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Is There an Elephant in Entrepreneurship? Blind Assumptions in Theory Development*
Abstract
This article uses the six key specification decisions for entrepreneurship research (purpose, theoretical perspective, focus, level of analysis, time frame, and methodology) outlined in Low and MacMillan (1988) to explore unstated assumptions in entrepreneurship theory development. An article by Shane and Venkataraman (2000), The Promise of Entrepreneurship as a Field of Research, is analyzed and recommended as a model for clarity. A recommendation is made that the field of entrepreneurship needs to develop communities of scholars identified with specific research questions and issues.
... Finally, there is also an emerging trend seeking to strengthen the philosophical positioning of entrepreneurial education, which to a large extent builds on progressive educational thoughts and the role of practical wisdom (H€ agg and Kurczewska, 2016;Johannisson, 2016;Jones, 2019b). However, since entrepreneurial education is a young academic subject, the number of frameworks is plentiful where scholars in different contexts have sought to give their voices on how to best educate entrepreneurial students, which has led to everyone portraying the elephant from slightly different angles (Gartner, 2001). Two main angles, although intertwined, can be acknowledged when tracing the discussion backwards, which Ball (1989) described as a narrow approach of start-up entrepreneurialism and a broad approach seeking to develop enterprising individuals regardless of occupational path. ...
... As the reach of entrepreneurial education continues, the very legitimacy of the field is questioned (Fayolle et al., 2016;Rideout and Gray, 2013), and the challenge of satisfying the requirements of multiple stakeholders (Jack and Anderson, 1999) increasingly threatens to become unsustainable. Just as the overarching field of entrepreneurship needed to come to grips with how its key characteristics are interpreted and combined (Gartner, 2001), it would seem logical for entrepreneurial education to address this issue as well. Doing so, would allow the field to contemplate 1) the different poles of paradox that divide us and 2) the validity of having the prudent entrepreneurial self as a unifying aim for all forms of entrepreneurial education. ...
... Unlike Gartner's (2001) elephant that can be imagined as being comprised elements that in a tactile sense differ significantly (i.e. tail, trunk, ears, etc.), entrepreneurial education demonstrates a split personality. ...
Purpose
This paper explores the idea of the prudent entrepreneurial self, through re-conceptualizing prudence into the domain of entrepreneurial education, to unite the two processes of becoming enterprising and entrepreneurial. It is argued that developing a capacity for prudence among graduates involves past, present and conjecture forms of knowledge that the authors find in the interplay between individuation and social awareness.
Design/methodology/approach
Building on Palmer's idea of wholeness, the authors discuss six poles of paradoxes in entrepreneurial education and in conjunction establish a philosophical argument for the idea of stimulating the development of prudence as fundamentally important to contemporary notions of entrepreneurial education.
Findings
The paper presents a model to develop a schema that moves students towards becoming prudent entrepreneurial selves. The model rests on two interrelated developmental processes – individuation and social awareness – conditional for developing the three forms of knowledge (past, present and conjecture) that makes up prudence where developing prudence is a means to handle or cope with the unknown.
Research limitations/implications
This paper argues that for enterprise and entrepreneurship education to realize their potential contributions, both the relationships between each field and the overarching purpose that ties the fields together need to be rethought, and the poles of paradoxes need to be connected to further develop both fields and creating wholeness for the emerging scholarly discipline.
Practical implications
To educate towards the prudent entrepreneurial self means educating towards an unknown end where student development aims to meet both the objectives of individual development and the growth in social awareness required to handle the changing nature of contemporary society.
Originality/value
This study philosophically conceives a united enterprise and entrepreneurship education landscape in which deeper student learning makes possible the notion of the prudent entrepreneurial self.
... This has been observed in entrepreneurship in the 1980s when researchers moved away from trying to understand the entrepreneurial personality to focus more on what entrepreneurs 'do' (Bygrave, 1989) and in the 1990s when researchers shifted away somewhat from a focus on new venture creation to focus on opportunity recognition (Pittaway and Tunstall, 2016). Faced with the diversity in the underlying disciplinary basis of entrepreneurship research, and consequently its implicit metatheories, there have been calls to consider the theoretical foundations of the subject (Brazeal and Herbert, 1999;Chandler and Lyon, 2001;Gartner, 2001). Argued for solutions have included a 'normal science' perspective, which seeks general theories that can incorporate the body of thinking into a whole (Shane and Venkataraman, 2000). ...
... Others have aimed to draw the boundaries of the discipline more tightly, to create disciplinary coherence in underlying assumptions (Low, 2001). While others have argued for a more 'pragmatic science' perspective, whereby communities of researchers are encouraged to build research agendas around discrete themes (Gartner, 2001), allowing for different underlying assumption sets. These discussions are best viewed as a debate about how to manage diverse sets of metatheoretical assumptions drawn from different disciplines. ...
This chapter considers the role of entrepreneurship theory in the development of ideation techniques for entrepreneurship education. It begins by considering how metatheories impact theory construction in entrepreneurship research and discusses the role of ontology, epistemology, axiology, as well as the role of assumptions about human nature and social change. The chapter presents four different paradigms of thought that apply different philosophies and illustrates how these different paradigms conceptualization entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial opportunity differently. The four paradigms include the equilibrium paradigm; the disequilibrium paradigm; the disruptive innovation paradigm and the social constructionism paradigm. Within each paradigm the nature of entrepreneurial opportunity is discussed, and the chapter shows how different ideation techniques can be generated from these different conceptualizations. Forms of ideation technique are presented and explained, as they relate to each paradigm, and the chapter concludes by explaining the value of these techniques for ideation, opportunity discovery and creation, in the entrepreneurial process. 2
... Moreover, the debate on entrepreneurial family business is being observed from many previous studies. As Gartner (2001) throws a question, is there any theoretical link between the family business and entrepreneurship? While Chrisman et al. (2003) answered that question with multiple arguments, family business and entrepreneurship have a strong relationship based on various business activities. ...
... Isso tem ocorrido em estados como no Ceará(Ceará, 2017), que tem o governo estadual como impulsionador; em Santa Catarina, que tem a Federação Catarinense de Municípios FECAM como articuladora e apoiadora (Abrúcio; Filipim; & Dieguez, 2013), dentre outros.iciativa, que assume riscos e que decide sobre o uso de recursos escassos(Gartner, 2001). A questão é que os agentes/organizações locais impulsionadores, não necessariamente são empreendedores políticos, mas podem ser atores com visão dos benefícios da cooperação na região ou simplesmente ser uma organização (associação de municípios, por exemplo) com poder de articulação intermunicipal suficiente para influenciar a cooperação. ...
O papel das instituições na produção de bens comuns em processos de ação coletiva é chave para explicar como as instituições em seu contexto influenciam os atores a agir. Para isso, o artigo traz dois quadros teóricos que têm se destacados na literatura recente como arcabouços para a compreensão do processo de ação coletiva visando a produção de bens comuns: o Institutional Analysis Development (IAD), e o Institutional Collective Action (ICA). Sendo assim, o objetivo desse ensaio teórico é caracterizar cada um desses frameworks versando sobre seus pontos de similaridades e diferenças. Ao fim, percebeu-se que ambas partem do princípio de que a ação coletiva é influenciada por instituições contextuais locais, que influenciam a cooperação em diferentes formatos e momentos.
... A propensão a riscos, por sua vez, ilustra a capacidade de assumir riscos. Segundo Gartner (2001) e Lumpkin e Dess (1996), essa dimensão constitui uma das características que possibilita a vinculação da OE ao perfil do empreendedor. A capacidade de assumir riscos pode ser compreendida a partir de três diferentes tipos: o risco de negócio, relacionado a iniciativas organizacionais de entrada em novos mercados; o risco financeiro, explicado a partir do envolvimento dos recursos financeiros da empresa em investimentos nos quais os retornos e riscos são mensuráveis ou de difícil mensuração; e o risco pessoal, que se refere às práticas/estratégias que serão adotadas pelo empreendedor para conduzir a empresa, podendo impactar em sua carreira e em suas perspectivas de sucesso (DESS; LUMPKIN, 2005). ...
O objetivo do presente trabalho consistiu em identificar as particularidades da orientação empreendedora (OE) de uma cervejaria artesanal situada na cidade de Ribeirão Preto-SP. Através de um estudo de caso qualitativo, foi possível observar as iniciativas de autonomia, propensão ao risco, proatividade, inovatividade, e agressividade competitiva. Conclui-se que a cervejaria artesanal estudada apresenta um grau relativamente importante de orientação empreendedora, considerando as práticas que a mesma desenvolve no âmbito das diferentes dimensões de OE, que repercutem em seu posicionamento no mercado, em suas condições atuais de competitividade, e em suas perspectivas futuras de crescimento e sobrevivência no setor de cervejas artesanais.
On constate aujourd’hui que le rôle de la femme a évolué dans la société, passant de femme au foyer à femme entreprenante au même titre que l’homme. L’entrepreneuriat féminin contribue aux économies en termes de création d'emplois et de croissance économique (Kelley, Bosma et Amoros, 2010). Dans ce travail, nous nous intéresserons à la place de la femme dans l’entrepreneuriat au Togo.
L’objectif de cette étude est d’expliquer la réussite entrepreneuriale des femmes togolaises sur la base de la dimension environnementale.
Ainsi, la question qui se pose est de savoir : Quels sont les facteurs clés du succès de l'entrepreneuriat féminin au Togo ? Afin de répondre à cette question, nous avons réalisé une étude qualitative avec des interviews semidirectives auprès de 12 femmes entrepreneures de Lomé exerçant dans les secteurs formels.
À travers une analyse de contenu, notre résultat montre que le soutien de la famille, les structures d’accompagnements, l’action du gouvernement, les facteurs socioculturels ont un effet positif sur le succès des femmes entrepreneures togolaises. Cependant, le facteur clé reste celui des ressources financières alors que l’accès à ces ressources reste difficile pour les femmes togolaises.
O objetivo deste trabalho é investigar os antecedentes dos empreendedores e analisar, tanto o modo de ação adotado pelos empreendedores no início dos negócios - causation x effectuation - quanto a influência dos antecedentes nesses modos de ação. Para tanto foi realizado um levantamento quantitativo tipo survey, com participação de 53 (cinquenta e três) empresas, sendo 37 (trinta e sete) do setor de comércio e 16 (dezesseis) do setor de serviços. Esta pesquisa foi elaborada de maneira interseccional, já que se pretendeu investigar as ações dos empreendedores em determinado período. Para a análise de dados foram empregadas técnicas estatísticas que relacionaram as variáveis pesquisadas. Dessa forma, pode-se identificar o potencial explicativo dos antecedentes dos empreendedores sobre qual modo de ação foi adotada. O principal achado desta pesquisa refere-se à abordagem causation, que apresentou uma correlação positiva com os fatores experiência empreendedora, flexibilidade e experiência profissional. Este achado indica que, quanto maior a experiência empreendedora e profissional do indivíduo, maior será o grau de uso da abordagem causation. Essa descoberta vai de encontro ao estudo a outras pesquisas, que afirmam que quanto maior a experiência do empreendedor, maior será o uso da intuição e dos meios disponíveis, logo, menor será o nível de adoção de processos causais.
Girişimciliği açıklama sürecinde bağlamsal ve çevresel faktörlerin gerek�liliğini ispat eden Küresel Girişimcilik Raporunun (GEM, 2017: 43) ortaya
koyduğu veriler bireysel değişkenlerin dışındaki faktörlerin de girişimcilik
üzerinde etkili olduğunu göstermektedir. Gelişmişlik düzeyi olarak faktör,
etkinlik ve yenilik güdümlü ekonomiler olarak ayrılan ülkelerde girişim�cilik faaliyetlerinin GSMH’ya olan etkisinin bariz sonuçlarla farklılaşması
bağlamsal ve çevresel faktörlerin yadsınamaz etkisini ortaya koymakta�dır. Örneğin Afrika ve Kuzey Amerika ülkelerinde girişimciliğin bireylere
sunduğu toplumsal statü ve finansal katkılarından dolayı çalışan nüfusun
dörtte üçü tarafından cazip olarak görülmesine rağmen Güney Amerika ve
Avrupada bu oran yarı yarıyadır. Kültürler içinde farklılaşma kıta içindeki
ülkelerdeki algı farklılığında da gözler önüne serilmektedir. Burkina Faso ve
Mısır yüzde doksanlar oranında girişimciliği en cazip çalışma şekli olarak
görürken Hırvatistan da bu oran yüzde kırklara düşmektedir
Comment se déroule la création d’une entreprise collective de femmes en Afrique ? C’est la question qui guide cette recherche à partir de l’analyse approfondie du processus de création d’une coopérative par un collectif de femmes au Cameroun. La présente recherche étudie d’abord les contraintes des femmes entrepreneures afin de justifier leur présence massive dans le secteur informel, la nécessité d’avoir des compétences et l’intérêt du collectif. Elle se concentre ensuite sur la description et l’analyse d’un processus de création d’une coopérative féminine de transformation d’avocats en huile dans la région de l’Ouest du Cameroun. Pour cela nous avons réalisé une recherche-intervention auprès du groupe de femmes concerné. Les enseignements saillants sont que : l’idée de création ne vient pas toujours du groupe concerné et que l’existence préalable du groupe favorise la prédisposition à l’entrepreneuriat collectif. De plus, le groupe permet la mobilisation de l’épargne collective locale pour le financement du projet, signifiant l’importance de la finance solidaire dans les projets des collectifs de femmes intégrant aussi, par la suite, les hommes.
The goal of entrepreneurship education is
to develop skills and entrepreneurial skills and
developing such skills in students could lead to
creating youths who are empowered and creative in
social, cultural, political and economic domains. The
main purpose of the research was to design an
entrepreneurship curriculum pattern for high school
based on grounded theory. The corpus of this study
included all texts and authoritative documents
published in the fields of curriculum and
entrepreneurship education. And the statistical
population for conducting interviews for
conceptualization included faculty members, experts
and professors who had some scientific and academic
ranks. The research samples included 30 experts
majoring in curriculum and entrepreneurship who
were selected based on a targeted sampling method.
The tools for collecting research data were study
boxes and interviews for data generation and
conceptualization. In the theoretical aspect,
specialized resources and texts in the field of
curriculum and entrepreneurship were extracted by a
combined approach. After conducting interviews
with specialists in curriculum and entrepreneurship,
conceptualization, analysis and finally, making the
theory was done. The research findings included a
model designed for entrepreneurship education for
junior high school students that was ultimately
approved by education professionals. Based on this,
"designing the pattern of the entrepreneurship
education curriculum pattern" as a core category
based on the contextual conditions of "environmental
policies and objectives" and through the strategies of
"teacher participation in curriculum development"
and "continuous engagement with academic centers"
in recognizing the "attribute of receptors" (as a
template background) is achieved and leads to the
realization of educational and educational
implications.
This book brings together classic writings on the economic nature and organization of firms, including works by Ronald Coase, Oliver Williamson, and Michael Jensen and William Meckling, as well as more recent contributions by Paul Milgrom, Bengt Holmstrom, John Roberts, Oliver Hart, Luigi Zingales, and others. Part I explores the general theme of the firm's nature and place in the market economy; Part II addresses the question of which transactions are integrated under a firm's roof and what limits the growth of firms; Part III examines employer-employee relations and the motivation of labor; and Part IV studies the firm's organization from the standpoint of financing and the relationship between owners and managers. The volume also includes a consolidated bibliography of sources cited by these authors and an introductory essay by the editors that surveys the new institutional economics of the firm and issues raised in the anthology.
The history of the field of entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurship program at Saint Louis University is discussed, along with the descriptions of the Gateways to Entrepreneurship Conferences and the creation of the Advances in Entrepreneurship, Firm Emergence, and Growth (AEFEG) series given in relation to those national- and campus-level contexts. The growth and development of the AEFEG series is discussed and the editorial contributors are noted, which could be of use to those interested in editorial roles and processes. Based on these elements, the chapter concludes with observations on the field of entrepreneurship and some ideas about its future.
