. Tattersall. Mammal Rev. 29, 201–204
(1999).
13. K. Freemark, C. Boutin. Agr, Ecosyst Environ. 52, 67–91 (1995).
14. A. Albert, K. Drouillard, G. D. Haner, B. Dixon. Environ Toxicol Chem. 26,
1,179–1,185 (2007).
15. D. D. Forson, A. Storfer. Ecol Appl. 16, 2,325–2,332. (2006).
16. J. L. Kerby, A. Storfer. EcoHealth. 6, 91–98 (2009).
17. R. Brenes, M. J. Gray, T. B. Waltzek, R. P. Wilkes, D. L. Miller. PLOS ONE. 9,
e92476. (2014).
18. J. Mao, D. E. Green, G. Fellers, V. G. Chinchar. Virus Res. 63, 45–52 (1999)
19. T. Leu, B. Luscher, S. Zumbach, B. R. Schmidt. Amphibia-Reptilia. 30, 290–293
(2009).
20. S. A. Seiter. Evol Ecol Res. 13, 283–293 (2011).
21. M. R. Whiles, K. R. Lips, C. M. Pringle, S. S. Kilham, R. J. Bixby, et al. Front Ecol
Environ. 4, 27–34 (2006).
22. S. N. Stuart, J. S. Chanson, N. A. Cox, B. E. Young, A. S. L. Rodrigues et al.
Science. 306, 1,783–1,786 (2004).
By Alexandra Catherine North
Garden Management Could Help Reduce Amphibian
Disease: Citizen Science in the UK
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 37
The melodious rumble emanating from my car’s exhaust
now rests silent, suocated by the left-turn of an ignition
switch. Headlights o, the warm early morning sunbathes
the opaque plastics in a washed yellow. Still not yet fully awake, de-
spite the twenty-minute drive snaking through downtown Austin,
I clamber from my antiquated, well-worn driver’s seat, fogged by
confusion. “Okay, now do I have everything? Do I have my swim-
suit and towel?” I question myself with little reassurance. “Nope,
I left the towel in the hatch.” The mental checklist I’d simultane-
ously created now crossed-o, I coax my sti legs from their pedal-
resting connes onto the adjacent cold asphalt, dampened by the
morning’s dew. With a somewhat conscious ease, I make it through
the weathered gates, past the antiquated “Welcome!” sign, down
the limestone steps, eventually releasing my nylon duel bag onto
the graveled rock lining the creek bed. All is quiet, the eerie silence
coddled by situational solitude. No persons have yet stirred the
mirror-like water, and no stray waterfowl could be seen oating
through the veiling mist. But despite my waning hypnotic state, I
meticulously take o my black-hooded sweater, unlace my double-
knotted sneakers, pluck the no-show ankle socks from my now bare
feet, and slowly dip my yet acclimated lower body into the cold
spring waters. Amassing any lingering morale: “You’ve done this a
hundred times. Well, maybe not a hundred, but at least ten.” Again,
I repeat—and with bated breath. But the unnerving plunge is inevi-
table, a gesture of returned dignity. “How is this seventy-degrees?
Whose thermostat is leaking mercury?” But this is Baton Springs,
after all; a place where man and amphibian intermingle with little
acknowledgement of the other.
Because I honestly believe each of the aquifer’s endemic sala-
manders needs an equal, encompassing piece, this excerpt is one
the rst of a three-part installment, focusing around the vulnerable
Barton Springs Salamander (Eurycea sosorum).
Hatched in the secluding shadows of the spring’s rocky crevices,
these enigmatic, small salamanders begin life as mirror-images of
their adult ilk—just packed in a smaller, opaque epidermis. Again,
while we know every little about either their reproductive cycles
or maturation patterns, one factoid is all too clear: from the mil-
lisecond they emerge from their encasings, Barton Spring Salaman-
ders rely heavily on well-stocked populations of amphipods. Not
only has the salamander’s anity for this dietary cornerstone been
Part One: Within The Public Water Column: Eurycea
sosorum
By Matt Chanrock
Barton Springs Salamander (Eurycea sosorum). Photo: Matt Charnock.
38 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
observed in the wild, but also in CB/CBB (Captive Bred/Captive
Bred Born) individuals as well (1). And, should the elements and
habitat preservation be in their favor, the larval salamanders will,
in time, develop into neotenic adults, capable of spawning in the
late-fall and early-winter; researchers have observed developing
egg clusters in their niche habitats as early as September until late
January (2).
Abiotic factors hold no biotic prejudice, no predisposed conno-
tations; they exist absent minded of their surroundings. But, that
being said, the latter subject doesn’t quite hold the same mantra for
the former—and these translucent quadrupeds are no exception.
Like every other amphibious poikilotherm known to science,
Barton Spring Salamanders lean on the homeostatic, consistent
conditions of their aquatic realms (3). Occupying the secluded,
somewhat still shadows of the aquifer, they lurk, mostly unnoticed,
amongst their crystal-clear aquatic connes. However, despite
their geological crutch, these “canaries in the mine” do rely heavily
on both the health and abundance of the creek’s aquatic vegetation;
researchers observed a sharp decline in population counts when
such oral growth was scant. This correlation between healthy
plant growth and well-established populations of the salamanders
is likely the byproduct of ideal dissolved oxygen levels produced
by the copious amounts of photosynthetic verdure. But that’s not
to say all growth, regardless of taxonomic designation, is welcome.
Chytridiomycosis has already suocated a slew of amphibian
species out of existence and left many teetering. And, unfortunate-
ly, the Barton Springs Salamander didn’t elude the invasive fungus
completely—or successfully. Seven specimens were collected and,
out of the small sample pool, only one individual tested positive
for Bd; each animal’s DNA was extracted and put through PCR
amplication with two primer codes known for their anity for
chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis) code primer Bdla
(5’ CAG TGT GCC ATA CAC G-3’) and Bd2a (5’-CAT GGT TCA
TAT TCG TTC AG-3’’). But, fortunately, this mycelium alien hasn’t
woven the fungal noose that’s knotted much of their other, more
susceptible kin (4).
Lungless salamanders, as a conglomerate whole, are tightly wo-
ven into a water body’s ow regime, a variable sometimes eclipsed
by a discharge. But where those animals decide to live within the
water column is crucial, is essential to their livelihood. And, while a
system’s discharge may, on an oce spreadsheet, look unchanged,
the passing water ve feet below may have drastically shifted from
.15-feet/per-second to .24-feet/per-second in the same timespan,
rendering it uninhabitable for otherwise lethargic biotic factors. In
order to truly grasp the health and future sustainability of such
environmentally dependent animals—and Barton Spring Salaman-
ders tote that moniker proudly—micro data and analysis must be
at the forefront, placing macro assimilations in the still laudable
periphery (5, 6).
And then the ecological teeter-totter becomes unbalanced; the
ecology of that microhabitat now skyward in heavy disproportion.
Fully submerged, my hair now reminiscent of a damp suburban
rodent, I rocket back to the surface in thermal revolt. “OK, the hard
part’s over,” validating my now cherry-red complexion. “And it’s
only a 20-minute swim today, anyways. I got this.” But, just as I’m
about to kick my legs in forward population, a peculiar presence
populates my foresight. A small apparition of sorts—or so it initial-
ly appeared. Scaling the adjacent rock carpeted by silt-free algae,
its translucent body combs the vegetation for a satiating meal. “It’s
a Barton Springs Salamander! Wow, it really is one!” And, with the
enigmatic ease that graces such small amphibians, it slips almost
unnoticed into the crevice created by a neighboring rock. All is,
again, still, danced only by the passing bits of vascular plants; both
man and beast carry on in shared harmony.
References:
1. G. Hammerson, P. Chippindale, Eurycea sosorum. In: IUCN 2015 (IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.1, 2004).
2. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Barton Springs Salamander
(Eurycea sosorum), https://tpwd.texas.gov/huntwild/wild/species/
bartonspringssalamander/ (2015).
3. J. H. Gillespie, The ecology of the endangered Barton Springs Salamander
(Eurycea sosorum). [PhD Dissertation. Austin, Texas: University of Texas at
Austin] (2011).
4. J. P. Gaertner, M. R. J. Forstner, L. O’Donnell, D. Hahn, EcoHealth 6, 22–26
(2009).
5. L. Dries, Salamanders, Blue Gills & Eels, Oh My! The Biology of Barton
Springs (2013).
6. B. Scanlona, R. Maceb, M. Barrettc, B. Smithd, Journal of Hydrology 276, 137–158
(2003).
Photo: Timothy J/Flickr.
Barton Springs Salamander (Eurycea sosorum). Photo: Matt Charnock.
REGIONAL UPDATES
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 39
REGIONAL UPDATES
With the arrival of monsoon, the Western Ghats of India
have transformed into a lush green heaven for frogs and
toads. Among them is a unique species of toad. Unlike
its fellow toads that live on land, it lives in the forest canopy of ev-
ergreen forests across the Ghats—The Malabar Tree Toad, Pedostibes
tuberculosus Gunther, 1876. From a systematics perspective it is the
only species of Pedostibes found in the Western Ghats, while the
other four congeners are from North East India and Malaysia.
The Malabar Tree Toad was described way back in 1875 by Dr.
Albert Gunther based on a collection by Lieutenant Colonel Bed-
dome (Fig. 1) but lacked precise locality information (1). It had been
known from a few locations like Kalakkad, Ponmudi, Silent Valley
National Park, Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary, and Charmadi Ghats of
Karnataka (2). Apart from these sporadic observations and call re-
cords, there is little information about this species, leaving a great
chasm of knowledge waiting to be lled (Fig. 2).
In a rst, scientists at Gubbi Labs have assembled citizens to
bridge gaps in knowledge about this species. The citizen science
initiative called “Mapping the Malabar Tree Toad” started on June
6, 2015 and has already collected over 25 unique observations from
various parts of the Ghats in the past three months (Fig. 3). With
this information the habitat of this toad appears severely fragment-
ed; the distribution of this species is limited and the population is
suspected to be declining. These factors led the Global Amphibian
Assessment Team to classify the toad as Endangered (3) on the Red
List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
Scientists are constrained by time and resources to survey the
entire Western Ghats for such a rare species. However, for a na-
ture enthusiast living in and around the forests, they can simply
observe what is around them and report it on a common platform,
thus showing the unique power of Citizen Scientists at work. This
will not only help local inhabitants to enjoy and appreciate their
surroundings better but will contribute to strengthening the body
of knowledge needed to conserve species and their habitats.
Furthermore, this eort will enable us to bridge knowledge
gaps in the species’ ecology itself. So far, we know they breed in
the month of June but we do not know where they go for the rest
of the time. Do they climb trees, burrow into soil, or are they sim-
ply hiding in plain sight as no one is looking for them? These are
some questions the initiative will be able to answer given the eort
needed.
Critiques of citizen science initiatives often cast doubts about the
credibility of citizen based initiatives. But in this case, with Gubbi
Labs, a private research collective, India Biodiversity Portal (http://
indiabiodiversity.org/group/frog_watch/userGroup/show) and
EarthWatch Institute India as joint knowledge partners, there is a
strong scientic support to help gather the necessary information
into a useful format. Through this process, citizens, amateur natu-
ralists, nature photographers and the like can be transformed into
the role of a scientist and begin to systematically document natural
observations otherwise, too costly and time consuming for scien-
tists to gather. Such eorts are not new to biodiversity and its con-
servation. In the past several other taxa like birds, trees, bears, and
other groups have caught citizens’ attention and they have helped
map distribution, with varying levels of success (4-7).
Such initiatives serve two purposes: 1) they enable citizens to
appreciate the importance and beauty of scientic documentation,
and 2) it reduces the alienation of nature in their hearts and minds,
bringing them closer as a society to life around them. With much
of India’s biodiversity being found outside of protected areas and
among the general public, conservation eorts are greatly enhanced
and many might faulter without the publics support.
Scientists at Gubbi Labs have been actively working in the West-
ern Ghats and have come up with several publications and com-
Mapping the Malabar Tree Toad—a Citizen Science
Initiative in Conserving an Endangered Toad in the
Western Ghats of India
1Seshadri K.S. and 2Gururaja K.V.
1seshadri@u.nus.edu; 2gururaja@gubbilabs.in
Fig. 1: Malabar Tree Toad: Original description by Gunther 1875.
Fig. 2: A calling male Malabar Tree Toad. Photo: Gururaja KV.
40 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
puter/smart phone applications (apps) like the rst pictorial guide
to frogs and toads of the Western Ghats (8); FrogFind a mobile ap-
plication (9) to identify area frogs and recently, an acoustic guide
to the frogs and toads of Western Ghats called Mandookavani (10).
Will we pay heed to the voice of frogs? Will we listen to what
they have to say and take the necessary action? It remains to be
learned what can be accomplished through citizen based initia-
tives. Citizen programs like Mapping the Malabar Tree Toad are a
brazen attempt to bring these wonderful creatures of the night one
leap closer to our hearts. Each one of us could potentially be part
of this process of discovery by reporting our sightings of this rare
toad on http://tinyurl.com/malabartreetoad.
HOW TO REPORT A SIGHTING?
Step 1: Download Frog Find or log into India Biodiversity Portal
(IBP) to get familiar with the tree toad.
Step 2: On seeing the toad, record (take) a picture/record video/
record calls.
Step 3: Note the location and other pertinent observations.
Step 4: Report sighting using Frog Find by simply logging into
IBP and lling out the proper form(s).
Acknowledgements:
We thank all participants, who shared and contributed to the
knowledge about Malabar Tree Toad < http://indiabiodiversity.
org/group/frog_watch/show>. We also extend a wonderful
thanks to our knowledge partners Indiabiodiversity.org and
EarthWatch Institute India.
References:
1. A. C. L. G. Günther, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1875, 567 (1876).
2. K. V. Gururaja, T.V. Ramachandra, Herpetol. Rev. 37, 75 (2006).
3. S. D. Biju, S. Dutta, R. Inger, V. A. Gour-Broome, Pedostibes tuberculosus. In:
IUCN 2015. (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.2., 2004).
4. J. J. D. Greenwood, J. Ornithol. 148, S77 (2007).
5. L. L. Ingwell, E. L. Preisser, Conserv. Biol 25, 182 (2011).
6. S. A. Primm, Conserv. Biol. 10, 1,026 (1996).
7. J. L. Dickinson, B. Zuckerberg, D. N. Bonter, Annual Review of Ecology,
Evolution, and Systematics 41, 149 (2010).
8. K. V. Gururaja, A Pictorial Guide to Frogs and Toads of the Western Ghats
(Gubbi Labs LLP, Gubbi, 2012).
9. Frog Find ver. 1.1., https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.
gubbilabs.frogsandtoads&hl=en (2014).
10. B. Ramya, K. S. Seshadri, R. Singal, K. V. Gururaja, Mandookavani: An
Acoustic Guide to the Frogs and Toads of the Western Ghats. Ver. 1.0. (Gubbi
Labs LLP, Gubbi, 2015).
Fig. 3: Citizen scientists searching the toad. Photo: Gururaja KV.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 41
Like previous workshops, Bamboo Rustles, an organization
which organizes nature education and awareness programs,
hosted “Scientists and Citizens:” Amphibian workshop with Dr
Gururaja KV. The workshop was in its 3rd year and was scheduled
to take place in Chingara, Honey Valley, Coorg, from 10–12th July 2015.
As I expressed my desire to join the group, Dr. Gururaja gave me an
unforgettable opportunity—this time, I will be giving an introduc-
tory presentation about amphibians, their global presence, and describ-
ing our own Western Ghats and its amazing diversity and citizen science
initiatives to a bunch of amphibian enthusiasts. This was ocially
the rst time, I was addressing a group of people who were from
diverse backgrounds—business, commerce, engineering, advertis-
ing and many others but had converged to uncover the interesting
world of frogs and toads. I was enthusiastic and equally nervous,
but was looking forward to this exciting exchange nonetheless.
We reached Honey Valley in the afternoon of July 10th and my talk
was scheduled after lunch. A funny thought about participants fall-
ing asleep during my talk did cross my mind and I was getting all
the more nervous; it was about time I started o. Well, assembling
the setup for my presentation was at its creative best and took a
good 45-minutes time. After setting up, I began giving a general
introduction about amphibians, their local and worldwide distribu-
tion, about a few commonly occurring and highly endemic species,
their behavior, current IUCN status of some species, threats posed
to them and citizen science initiatives. Rants become monotonous,
but thankfully, the group got eager and enthusiastic and the par-
ticipants were posing great questions which eventually led to avid
discussions. The session was gripping enough. No one seemed to
be bothered about the cold, chilly weather outside—everyone was
so engrossed in the discussion. I was delighted to see participants
opening up in spite of coming from such diverse backgrounds, their
knowledge about wildlife was immense. Our discussions got inter-
Bridging Gaps between Scientists and Citizens:
Uncovering the World of Frogs and Toads in Honey
Valley, Coorg, Karnataka, India
By Ramya Badrinath
Photos: Ramya Badrinath.
Research Associate, Gubbi Labs LLP, #2/182, 2nd Cross, Extension,
Gubbi-572216, Karnataka, India. E-mail: ramya@gubbilabs.in
42 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
esting, one thing led to another and there was a great outpouring
of enthusiasm that I didn’t realize how the time ew. By the time I
wrapped up the introductory session, I realized it was already time
to set out to the eld for another adventure in amphibian biology!
Dr. Gururaja joined us later that evening and we set out in search
for frogs. It was indeed an audio visual treat for all of us, for we
got to hear the amazing symphony of bush and stream croakers
and even see a few species. The participants were engrossed in ob-
serving the behavior of the species they saw and diligently making
notes. I was more drawn towards recording the frog songs. The
lush green thicket of Honey Valley seemed more like an acousti-
cally engineered concert hall with operas, choirs and symphonies
from frogs, birds and insects around. It was nothing short of eu-
phoria. We spent close to six hours in the eld that night.
The next day began with an extended presentation by Dr. Guru-
raja KV and some amazing inputs about amphibians and his ex-
periences from his research career that span fteen years. We then
set out to Tadiandamol, the highest peak in Coorg district. As we
hiked along, we could spot a variety of bush croakers besides hear-
ing the symphony. Dr. Gururaja gave some amazing natural his-
tory insights. It was great to see the participants’ eagerness to learn
new things. Their excitement knew no bounds. It seemed to ow
beyond its capacity. Dr. Gururaja led the team during eld work
and we trekked all along. We didn’t climb till the peak of Tadian-
damol. All that mattered to us was to make random stops, look for
frogs on either sides of the trekking pathway, get into dense patch-
es on the way and scout around for bush and stream frogs. All the
participants were instructed not to catch the frogs barehanded, for
there is a possibility of infections spreading. Also, the ethics of pho-
tographing a species in its natural habitat was instructed. We were
glad that none of the participants breached the rules. Be it morning
or late night, all the participants, Srikanth, Suma, Amatya, Nagesh
and Raja were enthusiastic to set out to the eld and make notes
of whatever they observed or heard. Time didn’t stop their excite-
ment to observe frogs! Srikanth and Amatya were professional
photographers, but others weren’t less either. All of them got great
record shots of the species they saw.
The next morning, we went near a private waterfall owned by
Chingara Resorts Pvt. Ltd., to look for dancing frogs. Dancing
frogs, as they are called, have a spectacular foot agging behavior.
We could see one or two species of dancing frogs, calling out to
their counterparts, displaying their white vocal sacs which were in
contrast to their morphological color.
Apart from the frogs, we saw a couple of non-venomous snake
species too. Sandeep, our snake expert was sharing his immense
knowledge on snakes with us. Amatya also has an amazing knowl-
edge on snakes. As a bonus, while we were returning in jeeps from
Honey Valley to Kabbinkaad junction where our vehicle was
parked, Sandeep spotted a Coral Snake gulping in a caecilian! That
was quite a sight. One group (including me) which had already
reached Kabbinkad missed the sighting; the other group was fortu-
nate enough to witness it. This was indeed a great natural history
record.
Our two-day workshop ended with that note, but was a great
beginning for all the participants to embrace themselves into the
wilderness. The to and fro journey was a sheer contrast of sorts. We
behaved like aliens- not knowing how to break the ice and what
to talk while coming, but while going back, it was completely op-
posite. All of us had eventually immersed ourselves into intense
scientic discussions that we crossed a host of towns during our
journey in almost no time.
Here’s a list of the frogs and toads we encountered during the
two-day workshop at Honey Valley:
1. Duttaphrynus melanostictus, Common Indian Toad
2. Ghatophryne ornate, Malabar Torrent Toad
3. Indosylvirana intermedius, Rao’s Intermediate Golden Backed
Frog
4. Micrixalus elegans, Elegant Dancing Frog
5. Micrixalus saxicola, Wayanad Dancing Frog
6. Nyctibatrachus grandis, Wayanad Night Frog
7. Nyctibatrachus minimus, Miniature Night Frog
8. Nyctibatrachus sanctipalustris, Coorg Night Frog
9. Raorchestes chromasynchisii, Confusing Colored Bush Frog
10. Raorchestes glandulosus, Glandular Bush Frog
Photos: Suma H / Ramya Badrinath.
Sound recording in progress. Photo: Gururaja KV.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 43
11. Raorchestes luteolus, Yellow Bush Frog
12. Raorchestes nerostagona, Kalpetta Yellow Bush Frog
13. Raorchestes ponmudi, Ponmudi Bush Frog
14. Raorchestes tuberohumerus, Knob Handed Bush Frog
15. Rhacophorus malabaricus, Malabar Gliding frog
16. Zakerana caparata, Cricket Frog
17. Zakerana kudremukhensis, Kudremukh Cricket Frog
18. Ichthyophis sp.
19. Gegeneophis sps.
The main aim of the workshop was to get all the participants
interested in the world of amphibians. Their full participation at
every step gave a deep sense of satisfaction that we had achieved
what we intended to do. By the time the workshop ended, irre-
spective of the backgrounds they came from, they had all turned to
citizen scientists by then. The citizen science initiative, started by
Gubbi Labs and India Biodiversity Portal is slowly gaining impetus
and is having active participation from both scientists and citizens
all over India. People are actively contributing their observations
which eventually would help in gaining insights to amphibian
distribution, their behavior, threats and IUCN status. One such ini-
tiative which has gained full momentum is the Mapping Malabar
Tree Toad initiative (Mapping the distribution of Pedostibes tuber-
culosus – Malabar Tree Toad). This initiative started and led by Dr.
KV Gururaja, along with Gubbi Labs, India Biodiversity Portal and
Earthwatch India is progressing well with great contributions from
users.
Photos: Ramya Badrinath.
A coral snake swallowing a caecelian. Photo: Gururaja KV.
44 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
India’s Western Ghats is known for its high amphibian diver-
sity. In the last decade more than 100 new frog species were
discovered from this region (1) and many more are still wait-
ing to be discovered from this amazing biological treasure trove.
While much is known about adults, the larval life forms of frogs
from Western Ghats are less studied with few descriptions dating
back to the 19th century (2).
The frog genus Nyctibatrachus (late Cretaceous in origin) is en-
demic to Western Ghats of India. These are stream dwelling frogs
found in torrent streams or leaf litter on forest oor (3). The adults
are nocturnal. While working on adults we realized that we know
very little about the tadpoles. Understanding larval ecology is im-
portant as they reect the natural history (4) and can provide useful
information about evolution of amphibians (5).
Our study involved identifying Nyctibatrachus tadpoles for un-
derstanding their ecology. The study was conducted in streams
and Myristica swamps of evergreen forests (Fig. 1) of Sharavathi
and Aghanashini river basins. These river basins are two of the
major west owing rivers of the Western Ghats and form a part of
Aghanashini Lion tailed Macaque Conservation Reserve. Myristica
swamps are unique ecosystems that are relict in origin (6). These
are freshwater swamps that provide perennial source of water.
They also harbor many endemic ora and fauna. We conducted the
study in six streams and sampling was carried out from upstream
to downstream. The downstream areas comprised of swamp forests
while the upstream areas consisted of agricultural elds. Previous
inventory of amphibians from these Myristica swamps included
three Nyctibatrachus species N. kempholeyensis, N.
jog and N. kumbara. The tadpoles of these three
species co-occur in the streams. They were seen
at the edges of the stream where the water is shal-
low and slow owing. The microhabitat is mainly
made of sand, small gravel and leaf debris. The
tadpoles could be seen scraping leaf debris and
when approached hid under the substrate. These
tadpoles are diurnal and we did not observe any
cannibalistic or schooling behavior.
Morphologically the tadpoles of N. kempholey-
ensis, N. jog and N. kumbara look similar with
brownish dorsal color. However, there were
signicant dierences in their size (Table 1). Al-
though N. kempholeyensis could be distinguished
easily from other two species, it was dicult to
identify N. jog and N. kumbara morphologically
(Fig. 2). Therefore we made use of molecular
methods like DNA barcoding for better identi-
cation. DNA barcoding using standard 16S rRNA
gene was helpful in distinguishing the tadpoles
of three species. Besides identication, we could
also understand that among the tadpoles so far
described from Western Ghats, tadpoles from this genus lack labial
teeth, a trait that is unique to this genus and could have evolution-
ary implications (7).
The tadpoles of Nyctibatrachus inhabit streams of evergreen for-
ests and Myristica swamps. Many of the Myristica swamps have
been converted into areca plantations or into agriculture elds.
These Myristica swamps once were found throughout the water-
courses of Western Ghats but now are fragmented. Such changes
can also alter the microhabitats used by the tadpoles and can aect
both tadpoles and adults. We think that batrachologists and people
involved in amphibian conservation must also study tadpoles. Such
studies can be helpful in conservation planning as tadpoles remain
in their habitat for a longer period of time than adults. In India,
there has not been much research on tadpoles. Studies on tadpoles
of over 350 species can not only increase our understanding about
their ecology but also to appreciate conservation and evolutionary
perspectives.
References:
1. D. R. Frost, Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0.
New York: American Museum of Natural History; [cited 2015 Jan 4]. Available:
http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/amphibia/index.html.
2. N. A. Aravind, K. V. Gururaja. Amphibian of Western Ghats. Commissioned
paper for Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel. Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India (2012).
3. K. V. Gururaja, K. P. Dinesh, H. Priti, G. Ravikanth, Zootaxa 3796, 33–51 (2014).
4. M. Thomas, L. Raharivololoniaina, F. Glaw, M. Vences, D. R. Vieites, Copeia 1,
174 (2005).
5. K. Roelants, A. Haas, F. Bossuyt, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 106, 8,731 (2011).
6. M. D. Chandran, D.K. Mesta, In: Forest Genetic Resources: Status, Threats and
Conservation Strategies, R. Uma Shaanker, K.N. Ganeshaiah, K.S. Bawa, Eds.
(Oxford, New Delhi, 2001), pp. 1–19.
7. H. Priti, K. V. Gururaja, G. Ravikanth, J. Nat. Hist. 49, (2015) doi:10.1080/00222
933.2015.1034212
IdenticationofTadpolesofanEndemicGenus
Nyctibatrachus from Central Western Ghats India
By H. 1,2Priti, K.V. 3Gururaja & 1G. Ravikanth
1Suri Sehgal Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation, Ashoka Trust
for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Royal Enclave,
Srirampura, Jakkur Post, Bangalore 560064 2Manipal University, Madhav
Nagar, Manipal 576 104, India 3Gubbi Labs LLP, R & D Center, WS-
5, Entrepreneurship Center, SID, Indian Institute of Science Campus,
Bengaluru, India
Fig. 1: Myristica swamp forest, central Western Ghats, India. Photo: Gururaja KV.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 45
Fig. 2: Tadpoles of Nyctibatrachus kumbara. Photo: Dr. Gururaja.
Table 1. Morphometric variations in tadpoles (stage 25) of Nyctibatrachus jog (n = 8), N. kempholeyensis (n=6) and N. kumbara (n = 7). Measurements in mm.
Characters N. jog N. kempholeyensis N. kumbara
Mean±Sd Range Mean±Sd Range Mean±Sd Range
BL 11.2 ± 0.6 (10.4 - 12.1) 6.2 ± 0.5 (5.2 - 6.8) 16.6 ± 1.9 (13.8 - 20.2)
BH 5.1 ± 0.2 (4.7 - 5.3) 2.6 ± 0.4 (2.1 - 3.2) 7.2 ± 1.1 (5.7 - 8.7)
BW 6.8 ± 0.7 (5.7 - 7.6) 3.5 ± 0.4 (3.0 - 4.0) 10.5 ± 2.0 (7.9 - 13.3)
TL 31.6 ± 2.6 (28.4 - 36.2) 18.5 ± 1.8 (16.4 - 20.6) 47.0 ±5.8 (39.0 - 56.9)
TAL 20.5 ± 2.0 (18.0 - 24.1) 12.3 ± 1.4 (10.6 - 13.9) 30.4 ± 4.1 (24.5 - 36.7)
ED 0.9 ± 0.1 (0.8 - 1.1) 0.5 ± 0.1 (0.4 - 0.6) 1.4 ± 0.3 (0.9 - 1.8)
IOD 3.3 ± 0.3 (3.0 - 3.7) 1.8 ± 0.2 (1.5 - 1.9) 4.9 ± 0.7 (3.7 - 6.0)
IND 2.0 ± 0.2 (1.8 - 2.3) 1.2 ± 0.1 (1.0 - 1.4) 2.7 ± 0.3 (2.1 - 3.1)
ESD 3.6 ± 0.3 (3.3 - 4.2) 2.3 ± 0.3 (2.0 - 2.6) 5.2 ± 0.5 (4.4 - 5.9)
TMH 3.8 ± 0.3 (3.3 - 4.1) 2.3 ± 0.2 (2.0 - 2.6) 5.9 ± 1.1 (4.6 - 7.8)
TMW 2.6 ± 0.4 (2.1 - 3.2) 1.3 ± 0.1 (1.1 - 1.4) 4.3 ± 0.7 (3.1 - 5.5)
MTH 5.1 ± 0.6 (4.5 - 6.3) 2.7 ± 0.2 (2.4 - 3.0) 7.9 ± 1.4 (5.9 - 10.1)
DF 1.5 ± 0.2 (1.4 - 2.0) 0.8 ± 0.1 (0.7 - 0.9) 2.4 ± 0.5 (1.6 - 3.1)
TMHM 2.5 ± 0.4 (2.1 - 3.2) 1.3 ± 0.2 (1.1 - 1.5) 3.9 ± 0.6 (3.2 - 4.9)
VF 1.1± 0.3 (0.7 - 1.6) 0.6 ± 0.1 (0.5 - 0.6) 1.5 ± 0.4 (0.9 - 2.2)
ODW 1.9 ± 0.2 (1.5 - 2.0) 1.0 ± 0.1 (0.8 - 1.1) 2.7 ± 0.5 (2.0 - 3.3)
46 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
Reproduction is central to progression of all life forms. While
processes like budding are straightforward, things start to
get complex when sexual reproduction is examined. Am-
phibians are model organisms where reproduction—the all-impor-
tant life history trait-reaches bewildering complexity. The diversity
so high, that we refer to them as reproductive strategies or more
simply, reproductive modes. Anurans exhibit a staggering 42 dier-
ent reproductive modes, by far the highest among all vertebrates.
The nearest contender, mustering a mere 20 odd modes lays rather
expectedly, in water—sh.
ANURAN REPRODUCTIVE MODES
There is no single answer to what is a reproductive mode. Over
the century, our thinking of what exactly is a reproductive mode
has evolved (1). A simple means of classifying a reproductive mode
is based on three aspects of an anurans life history: the egg deposi-
tion site; what kind of an egg and whether or not parental care ex-
ists (2). If one examined the reproductive modes of all anurans, the
pattern of increasing terrestriality and decreasing dependence on
water becomes apparent as over 20 modes are aquatic. It seems only
natural to think that anurans, with their aquatic ancestors would
have reproductive modes that are largely aquatic too. But molecu-
lar evidence and increasing natural history information have made
us question the notion that anuran reproduction has progressed
further from aquatic dependence to increased terrestriality (3).
DISCOVERY FROM A RE-DISCOVERY: THE
INTRIGUING CASE OF RAORCHESTES CHALAZODES
It was the middle of 2009. I was working on acoustic monitoring
canopy dwelling frogs in the Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve
(KMTR) in Southern Western Ghats. Sprawling over 900 sq kilome-
ters, the upper reaches of this reserve are covered with the largest
contagious tropical wet evergreen forests in all of Western Ghats.
In the monsoons, I spent extended periods of time studying frogs
among other things. It was during one such stint that I witnessed
an exhilarating sight. Dr. Ganesh, Prashanth and I were heading
up into the eld station in Upper Kodayar. We decided to stop by a
place called the “Wooden Bridge” named so after a bridge opened
in the October of 1942 by the British. This road across the origins of
River Manimutharu leads to a tea estate owned by the Bombay Bur-
mah Trading Corporation. It was June and the rains had begun to
lash out relentlessly. That night, the rains ceased momentarily. We
walked into the bamboo clump along the stream and homed in on
calls of Raorchestes chalazodes (Fig. 1). It was not an onerous task. We
saw an adult male calling on a bamboo stalk. I grabbed my camera
and began to record. As we stood there watching it, the frog did
Rhacophorid Frogs Breeding in Bamboo: Discovery of a
Novel Reproductive Mode from Western Ghats
Fig. 1: Raorchestes chalazodes from Upper Kodayar, Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve. Photo: Seshadri KS.
By Seshadri K S
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 47
something that left us all in awe. It squeezed itself into the bamboo
stalk via a small opening and that too with great diculty (Fig. 2).
We were the rst to observe this behavior and capture footage
of it. Raorchestes chalazodes is an enigmatic frog belonging to the
tree frog family Rhacophoridae. For several years, it was thought
to be “lost” until an expedition comprising of Drs. Biju, Ganesan
and myself stumbled upon it on bamboo clumps along the road in
Upper Kodayar (4). After this, I had spent several nights trying to
locate this frog and had narrowed down to bamboo clumps. I had
carefully split the bamboo and observed that the frogs breed inside
and usually the male frog would be with the egg. Over two mon-
soon seasons, I managed to get a fair hold on what was happening.
Several nights and man-hours of searching for these frogs in forests
away from bamboo and streams did not yield results.
After seeing the frog strenuously enter bamboo, I undertook fur-
ther explorations and studies as part of my Ph.D. This resulted in
observations of an egg clutch, developmental stages, breeding phe-
nology and habitat preferences some in depth, some cursory but
nonetheless, one tiny leap towards unveiling the momentary truth
of knowledge. While several modes were described earlier, there
was no such mode described where the frog would enter bamboo
via a small opening and lay direct developing eggs in internodes
devoid of water. In addition, there was the male taking care of the
developing embryos.
In this process, we realized that another species of frog from the
Western Ghats, Raorchestes ochlandrae (Fig. 3) also showed similar
behavior. Eggs were laid inside bamboo internodes and the adult
male would stay with eggs indicating the presence of parental care.
Having now gathered sucient evidence, we realized that we had
discovered a novel reproductive mode among all frogs and de-
scribed the same (5).
WHY BREED IN BAMBOO?
These frogs, measuring between 20.6–25.2 mm from snout to
vent breed inside hollow bamboo internodes; they enter and exit
bamboo via small openings. Stems where we found egg clutches
(n = 2) and having froglets (n = 1) were on average 26.5 ± 6.6 mm
in outer diameter and 16.4 ± 5.02 mm in the inside. The openings
were 39.0 ± 32.88 mm in length and 3.4 ± 2.77 mm in width. The egg
clutches were always observed inside internodes where the open-
ings were towards the base and eggs would be on the upper end.
The internode lengths ranged from 400–630 mm and the upper end
of opening to nearest egg in each egg ranged from 77–450 mm. The
clumps of bamboo comprised of 13–86 stalks and grew in dense
clusters along streams (Fig. 4).
Eggs were spherical and transparent with creamy white yolks.
They were attached to the inner walls of the bamboo by means of a
mucilaginous strand (Fig. 5). Multiple clutches were separated by
only a few millimeters and averaged 1.5 ± 1 clutches per internode
(n = 6). Average clutch size was 6.7 ± 1.2 egg/clutch (n = 4) and eggs
were 5.73 ± 0.66 mm in diameter (n = 28 from ve clutches; Fig.
Fig. 2: R. chalazodes entering bamboo- a sequential screen grab. (Video url: amphibiaweb.
org/species/4399). Photo: Seshadri KS.
Fig. 3: Raorchestes ochlandrae male from Coorg, Karnataka. Photo: Seshadri KS.
Fig. 4: Ochlandra travancorica habitat where R. chalazodes breeds. Photo: Seshadri KS.
48 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
6). The froglets would remain inside the internode upon hatching.
Coloration would be similar to the adult except the eye ornamenta-
tion (Fig. 7).
Bamboo breeding appears to be a common trajectory taken by
several frogs in the Western Ghats. There is another group of frogs
like R. manohari and R. uthamani which are distinctly smaller and
geographically spaced out and yet, breed in smaller bamboo stalks.
Recent molecular evidence also does suggest that the bamboo
breeding frogs from a distinct clade within the larger Rhacopho-
rid group of Raorchestes (6). E.O Wilson in 1975 (7) attributed four
main drivers for the evolution of life strategies in amphibians. Ad-
aptations like parental care (Fig. 8) evolved when organisms were
in stable and structured habitats; or in unusually stressful envi-
ronments; depended on scarce or specialized food resources; and
lastly, faced considerable predation pressures. In both R. ochlandrae
and R. chalazodes the bamboo breeding seemed to be an adaptation
being driven by some force.
What transpires inside the bamboo internodes? What animal
makes openings on bamboo? How do these frogs nd and keep
track of these limited ephemeral resources? These are questions
with answers of varying certainty. Perhaps when we nd out more,
we would know why this novel reproductive mode evolved.
CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
This frog, listed as Critically Endangered, also inhabits habitats
that are considered unimportant or are commercially viable and
exploited. Ochlandra travancorica the Indian ute bamboo grows
luxuriantly along streams in the evergreen forests of the Western
Ghats. Several species of this bamboo are also used for manufacture
of paper and pulp. A few years ago, a charismatic frog Raorchestes
manohari was described after Robin Abraham and his team heard
a new frog call from a truck carrying Ochlandrae reeds to a paper
factory (8)! My ongoing work has yielded interesting outcomes on
novel behavior and insights into ecological constraints. These are
Fig. 5: Egg clutches of R. chalazodes inside internode. Photo: Seshadri KS.
Fig. 6: Egg development inside bamboo progressing from A to C. Photo: Seshadri KS.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 49
Fig. 7: Hatched froglets at varying stages of development. D is inside internode and E is after it emerges out. Photo: Seshadri KS.
Fig. 8: Adult male of R. chalazodes (A) and R. ochlandrae (B) guarding eggs inside bamboo,
an example of parental care. Photo: Seshadri KS
vital to determine key drivers for evolution of reproductive strate-
gies. The studies will feed into management plans were bamboo
reeds are harvested. Intervention measures to conserve these frogs
could range from simply not harvesting bamboo during the frogs’
breeding season.
IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL HISTORY
Studies on the reproductive modes in anurans have come a long
way. In a seminal synthesis of anuran reproductive modes, Marty
Crump (1) writes, “The concept of reproductive mode has evolved
from descriptive natural history to an integration of developmen-
tal biology, genetics, systematics, evolution, ecology, behavior, and
physiology that frames our thinking about the transition of verte-
brates from water to land and about anuran reproductive adapta-
tions to diverse environments today…The next decade is certain
to witness signicant advances in our understanding of anuran
reproductive modes.”
True to this, a novel reproductive mode was discovered from
a fanged frog Limnonectes larvaepartus (9). In the Western Ghats
alone, yet another reproductive mode was discovered in late 2014.
The mud packing potter frog Nyctibatrachus kumbara was found to
be covering non-aquatic eggs with mud (10). Our own discovery of
novel reproductive mode in R. ochlandrae and R. chalazodes was an-
other addition. These discoveries all have one thing in common—
natural history observations. It is the perseverance of people who
have spent time in the eld doing nothing but listening to what
frogs have to say.
In light of our new discovery, says Dr. David Bickford based at
the National University of Singapore “It is 2014, and we are still
making discoveries like these; natural history is sexy—always was
and always will be.” He adds, “No matter what the molecular and
genomic revolutions have accomplished for us in the biological sci-
ences, nature is still the ultimate source for everything we do in
biology.”
India is home to an astonishing variety of life forms and the
Western Ghats is a well-known hotspot for amphibian radiation.
While amphibians are on the decline everywhere, several novel-
ties have been uncovered from the Western Ghats. While taxonomy
and systematics have gone leaps and bounds; natural history and
evolutionary ecology of amphibians has, in general, been lagging
behind. This gap can and surely will be lled by good science
stemming from patiently documenting natural history. There is
much ground to be covered for fully unraveling natures’ mysteries
around anurans and us will lead us forward.
The work reported here was published as Seshadri, K. S., Guru-
raja, K. V., & Bickford, D. P. (2015). Breeding in bamboo: a novel
anuran reproductive strategy discovered in Rhacophorid frogs of
the Western Ghats, India. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society,
114(1), 1–11.
Acknowledgements
This work has nancial support from Md. Bin Zayed Fund,
Chicago Zoological Trust, Conservation Leadership Program and
National University of Singapore.
References:
1. M. L. Crump, Journal of Herpetology. 49, 1–16 (2015).
2. W. D. Wells, The Ecology and Behavior of Amphibians. (University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, IL, USA, 2007).
3. I. Gomez-Mestre, R. A. Pyron, J. J. Wiens, Evolution 66, 3687–3700 (2012).
4. Lost! Amphibians of India. http://www.lostspeciesindia.org/LAI2/new1_
rediscovered.php (2011).
5. K. S. Seshadri, K. V. Gururaja, D. P. Bickford., Biological Journal of the Linnean
Society, 114, 1–11 (2015).
6. S. P. Vijayakumar, K. P. Dinesh, M. V. Prabhu, K. Shanker, Zootaxa, 3893,
451–488 (2015).
7. E. O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The new synthesis. (Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, MA, USA, 1975).
8. R. Abraham, More frog bounties from India’s peninsular mountains. FrogLog.
98, 19–21 (2011).
9. D. T. Iskandar, B. J. Evans, J. A. McGuire, PLoS ONE. 9, e115884. doi:10.1371/
journal.pone.0115884 (2015).
10. K. V. Gururaja, K. P. Dinesh, H. Priti, G. Ravikanth, Zootaxa, 3796, 033–061
(2014).
50 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
Identifying the relative impact among dierent threatening
processes is critical to understanding the causes of population
declines. However, determining the proximal cause of declines
of wildlife populations is often dicult because multiple factors
may be involved and demographic population data pre- and post-
decline are often inadequate (1,2).
Researchers have identied the amphibian pathogen Batracho-
chytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) as a major cause of amphibian declines
globally (3). However, few studies have documented the real-time
changes in host population dynamics and pathogen prevalence
during the arrival of Bd and decline of amphibian populations (4).
Consequently, in many instances the role of Bd in the decline of
many amphibian species is only inferred, rather than demonstrated.
We report the decline and extinction of a population of a threat-
ened temperate montane frog species, the Spotted Tree Frog (Lito-
ria spenceri), in southeastern Australia. The Spotted Tree Frog is a
stream-breeding species from the southern highlands of eastern
Australia, and is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species (5). In 1992 scientists began intensive re-
search and population monitoring to examine the species’ ecology
and factors responsible for its decline. Two causes of decline were
subsequently implicated as primary causes of decline (6-8): habitat
degradation from forestry and historic gold mining, and predation
of tadpoles by introduced trout. However, in 1996 we observed a
precipitous decline of one population that we were studying, in
Koscuiusko National Park, which ultimately went extinct. This
population was unique: it was restricted to a trout-free stream, was
one of few populations in protected areas; and it had a high popu-
lation density (6,9). Unlike most declining species at the time, the
ecology and population demography of the Spotted Tree Frog were
well understood, and a monitoring program was in place, enabling
prompt detection of the decline and evaluation of its cause.
Researchers had used phalange-clipping for mark-recapture stud-
ies prior and during the decline. Historically all phalanges had been
histologically mounted for skeletochronological age estimation of
individual frogs in the population (8). After the observed popula-
tion cash, scientists scanned the large set of histological samples for
Bd. Bayesian modelling of the pattern of change in detection of Bd in
the phalanges (4) showed that the decline was strongly linked to the
arrival and increased prevalence of Bd, estimated to have emerged
in the population within 39 days of rst detection. Our extensive
ecological knowledge of this species, combined with the demo-
graphic data on this population, enabled us to condently discount
alternative explanations for the observed population extinction.
These ndings are the rst real-time observation of a mass die-o
and subsequent population decline in a temperate Australian spe-
cies, and the rst precise estimate of Bd arrival in a frog population
in Australia. The historical population declines, resulting from trout
predation, restricted the Spotted Tree Frog to a small geographic
area at the environmental margins of its natural range, rendering it
vulnerable to environmental and demographic stochastic extinction
processes—in this case a disease outbreak. Therefore these ndings
not only provide compelling evidence that Bd has contributed to
amphibian declines, but they also demonstrate how Bd may work
in concert with other threatening processes, resulting in extinction.
References:
1. R. Biek, W.C. Funk, B. A. Maxell, L.S. Mills, Conserv. Biol. 16, 728 (2002).
2. A. R.Blaustein, J. M. Kiesecker, Ecol. Letters 5, 597 (2002).
3. P. Daszak, L. Berger, A. A. Cunningham, A. D. Hyatt, D. E. Green, R. Speare,
Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5, 735 (1999).
4. B. L. Phillips, R. Puschendorf, J. VanDerWal, R. A. Alford, PLOS one 7, e52502.
(2013).
5. IUCN, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013.2. http://www.
iucnredlist.org/details/12154/0
6. G.R. Gillespie, Biol. Conserv. 100, 187 (2001).
7. G.R. Gillespie, Biol. Conserv. 106, 141 (2002).
8. G.R. Gillespie, Wildl. Res. 37, 19 (2010).
9. G.R. Gillespie, G. Hollis, Wildl. Res. 23, 49 (1996).
Rapid Decline and Extinction of a Montane Frog
Population in Southern Australia Follows Detection of
Bd
By 1G. R. Gillespie, 2D. Hunter, 3L. Berger & 4G. Marantelli
1Zoology Department, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria
3052, Australia. 2New South Wales Oce of Environment and Heritage,
Queanbeyan 2620, Australia. 3One Health Research Group, School of
Public Health, Tropical Medicine and Rehabilitation Sciences, James Cook
University, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia. 4Amphibian Research
Centre, P.O. Box 1365, Pearcedale, Victoria 3912, Australia.
Spotted Tree Frog Litoria spenceri at Bogong Creek, Kosciusko National Park in 1993.
Photo: Graeme Gillespie.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 51
Recent Publications
Conservation and Ecology
Amphibians and conservation breeding
programs: Do all threatened amphibians
belong on the ark?
Benjamin Tapley, Kay S. Bradeld, Christopher
Michaels & Mike Bungard
Amphibians are facing an extinction crisis
and conservation breeding programs
are a tool used to prevent imminent species
extinctions. Compared to mammals and
birds, amphibians are considered ideal
candidates for these programs due to their
small body size and low space requirements,
high fecundity, applicability of reproductive
technologies, short generation time, lack
of parental care, hard wired behavior, low
maintenance requirements, relative cost
eectiveness of such programs, the success
of several amphibian conservation breeding
programs and because captive husbandry
capacity exists. Supercially, these reasons
appear sound and conservation breeding has
improved the conservation status of several
amphibian species, however it is impossible
to make generalizations about the biology
or geo-political context of an entire class.
Many threatened amphibian species fail
to meet criteria that are commonly cited as
reasons why amphibians are suitable for
conservation breeding programs. There are
also limitations associated with maintaining
populations of amphibians in the zoo and
private sectors, and these could potentially
undermine the success of conservation
breeding programs and reintroductions.
We recommend that species that have
been assessed as high priorities for ex
situ conservation action are subsequently
individually reassessed to determine their
suitability for inclusion in conservation
breeding programs. The limitations and
risks of maintaining ex situ populations of
amphibians need to be considered from the
outset and, where possible, mitigated. This
should improve program success rates and
The Critically Endangered Mountain Chicken Frog
(Leptodactylus fallax), a species where conservation
breeding is, at the moment, the most realistic hope for the
species. Photo: Benjamin Tapley, ZSL.
ensure that the limited funds dedicated to
ex situ amphibian conservation are allocated
to projects which have the greatest chance
of success.
B. Tapley, K, Bradeld, C. Michaels, M.
Bungard, Biodivers. Conser. (2015).
Climate as a driver of tropical insular
diversity: Comparative phylogeography
of two ecologically distinctive frogs in
Puerto Rico
Brittany S. Barker, Javier A. Rodríguez-Robles &
Joseph A. Cook
The eects of late Quaternary climate
on distributions and evolutionary
dynamics of insular species are poorly
understood in most tropical archipelagoes.
We used ecological niche models under past
and current climate to derive hypotheses
regarding how stable climatic conditions
shaped genetic diversity in two ecologically
distinctive frogs in Puerto Rico. Whereas
the Mountain Coquí, Eleutherodactylus
portoricensis, is restricted to montane forest
in the Cayey and Luquillo Mountains,
the Red-eyed Coquí, E. antillensis, is a
habitat generalist distributed across the
entire Puerto Rican Bank (Puerto Rico and
the Virgin Islands, excluding St. Croix).
To test our hypotheses, we conducted
phylogeographic and population genetic
analyses based on mitochondrial and
nuclear loci of each species across their
range in Puerto Rico. Patterns of population
dierentiation in E. portoricensis, but not in
E. antillensis, supported our hypotheses.
For E. portoricensis, these patterns include:
individuals isolated by long-term unsuitable
climate in the Río Grande de Loíza Basin
in eastern Puerto Rico belong to dierent
genetic clusters; past and current climate
strongly predicted genetic dierentiation;
and Cayey and Luquillo Mountains
populations split prior to the last interglacial.
For E. antillensis, these patterns include:
genetic clusters did not fully correspond to
predicted long-term unsuitable climate; and
past and current climate weakly predicted
patterns of genetic dierentiation. Genetic
signatures in E. antillensis are consistent
with a recent range expansion into western
Puerto Rico, possibly resulting from climate
change and anthropogenic inuences.
As predicted, regions with a large area of
long-term suitable climate were associated
with higher genetic diversity in both
species, suggesting larger and more stable
populations. Finally, we discussed the
implications of our ndings for developing
evidence-based management decisions for
E. portoricensis, a taxon of special concern.
Our ndings illustrate the role of persistent
suitable climatic conditions in promoting the
persistence and diversication of tropical
island organisms.
B. S. Barker, J. A. Rodríguez-Robles, J. A.
Cook, Ecography, 38, 769–781 (2015).
A male Red-eyed Coquí (Eleutherodactylus antillensis)
courting a female coqui in St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands.
The Red-eyed Coqui is a terrestrial, nocturnal frog endemic
to the Puerto Rican Bank (Puerto Rico and numerous islands
and cays off its eastern coast), in the eastern Caribbean Sea.
Photo: Brittany S. Barker. Amphibian conservation, land-use
changes and protected areas: A global
overview
Javier Nori, Priscila Lemes, Nicolás Urbina-
Cardona, Diego Baldo, Julián Lescano & Rafael
Loyola
Amphibians are undergoing a global
conservation crisis, and they are one
of the most underrepresented groups
of vertebrates in the global network of
protected areas (PAs). In this study, we
evaluated the ability of the world’s PAs
to represent extant amphibian species. We
also estimated the magnitude of the human
footprint along the geographic distributions
of gap species (i.e., those with distributions
totally outside PAs). Twenty-four percent of
species (n = 1,535) are totally unrepresented,
and another 18% (n = 1,119) have less than 5%
of their distribution inside PAs. Nearly half
of all species with ranges under 1,000 km2
do not occur inside any PA. Furthermore,
more than 65% of the distribution of gap
species is in human-dominated landscapes.
Although the Earth’s PAs have greatly
increased during the last ten years, the
number of unprotected amphibians has
also grown. Tropical countries in particular
should strongly consider (1) the importance
of using amphibians to drive conservation
policies that eventually lead to the
implementation and management of PAs,
given amphibians’ extinction risk and ability
to act as bioindicators; (2) the eectiveness
of national recovery plans for threatened
amphibian species; and (3) the need for
increased funding for scientic research to
expand our knowledge of amphibian species.
Meanwhile, data-decient amphibian species
should receive a higher priority than they
usually receive in conservation planning,
52 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
as a precautionary measure. Throughout
this paper, we point out several challenges
in creating more comprehensive amphibian
conservation strategies and opportunities in
the next decade.
J. Nori et al., Biol. Conserv. 191, 367-374
(2015).
Trophic strategies of a non-native and
a native amphibian species in shared
ponds
Olatz San Sebastián, Joan Navarro, Gustavo A.
Llorente & Álex Richter-Boix
Invasive species are, together with
habitat degradation and pollution, one
of the major threats to amphibians. One of
the pivotal factors for understanding the
successful establishment and impact of
invasive species and their potential impact
on native species is a thorough knowledge of
how these species manage trophic resources.
It is known this special importance for
amphibians that usually occupy ephemeral
ponds. When ponds dry larval density
increase and an ecient management of
temporally-limited trophic resources are
important to faster development. The
introduction of invasive amphibians that
are generally better competitors can trigger
a trophic displacement of native species to
underexploited resources with consequences
over their tness. Two main trophic strategies
for resource acquisition have been described,
competition and opportunistic hypothesis. In
order to identify the main trophic strategies
of the non-native amphibian Discoglossus
pictus and native amphibian Bufo calamita,
in the present study we investigated whether
D. pictus exploits similar trophic resources
to those exploited by the native B. calamita
(competition hypothesis) or alternative
resources (opportunistic hypothesis). To this
end, we analyzed stable isotopic values of
nitrogen and carbon in larvae of both species
sampled in natural ponds inhabited by both
species and in ponds only inhabited by one
species. Isotopic approach has achieved
great advances in trophic ecology studies,
providing an integrated view of resource
consumption, identifying food strategies and
trophic levels of species. We also conducted
a laboratory controlled-diet experiment to
calculate the isotopic trophic discrimination
factors for each species in order to correct
interpretation of the eldwork experiments.
The similarity of the δ15N and δ13C values in
the two species coupled with isotopic signal
variation according to pond conditions and
niche partitioning when they co-occurred
indicated dietary competition. The invasive
amphibian was located at higher levels
of trophic niches than the native species.
Also, B. calamita suered an increase in its
isotopic trophic niche width when it shared
ponds with D. pictus. Moreover, invasive
species showed a broader isotopic trophic
niche than native species in all conditions,
indicating increased capacity to exploit the
diversity of resources; this may indirectly
favor its invasiveness. The results of this
study corroborates a previous laboratory
hypothesis (the competition strategy by
invasive species), reporting the rst evidence
of this species’ competition ability in the
eld, and support the high success of this
species in selected habitat by this species in
its invaded range.
O. San Sebastián, J. Navarro, G. A.
Llorente, Á. Richter-Boix, PLoS ONE 10(6),
e0130549 (2015).
δ13C andδ15N values and standard ellipse areas for
B. calamita and D. pictus in the four ponds where the
species coexist (A–D). Discoglossus pictus. Photo: Olatz
San Sebastián.
Southern Toads alter their behavior in
response to red-imported fire ants
Andrea K. Long, ,Daniel D. Knapp, Lauren
Mccullough, Lora L. Smith, L. Mike Conner &
Robert A. Mccleery
We used the Southern Toad
(Anaxyrusterrestris) as a model species
to explore how an invasive species, the
red-imported Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta;
hereafter RIFA), inuences amphibian
predator avoidance and movement
behaviors. Our objective was to determine
if toads spent less time near and moved
more frequently in the presence of RIFAs
compared to Pyramid Ants by comparing
behavioral reactions of toads to RIFAs versus
a control and pyramid ants versus a control.
Laboratory experiments involved three
treatments including no ants, RIFAs, and
native pyramid ants (Dorymyrmex bureni)
within an experimental arena. We randomly
placed ants into one of two containers
located at each end of the arena. For each
trial we placed a toad into the experimental
arena, allowed the toad to acclimate and
then recorded its behavior. We calculated the
proportion of time the toad spent near ants
and the number of movements completed by
each toad. Comparing the RIFA treatment to
the pyramid ant treatment, toads spent 35 %
less time on the half of the experimental arena
near RIFAs (P = 0.0304). Toad movements
were 1.5 times more frequent in trials with
RIFAs than Pyramid Ants (P = 0.0488). We
propose that southern toads associate RIFAs
either with increased predation risk or risk of
injury compared to Pyramid Ants. Although
the behaviors we observed might lessen the
direct eects of RIFAs on southern toads
via predation and injury, the indirect eects
of increased movement and avoidance of
RIFAs could also inuence toad tness
by decreasing reproductive and foraging
success. The original copyright is given to
the publication in which the material was
originally published with permission from
Springer Science+Business Media.
A. K. Long, D. D. Knapp, L. Mccullough,
L. L. Smith, L. M. Conner et al., Biol
Invasions, 17, 2,179–2,186 (2015).
The response of faunal biodiversity
to an unmarked road in the Western
Amazon
Andrew Whitworth, Christopher Beirne,
Jasmine Rowe, Fraser Ross, Caroline Acton,
Oliver Burdekin & Philip Brown
Roads are an increasingly common
feature of forest landscapes all over the
world, and while information accumulates
regarding the impacts of roads globally,
there remains a paucity of information
within tropical regions. Here we investigate
the potential for biodiversity impacts from
an unmarked road within a rainforest
protected area in Western Amazonia. We
focus on three key taxonomic groups;
amphibians, butteries and birds, each
of which have been shown to be both
sensitive and reliable indicators of forest
disturbance. In total, 315 amphibians of
26 dierent species, 348 butteries of 65
dierent species, 645 birds representing 77
dierent species were captured using mist
netting and 877 bird records representing
79 dierent species were recorded using
point counts. We provide evidence to show
that the presence of a small unmarked road
signicantly altered levels of faunal species
richness, diversity, relative abundance and
community structure. This was true to a
varying degree for all three taxa, up to and
potentially beyond 350 m into the forest
a) The unmarked road running through the study area
(Photo: Andrew Whitworth); b) Ameerega bilinguis, male
with eggs (Photo: Christopher Beirne); Phyllomedusa
tomopterna (Photo: Andrew Whitworth).
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 53
interior. Responses to the road were shown
to be taxon specic. We found increasing
proximity to the road had a negative
eect on amphibian and understorey bird
communities, while buttery and overall
diurnal bird communities responded
positively. We show that the impact on
biodiversity extends up to at least 32% of the
whole reserve area; a serious impact under
any scenario. This work provides support
for recently voiced calls to limit networks of
unmarked roads in order to realistically and
eectively preserve natural levels of tropical
biodiversity.
A. Whitworth et al. Biodiversity and
Conservation, 24, 1,657–1,670 (2015).
Assessing the global zoo response to the
amphibian crisis through 20-year trends
in captive collections
Je Dawson, Freisha Patel, Richard A. Griths
& Richard P. Young
Global amphibian declines are one of
the biggest challenges currently facing
the conservation community, and captive
breeding is one way to address this crisis.
Using information from the International
Species Information System zoo network, we
examined trends in global zoo amphibian
holdings across species, zoo region and
species geographical region of origin from
1994 to 2014. These trends were compared
before and after the 2004 Global Amphibian
Assessment to assess whether any changes
occurred and whether zoo amphibian
conservation eort had increased. The
numbers of globally threatened species
(GTS) and their proportional representation
in global zoo holdings increased and this
rate of increase was signicantly faster
after 2004. North American, European and
Oceanian GTS were best represented in zoos
globally, and proportions of Oceanian GTS
held increased the most since 2004. South
American and Asian GTS had the lowest
proportional representation in zoos. At
a regional zoo level, European zoos held
the lowest proportions of GTS, and this
proportion did not increase after 2004.
Since 1994 the number of species held in
viable populations has increased with
these distributed among more institutions.
However, as of 2014, zoos held 6.2% of
globally threatened amphibians, a much
smaller gure than for other vertebrate
groups and one that falls considerably short
of the number of species for which ex situ
management may be desirable. Although
the increased eort zoos have put into
amphibian conservation over the past 20
years is encouraging, more focus is needed
on ex situ conservation priority species. This
includes building expertise and capacity
in countries that hold them and tracking
existing conservation eorts if the evidence-
based approach to amphibian conservation
planning at a global level is to be further
developed.
J. Dawson, F. Patel, R. A. Griths, R. P.
Young, Conservation Biology DOI: 10.1111/
cobi.12563 (2015)
Trends in Rocky Mountain amphibians
and the role of beaver as a keystone
species
Blake R. Hossack, William R. Gould, Debra A.
Patla, Erin Muths, Rob Daley, Kristin Legg &
Paul Stephen Corn
Despite prevalent awareness of global
amphibian declines, there is still little
information on trends for many widespread
species. To inform land managers of trends on
protected landscapes and identify potential
conservation strategies, we collected
occurrence data for ve wetland-breeding
amphibian species in four national parks
in the U.S. Rocky Mountains during 2002–
2011. We used explicit dynamics models
to estimate variation in annual occupancy,
extinction, and colonization of wetlands
according to summer drought and several
biophysical characteristics (e.g., wetland
size, elevation), including the inuence of
North American Beaver (Castor canadensis).
We found more declines in occupancy than
increases, especially in Yellowstone and
Grand Teton National Parks (NP), where
three of four species declined since 2002.
However, most species in Rocky Mountain
NP were too rare to include in our analysis,
which likely reects signicant historical
declines. Although beaver were uncommon,
their creation or modication of wetlands
was associated with higher colonization
rates for 4 of 5 amphibian species, producing
a 34% increase in occupancy in beaver-
inuenced wetlands compared to wetlands
without beaver inuence. Also, colonization
rates and occupancy of Boreal Toads
(Anxyrus boreas) and Columbia Spotted
Frogs (Rana luteiventris) were ≥2 times
higher in beaver-inuenced wetlands. These
strong relationships suggest management
for beaver that fosters amphibian recovery
could counter declines in some areas. Our
data reinforce reports of widespread declines
of formerly and currently common species,
even in areas assumed to be protected from
most forms of human disturbance, and
demonstrate the close ecological association
between beaver and wetland-dependent
species.
B.R. Hossack, W.R. Gould, D.A. Patla, E.
Muths, R. Daley, K. Legg, P.S. Corn, Biol.
Cons. 187, 260 (2015).
Breeding Western Toads, Anaxyrus boreas. Photo: Steve
Corn, USGS.
Expression of sexual ornaments in
a polymorphic species: phenotypic
variation in response to environmental
risk
Laurane Winandy & Mathieu Denoël
Secondary sexual traits may evolve
under the antagonistic context of
sexual and natural selection. In some
polymorphic species, these traits are only
expressed during the breeding period and
are dierently expressed in alternative
phenotypes. However, it is unknown
whether such phenotypes exhibit phenotypic
plasticity of seasonal ornamentations in
response to environmental pressures such
as in the presence of sh (predation risk).
This is an important question to understand
the evolution of polyphenisms. We used
facultative paedomorphosis in newts as
a model system because it involves the
coexistence of paedomorphs that retain gills
in the adult stage with metamorphs that have
undergone metamorphosis, but also because
newts exhibit seasonal sexual traits. Our aim
was therefore to determine the inuence
of sh on the development of seasonal
ornamentation in the two phenotypes of
the Palmate Newt (Lissotriton helveticus).
During the entire newt breeding period,
we assessed the importance of phenotype
and sh presence with an information-
theoretic approach. Our results showed
that paedomorphs presented much less
developed ornamentation than metamorphs
and those ornamentations varied over time.
Fish inhibited the development of sexual
traits but dierently between phenotypes:
in contrast to metamorphs, paedomorphs
lack the phenotypic plasticity of sexual traits
to environmental risk. This study points
out that internal and external parameters
act in complex ways in the expression
of seasonal sexual ornamentations and
A male of Palmate Newt (Lissotriton helveticus) with
conspicuous secondary sexual traits (Larzac, France). Photo:
M. Denoël.
54 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
that similar environmental pressure can
induce a contrasted evolution in alternative
phenotypes.
L. Winandy, M. Denoël, J. Evol. Biol. 28
(2015): 1,049-1,056. http://hdl.handle.
net/2268/180029
Mean body sizes of amphibian species
are poorly predicted by climate
Alex Slavenko & Shai Meiri
Climate is thought to be a strong
driver of animal body size evolution.
Climatic gradients in body size have been
documented for many terrestrial vertebrate
taxa, including amphibians. However,
the patterns uncovered for amphibians
generally change with examined taxon and
the method used in the study. Therefore,
there is still disagreement on whether body
sizes of amphibians display climatic clines.
We examined the relationship between
amphibian body size and several climatic
variables, using two methods, to discern
which climatic variables, if any, aect
amphibian size evolution.
We collected mean body sizes of 356
amphibian species out of the 360 extant
species in Europe, the USA and Canada, and
tested how they are related to temperature,
precipitation, primary productivity and
seasonality. We used two methods. In the
rst, we compared the median body sizes
of the amphibian assemblages inhabiting
equal-area grid cells (of 96.3 km × 96.3 km).
We also generated randomized assemblages
to test if the observed body size distributions
were likely under random assemblages.
In the second method, we examined the
relationship between mean species body
size and the environmental predictors across
their ranges, using an updated amphibian
phylogeny (based on Pyron and Wiens, 2013)
accounting for phylogenetic eects.
Median body sizes of amphibian
assemblages in grid cells were positively
correlated with temperature in urodeles
and negatively in anurans. However, the
observed amphibian body size distributions
across grid cells were mostly statistically
indistinguishable from distributions
generated by random assignment of species
to cells, meaning the observed size clines
could simply be generated as a spurious
eect of richness clines with climate.
Furthermore, the phylogenetic analysis
revealed opposite trends in relation to
temperature in both amphibian orders, and
most of the other examined climatic variables
were not associated with size. What few
signicant relationships were retained in
the models were very weak.
Richness has good explanatory power
in the grid-cell analysis, and climate has
low explanatory power in the interspecic
analysis. Given that the interspecic analysis
probably better informs us on actual size
evolution within clades, our results suggest
that spatial patterns in amphibian body size
likely reect climatic diversity gradients, and
climate aects amphibians more as a buer
to their distribution and not as a driver of
evolution of body size.
A. Slavenko, S. Meiri. J. Biogeogr. 42, 1,246-
1,254 (2015).
Failure to detect the Chinese Giant
Salamander (Andrias davidianus) in
Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve,
Guizhou Province, China
Benjamin Tapley, Sumio Okada, Jay Redbond,
Samuel Thomas Turvey, Shu Chen, Jing-Cai Lü,
Gang Wei, Min-Yao Wu, Yuan Pan, Ke-Feng Niu
& Andrew Alexander Cunningham
The Chinese Giant Salamander, Andrias
davidianus, is the world’s largest
amphibian. It is endemic to China and is
currently listed as Critically Endangered
by the IUCN. Wild populations of this
species are threatened and some have
already become extinct. Population declines
have been attributed to habitat loss and
fragmentation, and especially hunting for
luxury food markets and potentially to stock
salamander farms. We surveyed two river
systems in Fanjingshan National Nature
Reserve, Guizhou province. The reserve
was established in 1978 specically to protect
A. davidianus as well as other threatened
species. We used a variety of survey methods
including night-time surveys, wading,
turning substrate, netting, snorkelling,
nocturnal spotlighting, and baited traps
in our search for salamanders. Despite a
cumulative 1,388 trapping hours, 62.7 person
hours of day-time wading, turning substrate,
netting and snorkelling, and 66 person hours
of night-time spotlighting and snorkelling,
we failed to encounter A. davidianus in either
of the surveyed river systems. We found
evidence of ongoing hunting pressure on
A. davidianus within the reserve. Our failure
to detect A. davidianus and the presence of
ongoing poaching of this protected species
within a protected area highlights the need
for radically improved and strengthened
conservation management of A. davidianus
in the reserve and potentially elsewhere
in China. We suggest that this is achieved
through raising the prole of A. davidianus in
communities within the range of the species
and amongst tourists visiting protected areas
with historical or existing A. davidianus
populations, as well as through regular
night-time patrols of the river systems that
contain A. davidianus by protected area sta.
Tapley et al., Salamandra 51, 206–208 (2015).
Rock turning survey for Chinese Giant Salamanders in
Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve. Photo: Benjamin
Tapley ZSL.
High genetic connectivity in Wood Frogs
(Lithobates sylvaticus) and Spotted
Salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum)
in a commercial forest
Stephanie S. Coster, Kimberly J. Babbitt &
Adrienne I. Kovach
We characterized the genetic structure of
two pond-breeding amphibian species
in a commercial forest to evaluate population
connectivity and investigate whether
landscape features and timber harvest
inuenced dispersal and gene ow. We
sampled 20 Wood Frog (Lithobates sylvaticus)
populations and 23 Spotted Salamander
(Ambystoma maculatum) populations across
an area of 40 × 52 km. We estimated genetic
diversity and dierentiation, and used
both a Bayesian clustering approach and a
spatial autocorrelation analysis to evaluate
genetic structure. We used a least-cost path
analysis to examine dispersal and gene
ow within each species. In both species,
we found high genetic diversity and low
dierentiation across the study area, and
the Bayesian clustering analysis identied
a single genetic cluster for each species. The
spatial autocorrelation analysis indicated
there was greater spatial genetic structure
in Spotted Salamanders than Wood Frogs.
None of the landscape features measured
were signicantly related to genetic distance
in Wood Frogs, and lakes impeded dispersal
in Spotted Salamanders. We attribute the
ndings of high genetic connectivity in both
species to a combination of abundant forest
and wetlands with minimal anthropogenic
disturbance. These ndings suggest that
current silviculture practices in the study
area do not signicantly impede dispersal
and gene ow of pond-breeding amphibians.
S. S. Coster, K. J. Babbitt, A. I. Kovach,
Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 10, 64–89 (2015).
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 55
Evaluation of two individual
identification techniques for Spotted
Salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum)
F. Whitner Chase, Benjamin E. Hardie,
Maximilian M. Kern, Leigh Anne Harden,
Shannon E. Pittman & Michael E. Dorcas
Capture- mark- recapture studies are
valuable to conservation decision-
making as they allow for the evaluation of
demographic parameters of a population.
In capture- mark- recapture studies, spotted
salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum) were
marked with visible implant elastomers
(VIEs), allowing for individual salamanders
to be identied upon recapture. However,
this elastomer coding system is expensive,
invasive, and oers a nite number of
codes, making it unsuitable for a long-
term study. Thus, we have developed a
new coding system that identies spotted
salamanders based on individuals’ unique
spot patterns. This study compared the two
coding systems to determine the eects of
both identication method and observer on
identication accuracy. Over one breeding
season we monitored A. maculatum entering
and leaving a 0.5 ha ephemeral wetland in
the North Carolina Piedmont using a 400 m
drift fence containing 40 aquatic funnel traps
and pitfall traps at 10 m intervals. Several
Davidson College Herpetology Laboratory
students blindly identied each individual
A. maculatum using both spot pattern codes
and VIE codes. Photographs were also
taken of each individual for verication
of spot pattern codes when recaptured.
Identication accuracy was compared
among observers, between coding systems
and among captures. Our study provides
recommendations for use of an identication
system using spot pattern so that it can be
implemented in long- term studies of A.
maculatum and potentially adapted for use
in other species.
F. W. Chase et al., Herpetol. Rev. 46, 2 (2015).
DNA barcoding survey of anurans
across the Eastern Cordillera of
Colombia and the impact of the Andes
on cryptic diversity
Carlos E. Guarnizo, Andrea Paz, Astrid Muñoz-
Ortiz, Sandra V. Flechas, Javier Méndez-Narváez
& Andrew J. Crawford
Colombia hosts the second highest
amphibian species diversity on Earth,
yet its fauna remains poorly studied,
especially using molecular genetic
techniques. We present the results of the
rst wide-scale DNA barcoding survey of
anurans of Colombia, focusing on a transect
across the Eastern Cordillera. We surveyed
10 sites between the Magdalena Valley to
the west and the eastern foothills of the
Eastern Cordillera, sequencing portions
of the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA
and cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (CO1)
genes for 235 individuals from 52 nominal
species. We applied two barcode algorithms,
Automatic Barcode Gap Discovery and
Rened Single Linkage Analysis, to estimate
the number of clusters or “unconrmed
candidate species” supported by DNA
barcode data. Our survey included ~7% of
the anuran species known from Colombia.
While barcoding algorithms diered slightly
in the number of clusters identied, between
three and ten nominal species may be
obscuring candidate species (in some cases,
more than one cryptic species per nominal
species). Our data suggest that the high
elevations of the Eastern Cordillera and the
low elevations of the Chicamocha canyon
acted as geographic barriers in at least seven
nominal species, promoting strong genetic
divergences between populations associated
with the Eastern Cordillera.
C. E. Guarnizo, A. Paz, A. Muñoz-Ortiz,
S. V. Flechas, J. Méndez-Narváez, A. J,
Crawford, PLoS ONE 0(5), e0127312. doi:
10.1371/journal.pone.0127312.
Disease and Toxicology
Differential uptake of endosulfan in the
South American toad under sublethal
exposure
Gabriela V. Svartz, Damián Marino, Alicia
Ronco, & Cristina S. Pérez Coll
On July 2015, we published a paper
in the Archives of Environmental
Contamination and Toxicology journal.
The aim of this study was to evaluate
the uptake of environmentally relevant
concentrations of endosulfan and its
correlation with dierential sensitivity in the
early development stages of the Common
South American Toad, Rhinella arenarum.
Agroecosystems are usually polluted
with a wide variety of contaminants, with
pesticides being very frequently detected.
Endosulfan, an organochlorine pesticide,
has been identied as a persistent organic
pollutant (POP) due to its persistence,
bioaccumulation, long-range transport
and adverse eects to human health and
aquatic ecosystems. For these reasons, the
United Nations Association in 2011 decided
to promote the ban of the use of endosulfan
worldwide. However, despite regulations
and restrictions, it is still largely used,
particularly in some developing countries
such as Argentina where it has been phased
out just recently. Endosulfan has been shown
to cause both lethal and sublethal eects on
aquatic organisms such as amphibians and
especially on early developmental stages. In
this context, we exposed R. arenarum embryos
and larvae to sublethal concentrations of
endosulfan for several periods of exposure.
Bioconcentration factors (BCFs) for embryos
signicantly decreased with exposure time
and concentration (p < 0.05) reaching a
maximal BCF of 1679 exposed to 1 mg
endosulfan L-1 at 96 h. BCFs for larvae
signicantly increased with exposure time
(p < 0.05) obtaining a maximum of 40 at 504
h. In our previous study, we have reported
that embryos were less sensitive than larvae
to endosulfan, associated with the main
tendency of embryos to bioconcentrate
endosulfan as observed also in this study.
The results obtained conrm the important
potential uptake of endosulfan in R. arenarum
embryo–larval development and are in line
with the decision to restrict and promote the
ban of its worldwide use.
G. Svartz, D. Marino, A. Ronco, C. Pérez
Coll, Arch Environ Contam Toxicol. 69, 104
(2015).
New records of the chytrid fungus
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in
Honduran frogs
Alexander Gutsche, James R. McCranie, Torsten
Ohst & Leonardo Orellana Valdés
The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium
dendrobatidis (Bd) has been implicated
as a reason for the amphibian decline in
Honduras. However, knowledge about the
pathogens presence within the country is still
poor, and up to now, it is known only in seven
frog species from two localities in northern
Honduras. During the rainy seasons in 2006,
2008, 2009 and 2010, we examined 23 species
of frogs, three salamander and one caecilian
species in 23 dierent localities in Honduras
for the presence of Bd. We took skin samples
which were tested by using a modied
quantitative real-time (qRT) TaqMan PCR
assay. Positive Bd records occurred in 7 of
23 (30%) localities sampled, with elevations
that ranged from 10 m to 1,850 m. The new
records extend the known distribution of Bd
more than 200 km southwards in Honduras
from the northern Caribbean coast. We found
Bd in 16 of 114 (14%) specimens tested, which
represented ten frog species. No positive Bd
records occurred in the six salamanders and
the one caecilian. Bd was detected for the rst
The detection of Bd in the Yellow Toad (Incilius luetkenii)
from the Honduran Isla del Tigre (Dpt. Valle) represents the
first record in this species. Photo: A. Gutsche.
56 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
time in the following frog species: Craugastor
laevissimus, C. lauraster, Dendropsophus
microcephalus, Lithobates forreri, L. vaillanti,
Incilius luetkenii, I. valliceps and Smilisca
baudinii. The detection of Bd in Rhinella marina
represents the rst Honduran record in this
species. The two infected Craugastor species
are listed as “Endangered” in the IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species because of their
fragmented and restricted distributions.
Most of their populations have declined
or disappeared at elevations above 950 m
during recent years and chytridiomycosis
has been assumed a possible cause. Our
data conrm for the rst time that Bd occurs
in populations of both species at the upper
elevations of their respective altitudinal
ranges. Also, the widespread frog Lithobates
maculatus has disappeared in recent years
from certain localities, and deforestation
and resulting water pollution are probably
associated with this decline. We suggest
adding chytridiomycosis as one potential
threat, because several studies, including
ours, have conrmed the widespread
presence of Bd in this species.
A. Gutsche, J. R. McCranie, T. Ohst, L.
Orellana Valdés, Herp. Rev. 46(2), 202–205
(2015).
Anthropogenic and ecological drivers of
amphibian disease (Ranavirosis)
Alexandra C. North, David J. Hodgson, Stephen
J. Price & Amber G. F. Griths
Ranaviruses are causing mass amphibian
die-os in North America, Europe
and Asia, and have been implicated
in the decline of Common Frog (Rana
temporaria) populations in the UK. Despite
this, we have very little understanding
of the environmental drivers of disease
occurrence and prevalence. Using a long
term (1992–2000) dataset of public reports
of amphibian mortalities, we assess a set of
potential predictors of the occurrence and
prevalence of Ranavirus-consistent common
frog mortality events in Britain. We reveal
the inuence of biotic and abiotic drivers
of this disease, with many of these abiotic
characteristics being anthropogenic. While
controlling for the geographic distribution
of mortality events, disease prevalence
increases with increasing frog population
density, presence of sh and wild newts,
increasing pond depth and the use of garden
chemicals. The presence of an alternative
host reduces prevalence, potentially
indicating a dilution eect. Ranavirosis
occurrence is associated with the presence
of toads, an urban setting and the use of
sh care products, providing insight into
the causes of emergence of disease. Links
between occurrence, prevalence, pond
characteristics and garden management
practices provides useful management
implications for reducing the impacts
of Ranavirus in the wild.
A. C. North, D. J. Hodgson, S. J. Price, A.
G. F. Griths, PLOS ONE. 10(6), e0127037
(2015).
Common Frogs (Rana temporaria) are frequently found
in urban and suburban ponds in the UK allowing citizen
population monitoring. Photo by Alexandra North.
Skin sloughing rate increases with
chytrid fungus infection load in a
susceptible amphibian
Michel E. B. Ohmer, Rebecca L. Cramp, Craig R.
White & Craig E. Franklin
Amphibian chytridiomycosis, caused by
the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium
dendrobatidis (Bd), is responsible for the
greatest disease-driven loss of vertebrate
biodiversity in recorded history.
Understanding drivers of host susceptibility
to this cutaneous disease is hindered by gaps
in our knowledge of the host–pathogen
relationship. One such overlooked aspect of
susceptibility is variation in skin maintenance
processes, particularly skin turnover via
routine sloughing. It has been suggested that
sloughing plays a role in immune defense,
by removing skin-associated microbes. Thus,
skin sloughing may play an important role
in the pathogenesis of chytridiomycosis.
To determine the relationship between
skin sloughing and disease progression,
we exposed adult Australian Green Tree
Frogs (Litoria caerulea) to a local Bd strain
and monitored sloughing rates and
individual infection loads on a naturalistic
cycling temperature regime (15–23 °C). We
determined sloughing rates in real-time by
using an array of infrared video cameras to
lm frog behavior and monitored infection
load before and after sloughing by swabbing
and analysis with quantitative PCR. We
found that sloughing rate increased with Bd
infection load in infected frogs, but sloughing
itself did not aect Bd load on the ventral
skin surface. Furthermore, Bd infection
did not aect the duration of characteristic
sloughing behavior, and sloughing retained
rhythmicity even at high infection loads.
Although an increased sloughing rate
might be considered advantageous for Bd-
infected animals, it does not appear to curb
the progression of disease and may actually
contribute to the loss of physiological
homoeostasis seen in terminally ill frogs
by further inhibiting water and electrolyte
transport across the skin. By measuring
sloughing rates directly for the rst time,
our results shed light on how Bd interacts
with the physiological processes of the
skin and indicate that variation in skin
sloughing frequency may play a role in the
observed inter- and intraspecic variation
in susceptibility to disease. © 2014 British
Ecological Society
M. E. B. Ohmer, R. L. Cramp, C. R. White,
C. E. Franklin, Func. Eco. 29, 674–682
(2015).
A pair of Green Tree Frogs (Litoria caerulea) in amplexus
in Southeast Queensland, Australia. Photo: Michel Ohmer.
Linking genetic and environmental
factors in amphibian disease risk
Anna E. Savage, Carlos G. Becker & Kelly R.
Zamudio
A
central question in evolutionary
biology is how interactions between
organisms and the environment shape
genetic dierentiation. The pathogen
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) has
caused variable population declines in
the Lowland Leopard Frog (Lithobates
yavapaiensis); thus, disease has potentially
shaped, or been shaped by, host genetic
diversity. Environmental factors can also
inuence both amphibian immunity and
Bd virulence, confounding our ability
to assess the genetic eects on disease
Adult male Lithobates yavapaiensis from the geothermal
spring locality Muleshoe Ranch in Arizona, USA. Photo:
Anna Savage.
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 57
a) Adults of the Common Toad, Rhinella arenarum. (b–d)
Malformed R. arenarum larvae as a result of Nonylphenol
exposure (Stereoscopic Microscopy): (b) Control. Embryos
become larvae while they are continuously exposed from
the blastula stage for 168 h (c) 0.25 mg NP/L, (d) 0.75 mg
NP/L. Observe the reduced body size, axial flexures (af),
microcephaly (m), gut miscoiling (gm), abdominal edema
(ae) and the extrusion of the fin axis (efa). Scale: 1 mm.
Photos: Carolina M. Aronzon.
Developmental toxicity and risk
assessment of nonylphenol to the South
American Toad, Rhinella arenarum
Carolina M. Aronzon, Paola A. Babay & Cristina
S. Pérez Coll
On August 2014, we published a
paper in Environmental Toxicology and
Pharmacology. The aim of the study was to
assess the toxicity of Nonylphenol (NP),
an emerging pollutant, on two dierent
developmental periods (embryos and
larvae) of the Common South American
Toad, Rhinella arenarum. NP is one of the
major degradation products of Nonylphenol
polyethoxylate, a surfactant with exceptional
performance and widely used in industrial,
commercial and household applications
such as detergents, emulsiers, wetting
and dispersing agents, antistatic agents,
demulsiers and solubilisers. NP was stage
and time dependent, as larvae were almost
six times more sensitive than embryos. The
Median Lethal Concentrations (LC50) for
acute (96 h), short-term chronic (168 h) and
chronic exposure (336 h) were 1.06; 0.96
and 0.17 mg NP/L for embryos (exposed
from early blastula), whereas for early
larvae , LC50 remained constant at 0.37
mg NP/L from 96 h to 168 h, decreasing
to 0.11 mg NP/L at 336 h. The No Observe
Eect Concentration (NOEC)-168 h of
NP exposure for embryos was 0.025 mg
NP/L. The Teratogenic Potential (NOEC-
lethality/NOEC-sublethal eects) was 23
times higher than 1.5, the threshold value,
to be considered a high risk for embryos to
be malformed in the absence of signicant
lethality representing a threat to the species
conservation. Some of the main and non-
specic sublethal eects observed in the
study were delayed development, reduced
body size, microcephaly, underdeveloped
gills, axial exures, dierent kinds of edemas,
malformed mouth and adhesive structures,
and gut miscoiling. The exposure to NP also
caused an atypical extrusion of the n axis.
By comparing with other amphibians, the
early development of R. arenarum was very
sensitive to NP. The results of this study
are very important for Argentina and other
developing countries with large agricultural
areas because nonionic surfactants are
commonly included as wetting agents
and dispersants in pesticide formulations.
Despite that some active constituents of
pesticides are reported of low toxicity, the
additive surfactant components may be a
health risk to aquatic fauna as this study
shows. Moreover, the results also highlight
the relevance of extending the exposure time
and look for the most sensitive stage of a
species for conservation purposes.
C. Aronzon, P. Babay, C. Pérez Coll.
Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 38, (2), 634–642
(2015).
dynamics. Here, we used genetics, pathogen
dynamics and environmental data to
characterize L. yavapaiensis populations,
estimate migration and determine relative
contributions of genetic and environmental
factors in predicting Bd dynamics. We
found that the two uninfected populations
belonged to a single genetic deme, whereas
each infected population was genetically
unique. We detected an outlier locus that
deviated from neutral expectations and
was signicantly correlated with mortality
within populations. Across populations,
only environmental variables predicted
infection intensity, whereas environment
and genetics predicted infection prevalence,
and genetic diversity alone predicted
mortality. At one locality with geothermally
elevated water temperatures, migration
estimates revealed source-sink dynamics
that have likely prevented local adaptation.
We conclude that integrating genetic and
environmental variation among populations
provides a better understanding of Bd spatial
epidemiology, generating more eective
conservation management strategies for
mitigating amphibian declines.
A. E. Savage, C. G. Becker, K. R.
Zamudio, Evol. Appl. 8, 560–572(2015).
Condition-dependent reproductive
effort in frogs infected by a widespread
pathogen
Elizabeth A. Roznik, Sarah J. Sapsford, David A.
Pike, Lin Schwarzkopf & Ross A. Alford
To minimize the negative eects of
an infection on tness, hosts can
respond adaptively by altering their
reproductive eort or by adjusting their
timing of reproduction. We studied eects
of the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium
dendrobatidis on the probability of calling
in a stream-breeding rainforest frog
(Litoria rheocola). In uninfected frogs,
calling probability was relatively constant
across seasons and body conditions, but in
infected frogs, calling probability diered
among seasons (lowest in winter, highest in
summer) and was strongly and positively
related to body condition. Infected frogs in
poor condition were up to 40% less likely to
call than uninfected frogs, whereas infected
frogs in good condition were up to 30%
more likely to call than uninfected frogs.
Our results suggest that frogs employed a
pre-existing, plastic, life-history strategy
in response to infection, which may have
complex evolutionary implications. If
infected males in good condition reproduce
at rates equal to or greater than those of
uninfected males, selection on factors
aecting disease susceptibility may be
minimal. However, because reproductive
eort in infected males is positively related
to body condition, there may be selection on
mechanisms that limit the negative eects of
infections on hosts.
E. A. Roznik, S. J. Sapsford, D. A. Pike, L.
Schwarzkopf, R. A. Alford, Proc. R. Soc. B.
282, 20150694 (2015).
A male Common Mistfrog (Litoria rheocola) calls from a
rock beside a rainforest stream in Queensland, Australia.
Photo: Angus McNab.
58 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
The following information can be found at:
http://www.amphibians.org/meetings
January 2016
18–22 Amphibian Conservation Research
Symposium, Potchefstroom, South Africa
August 2016
15–21 8th World Congress of Herpetology,
Hangzhou, China
September 2016
1–10 IUCN World Conservation Congress,
Honolulu, Hawaiʻi
MG1: Natural Resources
Wildlife Resources Division Headquarters,
Walton County, GA. (Posted to PARC
09/17/15, Closing September 29, 2015)
Desert Tortoise Recovery Biologist, GS-
401/486-11/12
Las Vegas Fish and Wildlife Oce/Desert
Tortoise Recovery Oce, Las Vegas,
NV. (Posted to PARC 09/15/15, Closing
September 24, 2015)
M.Sc./Humboldt State University:
Trophic Interactions of Frogs, Trout, and
Snakes
Humboldt State University, Arcata,
CA. (Posted to PARC 09/9/15, Closing
September 30, 2015)
Biological Monitoring & Sustainable
Agriculture Volunteers
The Amazon Conservation Association,
Andes-Amazon. (Posted to PARC 08/4/15,
Open Until Filled)
Research Fellow in bioacoustics with an
interest in alligator research
Department of Natural Sciences at the
University of South Carolina Beaufort,
Bluton, SC. (Posted to PARC 08/4/15,
Open Until Filled)
Biology/Hefner Museum of Natural
History: Director
Oxford, OH. (Posted to PARC 07/30/15,
Open Until Filled)
The Department of Wildlife Ecology and
Conservation at the University of Florida
Fort Lauderdale Research and Education
Center
Fort Lauderdale, FL. (Posted to PARC
07/6/15)
Agricultural Conservation Coordinator,
AFWA
Washington, DC. (Posted to PARC
07/2/15, Open Until Filled)
Salamander Field Technician
Ohio - Vinton County: Vinton Furnace
Experimental Forest and Zaleski State
Forest (Posted to PARC 03/13/15, Open
Until Filled)
Department of Wildlife Ecology and
Conservation at the University of Florida
Fort Lauderdale Research and Education
Center, Fort Lauderdale, FL
(Posted to PARC 01/08/15, Deadline
for applications is 6 weeks before
corresponding start date (Multiple))
Rock Iguana Volunteer Field Assistants
Hispaniola (Posted to PARC 03/01/15,
Open Until Filled)
The Amphibian Survival Alliance is
pleased to announce an open call for
seed grant applications. Seed grants are
normally provided in amounts ranging
from USD $500-$1,000 and are designed to
help kick start projects or allow teams to
try new innovative approaches to address
conservation, research and education
challenges. Link
The Leapfrog Conservation Fund has been
created specically to support the creation
of new reserves for important amphibian
habitat, or the expansion of existing
reserves through local organizations. If
your organization is working toward the
protection of critical habitat for threatened
amphibian species, we would love to hear
from you. Link
The following information is kindly
provided by the Terra Viva Grants
Directory, for more information please
visit: http://www.terravivagrants.org/
October 2015
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency --
International Network for Environmental
Compliance and Enforcement (INECE).
The U.S. EPA invites proposals in support
of INECE, an informal international
partnership promoting compliance and
enforcement of domestic and international
environmental laws through networking,
capacity building, and enforcement
cooperation. EPA anticipates awarding
one cooperative agreement from this
announcement, subject to availability
of funds and the quality of proposals
received. The award amount is US$750
thousand over four years. The application
deadline is 05 October 2015. Link
United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) -- Public Awareness on
Climate Change. The UNDP announces
a climate change storytelling contest to
raise public awareness on the negative
impacts of climate change as well as
on the opportunities and solutions in
actions by individuals and governments
in vulnerable developing countries. The
contest provides young journalists in
developing countries a unique opportunity
to contribute to the global debate on
climate change in advance of COP21 in
Paris later this year. The contest is open
to qualied journalists 35 years of age
and under from developing countries
vulnerable to the impact of climate change.
The closing date for entries is 11 October
2015. Link
U.S. Department of State -- Fulbright/
Clinton Fellowship 2016-2017. The
J. William Fulbright-Hillary Rodham
Clinton (Fulbright-Clinton) Fellowship
is a component of the Fulbright U.S.
Student Program. The fellowships provide
professional experience and research
opportunities in public policy areas that
include agriculture, energy, environment,
and others. Host countries in 2016-2017
are the African Union, Burma (Myanmar),
Cote d’Ivoire, Guatemala, Haiti, Kosovo,
Malawi, Nepal, Peru, Samoa, Timor-Leste,
and Ukraine. Eligibility for the fellowships
is limited to U.S. citizens. The application
deadline is 13 October 2015. Link
Oklahoma City Zoo & Botanical Garden
-- Conservation Grants 2015. The
Oklahoma City Zoo and Botanical Garden
(USA) manages “Conservation Action
Now” as a program of small grants for
conservation education, scientic research,
and species preservation anywhere in the
world. Grants are up to US$2,500. The
application deadline is 16 October 2015.
Link
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service -- Program
for Mexico 2015. In “Wildlife Without
Borders, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(USFWS) partners with Mexico’s Ministry
of Environment and Natural Resources
(SEMARNAT) to invite projects that
build Mexico’s capacity for biodiversity
Internships & Employment
General Announcements
Funding Opportunities
Events
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 59
conservation. Applications are invited
from government agencies, non-prot
organizations, educational institutions,
private-sector entities, and individuals.
The approximate amount of funding is
US$500 thousand for an anticipated 15
awards. The deadline for applications
(English, Spanish) is 16 October 2015. Link
Conrad Foundation -- Spirit of
Innovation Challenge 2016. The Spirit
of Innovation Challenge is a worldwide
competition for youth ages 13-18 to
create commercially viable products
or services to address issues of global
sustainability. Categories include “Energy
and Environment” (among others). Ideas
are submitted by student teams, which
can be international, if desired. There is
a fee for team registration. The winning
teams are oered seed money to continue
the development of their ideas. The
application deadline is 19 October 2015.
Link
Explorers Club -- Grants for Exploration
and Youth Activities 2016. The Explorers
Club invites applications for its (i) Youth
Activity Fund; and (ii) Exploration
Fund. The Youth Activity Fund Grant
supports high school students and college
undergraduates to foster a new generation
of explorers. The Exploration Fund Grant
is for graduate, post-graduate, doctorate
and early-career post-doctoral students.
The Explorers Club considers proposals
in disciplines that include climate change,
marine science, plants and molds, animals,
conservation science, and others. There are
no restrictions by nationalities or country
of residence. Awards in both programs
range from US$5 hundred to US$5
thousand. The application deadline is 19
October 2015. Link
American Forests -- Tree Planting
2016. Since 1990, the program “Global
ReLeaf” has supported the planting
of about 50 million trees in the USA
and internationally for long-term
environmental, economic, and social
benets. The program invites applications
for tree-planting projects in 2016.
Proposals must be submitted by non-prot
organizations or public agencies that have
expertise and experience. The program
favors applicants that are able to provide
matching resources. Most grants range
from US$3 thousand to US$30 thousand.
The closing date for applications is 27
October 2015. Link
African Union -- Kwame Nkrumah
Scientic Awards 2015. The African Union
(AU) honors outstanding African scientists
through the Kwame Nkrumah Scientic
Awards for elds that include agricultural
sciences, environmental sciences, and
energy innovation (among others). The
program seeks to recognize outstanding
science at the continental level for which
it awards a prize of US$100 thousand. It
also makes regional scientic awards to
African women of US$20 thousand each.
The application deadline for regional
scientic awards for African women is 30
October 2015. The application deadline
for the continental scientic award is 15
November 2015. Link
Technische Universität Dresden (TUD)
-- Support for Masters Studies in Tropical
Forestry 2016. Germany’s DAAD (the
German Academic Exchange Service) will
fund a limited number of scholarships for
applicants from developing countries to
enroll in TUD’s 2-year masters program in
tropical forestry. Applicants must hold a
university degree in forestry, agriculture,
horticulture, or other related eld. The
deadline to apply for DAAD scholarships
is 30 October 2015. Link
University of St. Andrews -- St.
Andrews Prize for the Environment
2016. The annual St Andrews Prize for
the Environment recognizes signicant
contributions to environmental
conservation in the developing world.
Projects that have won in the past include
subjects such as water management;
agriculture and food security; by-products
from waste; renewable energy; and
others. The Prize consists of an award of
US$100 thousand and a medal. Awards
of US$25 thousand are presented to each
of two other nalists. The deadline for
applications is 31 October 2015. Link
Whitley Fund for Nature -- Whitley
Awards 2016.
The Whitley Fund for Nature (WFN)
oers “Whitley Awards” to outstanding
biodiversity conservation leaders in
developing countries around the world.
The awards are both an international
prize and a form of project funding,
currently £35 thousand over one year.
Whitley Awards are open to biodiversity
conservation leaders working in countries
or regions of which they are nationals,
and that are not dened as high-income
economies by the World Bank (with
exceptions). The application deadline is 31
October 2015. Link
November 2015
Aspen Institute -- New Voices Fellowship
2016. The New Voices Fellowship is
a year-long program in media skills,
communication, and leadership for
top development professionals in the
developing world. Fellows are expected
to have both a record of signicant
professional achievement and a desire
to share their perspectives on global
development with a broader international
audience. The Aspen Institute aims to
select 20 fellows who will write opinion
articles, participate in interviews with local
and international media, and speak at
international conferences. Applications are
welcome from all developing countries,
and from subject areas including all those
relevant in the Terra Viva Grants Directory.
A particular priority for 2016, among
others, is food security. The deadline for
nominations is 01 November 2015. Link
Field Museum -- Visiting Scholarships
and Graduate Fellowships. The Field
Museum (Chicago, USA) supports basic
research on its collections by interested
students and scholars throughout the
world. The Museum oers a modest
number of grants and fellowships,
including funding for short-term visits
of up to three months for collection-
based research studies. Grants to
examine specimens in the Museum’s
collections are open on a competitive
basis to all individuals in the national
and international scholarly community
working on problems related to natural
history. The deadline to apply for the
visiting scholarships is 01 November 2015.
The deadline for graduate fellowships is 30
January 2016. Link
Morris Animal Foundation -- Wildlife
Health and Welfare 2016. The Morris
Animal Foundation supports research
on animal health and welfare, including
wildlife/exotics. The Foundation invites
proposals in several categories (i.e.,
established investigator; rst award;
fellowship training; pilot study). The
application deadline for wildlife/exotics is
18 November 2015. (Note: The Foundation
also manages a wildlife rapid response fund
that has no calendar deadlines.) Link
Scottish Government -- International
Development Small Grants 2016. The
Scottish Government’s International
Development Small Grants Programme
provides project funding in support of the
government’s International Development
Policy. Applications for grants are
invited from incorporated not-for-prot
organisations which have a presence in
Scotland and an annual turnover of less
than £150 thousand. Projects must focus in
the following priority countries: Malawi,
Rwanda, Tanzania, Zambia, Pakistan,
Bangladesh and the Indian States of Bihar,
Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. Awards are
a maximum of £60 thousand for project
grants over three years, or a maximum of
£10 thousand for feasibility and capacity
60 | FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015)
building grants over one year. The
application deadline is 25 November 2015.
Link
December 2015
International Zoo Educators Association
-- Sponsored Delegate Program. The
International Zoo Educators Association
funds conservation educators from
developing countries to attend its
biennial conference. A limited number of
professional development grants to attend
the IZE conference are available every
other year. Each conference grant includes
support for conference registration, airfare,
accommodations, some meals, and IZE
membership for two and half years. The
application deadline is 01 December 2015.
Link
January 2016
Conservation, Food, and Health
Foundation (CHF) -- Grants for
Grassroots Development. The CFH
Foundation makes grants to nonprot
organizations worldwide for projects in
conservation, sustainable agriculture,
and health in developing countries. The
average grant is approximately US$20
thousand. The deadlines for concept
applications are 01 January and 01 July of
each year. Link
Wild Gift -- Fellowship Support for
Young Social Entrepreneurs on Climate
Change. The Wild Gift Network invites
applications for a new class of social
entrepreneurs to join its network. The
program is open to applicants ages 21-35 in
the USA and Canada. The selected leaders
will be supported for projects anywhere
in the world on the themes of climate
adaptation and climate change mitigation.
Grants are up to US$10 thousand for
projects of 16 months. Applicants must
be able to participate in a three-week
wilderness orientation and training session
in Idaho, USA. The application deadline is
01 January 2016. Link
World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF)
-- Prince Bernhard Scholarships for
Nature Conservation 2016. WWF supports
professional training and formal studies of
individuals working in disciplines directly
relevant to nature conservation. Eligibility
extends to mid-career nationals from
Africa; Asia and Pacic; Latin America
and Caribbean; Eastern Europe; and the
Middle East -- including WWF sta, or
candidates working as partners with WWF.
The maximum grant is CHF 10 thousand
for studies or training lasting one year or
less. The deadline for applications (English,
French, Spanish) is 05 January 2016. Link
Harvard University -- Environmental
Fellowships 2016. Harvard University’s
Center for the Environment will award
six environmental fellowships for 2016.
The fellowships enable recent doctorate
recipients to use Harvard’s resources to
tackle complex environmental problems.
Eligibility for funding extends to
candidates with a doctorate or equivalent
in any subject area from any university
in the world. Moreover, candidates may
propose research projects in any discipline.
The fellowships are US$62 thousand per
year, in addition to other benets. The
deadline for applications is 13 January
2016. Link
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation --
Georg Forster Research Award. The Georg
Forster Research Award supports the
work of accomplished researchers who are
expected to continue to develop research-
based solutions to specic challenges
facing transition and developing
countries. Nominees must be nationals
of a developing or transition country,
excluding the People’s Republic of China
and India. The Foundation particularly
encourages the nomination of qualied
female researchers. The award amount
totals €60 thousand. Additionally, award
winners are invited to conduct a research
project of their own choosing in Germany
in close collaboration with a specialist
colleague. To support the collaboration, the
Foundation may grant additional funding
of up to €25 thousand. The deadline for
nominations is 15 January of every year.
Link
Maypole Fund -- Small Grants to Women.
The Maypole Fund takes an international
perspective in supporting women in non-
violent and politically expressive projects
in subject areas that include environmental
issues, among several others. The Fund
gives priority to small women’s groups
and individual women. Grants are up to
£750. The application deadlines are 31
January and 30 June of each year. Link
February 2016
American Philosophical Society -- Lewis
and Clark Fund for Exploration and Field
Research 2016.
The Fund supports doctoral students to
collect specimens and data in disciplines
relying heavily on eld studies, e.g.,
including biology, ecology, geography, and
others. Applicants from the USA may use
the grants for research anywhere in the
world. Applicants from other countries
must be based at an institution in the USA,
or carry out their work in the USA. The
grants are up to US$5 thousand. The next
closing date for applications is 01 February
2016. Link
January — Special Edition
April — The Americas
July — Africa, West Asia, Madagascar, Mediterranean and Europe
October — Asia, Russia and Oceania
FrogLog Schedule
FrogLog 23 (4), Number 116 (October 2015) | 61
Publication
FrogLog is published online at: www.am-
phibians.org and is Open Access.
Review
All contributions should ideally be chan-
neled through Regional ASG Chairs, the
details for which can be found at http://
www.amphibians.org/asg/members/. If
for some reason this cannot be done, con-
tributions will be reviewed by at least one
individual within the ASG. FrogLog is not a
peer-reviewed publication and the onus for
submitting accurate information remains
with the authors.
PRoduction editoR
Candace M. Hansen-Hendrikx: cmhan-
sen@amphibians.org
editoRial committee
Candace M. Hansen-Hendrikx
Craig Hassapakis
Lindsay Renick Mayer
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Titles should ideally be no more than 15
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Authors names should be written in full
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Use Georgia 11-point font. Genus and
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Author details may be provided, includ-
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Journals/Periodicals
1. E. Recuero, J. Cruzado-Cortés, G. Parra-Olea, K.
R. Zamundio, Ann. Zool. Fenn. 47, 223 (2010).
Books
2. J. Gupta, N. van der Grijp, Eds., Mainstreaming
Climate Change in Development Cooperation
(Cambrdige Univ. Press, Cambridge, UK, 2010).
Technical reports
3. G.B. Shaw, Practical uses of litmus paper in
Möbius strips (Tech. Rep. CUCS-29-82, Columbia
Univ., New York, 1982).
Paper presented at a meeting
4. M. Konishi, paper presented at the 14th Annual
Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience,
Anaheim, CA, 10 October 1984.
Published Online Only
5. N. H. Sleep, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 10,
Q11010 (2009): DOI:10.1029/2009GC002702.
Web site
6. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, Beaufort Wind Scale, http://
www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/beaufort.html
(2012).
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inStRuctionS to authoRS
Background
FrogLog has been one of the leading amphibian conservation
community newsletters since the early 1990’s. Over the years it
has been aliated with dierent groups but has always strived to
help inform the community. In 2005 FrogLog became the ocial
newsletter of the IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group and is
produced on a quarterly basis.
As the ASG’s newsletter members are encouraged to contribute
to FrogLog’s content and direction. To aid in this process each edi-
tion of FrogLog focuses on one of the six broad geographical zones
identied by the ASG. The publication schedule is as follows:
●January
—Special Topical Edition
●April—The Americas
●July—Africa, West Asia, Madagascar, Mediterranean and Eu-
rope
●October—Asia, Russia and Oceania
FrogLog invites contributions of research, reviews on current
management and conservation issues, methods or techniques
papers and, editorials. We also actively encourage submissions
describing the current activities relating to projects and academic
institutions in order to help inform the community as to the general
state of current research and conservation activities.
Disclaimer - Publisher, editors, reviewers and authors do not accept any legal responsibility for errors, omissions or
claims, nor do they provide any warranty, express or implied, with respect to information published in FrogLog. The
opinions represented in FrogLog articles do not necessarily represent those of the ASG nor any of its partners.
