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Changes of chemical composition during early development of egg and larva in the half beak Hemiramphus sajori
Abstract
The eight stages from fertilized egg to swim fry in the half beak Hemiramphus sajori were determined from changes of chemical composition during early development. 1. Wet weight of the egg was not very much changed before hatching and wet weight of the larva increased gradually until the end of yolk sac stage after hatching. 2. 0.238mg Protein was contained in the fertilized egg. There was more consumed after hatching than before hatching. 3. 73.2μg lipid was contained in the fertillzed egg. There was more consumed before hatching than after hatching. 4. Phospho-lipids were mainly consumed during developmental stages before hatching and neutral lipids were mainly used after hatching. 5. The amount of Carbohydrate contained was 33.8μg, 1.4%in wet material. This value was 7 times as much as much as the carbohydrate contents of rainbow trout and pacific sardine. However, there was no decrease in carbohydrats of the larva after hatching. Therefore carbohydrate contents were very important as an energy source for formation of the embryo in the before-eyed egg stage of the half beak. 6. The average calorie value of the fertilized egg was 4.726 kcal per gram dry wight This value was lower because the half beak egg contained more carbohydrate of the lower calorie/unit type than rainbow trout and pacific sardine. 7. The number of calories consumed per a day in the before-eyed egg stage was larger than in any other stages, that in the yolk sac stage was second.
... Post-embryonic reserves are crucial in the transition from endogenous to exogenous food supplies and are critical, in part, to the survival of larvae. An understanding of the metabolic transformations and energetics of eggs and developing fish embryos is important to fish rearing, yet few studies have examined changes to lipid, carbohydrate and protein concurrently during development of a teleost egg (Cetta & Capuzzo 1982;Kimata 1982;1983;Vetter, Hodson & Arnold 1983). The objectives of the present study were to investigate the transformation of energy reserves during embryogenesis and to examine the relative proportions of constituent nucleic acids and lipid fatty acids accompanying early development of the Pacific halibut. ...
... Such changes suggested release of low molecular weight material and replacement by water in the developing embryos. Increased moisture levels have been reported in developing embryos of winter flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus (Walbaum) (Cetta & Capuzzo 1982), of half beak, Hemiramphus sajori (Temminck & Schlegel) (Kimata 1982), of red sea bream, Chrysophrys major (Temminck & Schlegel) (Kimata 1983), of dolphin fish, Coryphaena hippurus L. (Ostrowski & Divakaran 1991), and of Atlantic halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus L. (Finn, Fyhn & Evjen 1991). Ammonia was reported lost during development of embryos of H. hippoglossus (Finn et al. 1991), Gadus morhua L. (Fyhn & Serigstad 1987), and P. americanus (Cetta & Capuzzo 1982). ...
... By contrast, utilization of protein and carbohydrate were reported during embryogenesis of P. americanus (Cetta & Capuzzo 1982) and lipid increased during this period. All three macronutrients were used as energy sources in developing embryos of//, sajori and C. major (Kimata 1982(Kimata ,1983. Energy demands of developing H. stenolepis were satisfied by oxidation of energy-rich lipid with little requirement for the more immediate energy provided by carbohydrate. ...
Abstract Eggs of Pacific halibut held in a conical incubator at 6deg;C hatched 422 h post-fertilization. Levels of moisture, monosaccharides and total carbohydrates in the embryos demonstrated significant linear increases during this period of development. Significant linear declines in levels of total lipid and ash occurred, but polysaccharide and protein contents were virtually unchanged. The ratio of RNA:DNA, signifying rate of protein synthesis, declined during embryogenesis from 9·74 in the egg to 4·49 in the larvae. The slight increase in relative proportions of the essential eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids was offset by a decline in palmitic add and indicated catabolism of only the saturated acid as a source of energy. Energy derived from carbohydrate, protein and lipid in the eggs increased, remained constant and decreased, respectively, with embryonic development. Total accountable energy expended during embryogenesis, principally by lipid catabolism, was 88·11 J/g wet weight or a decline of 6·96% of the original energy in the fertilized egg. However, non-protein nitrogenous constituents may also have contributed considerably to the total energy expended during embryogenesis.
... The energetic density of fish larvae has seldom been measured (Kimata, 1982;Quantz, 1985;Harris et al., 1986;Yufera et al., 1999). In the case of the western Mediterranean Sea the Fulton's index has been used to approach energy larval storage (García et al., 2006). ...
... The scant available information on caloric content of marine fish larvae shows values of the same order as those of the present study (Table 5) (Kimata, 1982;Quantz, 1985;Harris et al., 1986;Yufera et al., 1999). The wider size range of sardine and anchovy larvae in the present study showed an increasing trend in E D with development, indicating a certain degree of energy accumulation while growing. ...
In marine communities, energy of small planktonic organisms is transferred to their predators through feeding. The energy accumulated as organic substances by the different plankton organisms (Energetic Density content, ED) has been analysed in high latitudes and tropical areas, but not in the Mediterranean Sea. In this study, we approach this type of investigation for Mediterranean plankton through measures of total calorimetric content using an oxygen bomb calorimeter. We examined the spatiotemporal variation in the ED of microplankton (50–200 μm) and mesozooplankton (200–2000 μm), and two plankton-consumers, sardine (Sardina pilchardus) and anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) larvae. The study was carried out during the winter and summer of 2013 off the Ebro River Delta (NW Mediterranean Sea). Both plankton fractions showed a more coastal distribution and higher biomasses during winter, the period of sardine larvae occurrences, in front of a wider cross-shelf distribution and lower biomasses in summer, when anchovy appeared. ED values increased with the size of each plankton component, i.e., microzooplankton < mesozooplankton < fish larvae. A tendency for higher plankton ED in the winter period was observed, although being only significant for coastal zone, associated to the more productive waters there. Sardine and anchovy larvae showed an increasing trend in the amount of energy during development, with significantly lower ED between early larvae (6–10 mm standard length) and late postflexion stages (16–20 mm standard length). Small larvae of both species departed from a similarly low ED content, but in the next two size classes sardine larvae showed higher ED values than anchovy, being significantly higher in the 16–20 mm size class. Information on larval feeding patterns and larval growth rates for each species were used to discuss differences in energy allocation strategies.
... Heterolipid phospholipids serve as a source of stabilization for free radicals [117] and are integral to cell membrane structure [118], which is critical for rapidly dividing embryos. Phospholipids may also be the primary endogenous energy source in some larval fishes such as rainbow trout, red seabream, and halfbeak (Hemiramphus sajori) [119][120][121]. Phosphatidylcholine in the broodstock diets of fishes such as halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus), plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), and cod (Gadus morhua) [118], may serve as a source of inorganic phosphate and choline [122]. ...
Egg quality in fishes has been a topic of research in aquaculture and fisheries for decades as it represents an important life history trait and is critical for captive propagation and successful recruitment. A major factor influencing egg quality is proper yolk formation, as most fishes are oviparous and the developing offspring are entirely dependent on stored egg yolk for nutritional sustenance. These maternally derived nutrients consist of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, minerals, and ions that are transported from the liver to the ovary by lipoprotein particles including vitellogenins. The yolk composition may be influenced by broodstock diet, husbandry, and other intrinsic and extrinsic conditions. In addition, a number of other maternal factors that may influence egg quality also are stored in eggs, such as gene transcripts, that direct early embryonic development. Dysfunctional regulation of gene or protein expression may lead to poor quality eggs and failure to thrive within hours of fertilization. These gene transcripts may provide important markers as their expression levels may be used to screen broodstock for potential spawning success. In addition to such intrinsic factors, stress may lead to ovarian atresia or reproductive failure and can impact fish behavior, fecundity, and ovulation rate. Finally, postovulatory aging may occur when eggs become overripe and the fish fails to spawn in a timely fashion, leading to low fertility, often encountered during manual strip spawning of fish.
... Needham (1931) was the first to suggest that there was a succession in the use of endogenous sources of energy for respiration during embryonic development, wherein carbohydrate proceeds protein and protein proceeds lipid. A number of studies have supported this statement (Terrier, 1968;Kimata, 1982;Finn, 1994), although Kimata (1983) has reported that phospholipids (PL) were the primary fuel in red seabream. ...
The present work reviews the significance of lipids at different early stages of marine fish larvae. Lipids in broodstock nutrition are considered to be important for the quality of the larvae. Lipids affect the spawning and the egg quality of many fish species and a deficiency in (n−3) highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) in broodstock negatively affects fecundity, fertilization rate and hatching rate of the species studied. Lipids as a source of energy at the embryonic and larval stage (before first-feeding) are evaluated in relation to other sources of energy such as protein and carbohydrates. After hatching and prior to first-feeding, some marine species show a preference in catabolizing phosphatidylcholine, whereas phosphatidylethanolamine tends to be synthesized. The effect of long-term (LT) and short-term (ST) enrichment techniques on the lipid composition of rotifers has been documented using various marine oils/emulsions. The quantitative and qualitative lipid class and fatty acid composition of diets influenced the lipid and fatty acid composition of both LT- or ST-enriched rotifers. The nutritional improvement of Artemia is also important and may follow the general methods used for rotifers. The functions of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) during early stages of marine fish larvae are apparently different. High amounts of EPA in relation to DHA may create an imbalance in the structural composition of the phospholipids, which could affect the normal growth and the quality of the larvae. Turbot larvae tended to exhibit lower pigmentation success with lower DHA:EPA ratio in the total lipid fraction of the larvae, especially when the absolute amounts of EPA were high compared to those of DHA (in the total lipid and phospholipid fraction of the larvae). Considerable research is necessary to clarify many aspects regarding the function of these fatty acids, especially how their content at the egg stage can affect further requirements for normal growth and survival.
The dynamics of lipid status of the Onega salmon was studied during embryonic and larval development. The total lipids and their fractions (phospholipids, triacylglycerols, cholesterol, and cholesterol ethers) and phospholipid fractions (phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, sphingomyelin, lysophosphatidylcholine, cardiolipin, and phosphatidic acid) were assayed. It was shown that during embryonic-larval period of development the greatest changes in the ratio of lipid fractions occurred in the beginning of embryogenesis and by the moment of hatching, i.e., at the stages which are recognized as critical according to the survival rate. Ontogenetic and ecological causes of maxima and minima in the content of the above mentioned lipid fractions during embryonic and larval development of the salmon are discussed.
Factors contributing to the previous abundance and to present decline of Chondrostoma nasus populations are reviewed. During early life C. nasus exhibits good growth and survival potential, and is well fitted to undisturbed riverine environments. The previous abundance of C. nasus in rivers can be related to the success of the species during early life. For a successful reproduction C. nasus requires a relatively narrow range of current velocity, water depth, temperature and oxygen content. Reduction of spawning areas, their silting, reduction of the area and quality of 0+ habitats, and loss of connectivity between them are probably the main causes of the present decline of C. nasus populations. In the Fischa River in Austria recruitment into the spawning population almost fails.
Data on the structure of the eggs of teleostean fish, their chemical composition, interactions between the embryo and yolk during embryonic-larval development, and the sequence of utilization of the main yolk components are reviewed. Special attention is paid to the chemical status and enzymatic activity of the embryo and yolk. The principle of nonproportional changes in the growth rate of the embryo mass and resorption of the yolk reserve substances is discussed. The concept of evolutionary pathways to increased reproduction of teleostean fish, which interprets the increase of the yolk reserve nutrients through utilization of the liver potential, is considered.
Naturally fertilized bluefin tuna Thunnus thynnus eggs which were obtained from 7-year-old broodstock in a net cage were incubated until hatching at 27°C. No conspicuous changes were found in egg moisture and amounts of total nitrogen and phospholipid during the embryonic development. Egg protein gradually increased, but free amino acid decreased with the development. Triacylglycerole (TG), a main egg constituent of 420 mg/g dry egg at the stage of early cleavage, rapidly decreased after the stage of late gastrula and reached 140 mg/g dry egg just before hatching. Activities of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, creatine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase fell between the stages of early cleavage and Kupffer's vesicle and rose thereafter. Activities of alkaline phosphatase remained high until embryo formation but fell rapidly thereafter. These results indicate that TG plays an important role as a main energy fuel, and that the differentiation and formation of organs are prompted immediately before or after the stage of Kupffer's vesicle during the embryonic development of bluefin tuna.
Total lipids, lipid classes and their associated fatty acids were quantified in developing eggs, yolk-sac larvae and starving larvae (from day 1 to day 5 after hatching) of the Senegal sole,Solea senegalensis Kaup. Larvae during early development and starvation consumed about 0.6% of its dry weight per day, mainly due to lipid catabolism. There was a net consumption of approximately 1.7% total lipid per day, and a net energy utilization of 1.3 kcal g(-1) dry weight biomass day(-1), mostly derived from lipid depletion. The overall decrease of total neutral lipids (mainly triacylglycerols and sterol esters) was 3.4 faster than that of total polar lipids (primarily phosphatidylcholine), with rates of 29.2 and 8.7 μg mg(-1) dry weight biomass day(-1), respectively. There was a concomitant increase in PE, PS and phosphatidic acid during the period under study. Total saturated and total monounsaturated fatty acids were catabolized (primarily 16∶0 and 16∶1 (n-7)) as energy substrates at rates of 7.4 and 10.9 μg mg(-1) total lipid day(-1), whereas total PUFAs were conserved. DHA was specifically retained in PE, whereas EPA and DHA were catabolized in PC and triacylglycerol. Total DMA and AA contents in total lipid increased during early development and starvation. The data denote a pattern of lipid metabolism during early development of Senegal sole similar to that of other marine larval fish, with eggs containing high amounts of total lipids (presence of oil globule/s), from temperate waters and with short developmental periods; the pattern contrasts with fish larvae from eggs of cold water fish species that contain low levels of total lipids (lack of oil globule/s) and have long developmental periods.
Yolk-sac larvae of turbot from the Baltic Sea were raised at 15, 18, and 21°C in brackish water (17‰ salinity) and larvae from the North Sea were raised at 15°C in seawater (32‰). Rate of yolk utilization and growth of larvae in length and weight were monitored. Decrease of yolk weight was correlated with time and temperature, whereas the increment of larval tissue reached a peak after 2/3 of the yolk-sac phase. During the last 24 h before the larvae acquired the ability to feed, they suffered from energy deficiencies. North Sea larvae, which floated passively at the surface of full-strength seawater, consumed yolk less rapidly than Baltic Sea larvae, which sank in water of 17‰ salinity and had to swim. Yolk-utilization efficiencies (percentage of yolk energy transformed into tissue energy) were highest in seawater at 15°C (72%) and lowest in brackish waters at 21°C (51%). Efficiencies decreased with time during development under all experimental conditions.
A model of catabolic metabolism during the endogenous developmental phase of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.), a species whose pelagic eggs contain a single oil globule, is presented. Yolk-dependent routine rates of oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion and flux of ammonium ions were related stoichio-metrically to quantitative changes in the contents of free glucose, glycogen, lactate, free amino acids, proteins, and lipid classes with their associated fatty acids, in order to determine the rate and sequence of catabolic substrate oxidation that occurs with development. These data were further related to the changes in caloric contents of the eggs and larvae in order to derive an enthalpy balance equation for the period of yolk dependence.
Patterns of nitrogen excretion and of oxygen consumption, and utilization of protein and nitrogen during the early development of diploid and triploid rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri ) were measured. Ammonia excretion ( mu g N/ind/hr) increased from 0.08 at the beginning to 0.25 at hatching and to 1.5 by the end of yolk absorption. At similar stages, oxygen consumption rates were respectively 1, 4 and 30 mu g/ind/hr. While fresh weight, water and protein contents remained constant during egg development, protein and energy utilization increased after hatching. Protein was the major energy source during embryonic development, the utilization of lipids becoming predominant after hatching. No significant differences were observed between diploids and triploids in their metabolic utilization of endogenous reserves.
An insight is made into the main processes that occur in fish during endogenous feeding period. The ways in which yolk absorption
rate can be measured are evaluated. Essential amino acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids are preferentially retained for
incorporation into body tissue. Profound physiological and anatomical changes in yolk and a sequence of slow, fast, and a
second period of slow absorption occur during the endogenous feeding period. Attempts to quantify the ontogenetic sequence
are reviewed. Various methods of body size assessment are compared, and sources of bias in individual and population growth
estimates are discussed. Several calorimetric methods are compared of which direct calorimetry using an oxygen bomb is the
reference method. An advanced elemental analysis (CHNS) is a reliable technique that is adequate for early stages. Indices
of growth potential are reviewed including a comparison of different measures, models and approaches used to estimate growth.
Changes in body hydration, caloric value, content of lipids, protein, free amino acids (FAA) and minerals, and in content
of RNA and DNA occur in early ontogeny. Ways to quantify metabolic rate are identified. Mean relative respiration rate of
initial egg before activation is very low, about 20mm3g−1h−1. Ontogenetic sequence in absolute metabolic rate of fish embryos and yolk-feeding larvae involves an increase through hatching
to a peak at the time of first feeding ability, and a decrease under starvation. Models predicting the relationship between
oxygen consumption and age in yolk-feeding fish are reviewed. Sequence of metabolic fuels begins with use of small molecules
as carbohydrates, soon switched to FAA. Later lipids are progressively used, they provide energy for swimming activity. After
yolk depletion body protein-bound amino acids are mobilised. In this review I focused on the major environmental variables
as temperature, oxygen, salinity, pH, toxic xenobiotics, light, UV radiation, magnetic field and substrate, along with intrinsic
factors as egg or body size, sex and genetic factors. A question was posed on how the extrinsic and intrinsic factors determine
yolk absorption, growth and metabolic rates in yolk-feeding fish. Special attention is devoted to fish body size attained
exclusively on yolk. A considerable variety of body size responses to temperature was found, for which several explanations
are forwarded. Methodological progress made recently is characterised and the most conspicious advances in understanding of
fish early life history are highlighted. Information derived from these studies can be used in management of fish populations
in the field and to optimise activities in aquaculture.
Changes in biochemical composition and fatty acid content were investigated during the early development of the Senegal sole (Solea senegalensis Kaup). The pattern of lipid utilization in this rapidly developing marine flatfish species favored neutral lipids, particularly triacylglycerol and sterol ester fractions. Fertilized eggs and yolk sac larvae were richer in neutral lipids, which decreased during development. In contrast, a significant increase occurred to proportions of phospholipids, mainly due to significant increases in minor classes such as phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidic acid/cardiolipin, whereas major phospholipid classes such as phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine remained constant during development. Saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids such as 16:0, 16:1n−7, 18:1n−9 and 18:1n−7 were utilized to a greater extent than polyunsaturated fatty acids as energy substrates. A requirement for long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n−3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n−3) is likely since no evidence of bioconversion from their precursors was found. A requirement for arachidonic acid (20:4n−6) is also suggested as it is specifically retained throughout development.
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