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Potential health risks related to tire fire smoke
Abstract
A tire fire at a retreading location in Blair Township near Interlochen, Michigan was reported at 9:30 a.m. on December 29, 1995. The company had stored over 700,000 petroleum based tires at this location. It took 22 days for 15 fire departments to quell the fire. Inside the tire piles, the temperature reached up to 2400°F. Tire fire smoke usually includes inorganic and organic particulates, ash, arsenic, benzene, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, lead, oxides of nitrogen, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, phenol, sulfur dioxide, zinc, etc. Most of the above mentioned environmental contaminants in low concentrations were found at or near the tire fire location in outdoor air, groundwater, snow and soil. No contaminants were detected in indoor environments (residential areas) about one mile away from the tire fire location. Cancer risk assessments were conducted for carcinogens using U.S. EPA guidelines and assumptions. These cancer risk estimates were very low as compared to the acceptable excess risk level of 1×10-6. Reported concentrations and potential health risks of the released contaminants are briefly discussed. The tire fire smoke is an irritant to eyes, nose, and the respiratory tract, therefore, exposure to this source of air pollution should be regulated and minimized.
... Handling waste materials is a vital environmental issue that certainly impacts the quality of life in each community. An old car tire is one example that causes environmental concern as it takes a long time to decompose [1], and if incinerated, the generated smoke affects air pollution [2][3][4]. Unused old car tires from millions of cars draw attention to how to use recycled rubber from these old car tires [5]. In Thailand, the recycling industry manages to cut scrap tires into small crumb rubber, which can be used for many purposes. ...
... It is found that the unit weight, the compressive strength, the tensile strength, and the modulus of elasticity decrease with an increased amount of crumb rubber. The unit weights are in the range of 12-21 kN/m3 . The compressive strengths at 28 days are in the range of 2-28 MPa. ...
In this paper, the seismic performance of reinforced concrete (RC) frames with crumb rubber mortar wall panels is reported. The tests of the crumb rubber mortar were conducted to obtain model parameters for equivalent diagonal compression struts. With a higher percentage of sand replacement by crumb rubber, the unit weight, the compressive strength, the tensile strength, and the modulus of elasticity of the crumb rubber cement mortar are decreased. Nonlinear pushover analysis of a simple frame shows that the RC frame with a wall panel with less crumb rubber demonstrates lower lateral deformation ability. The failure modes are affected by the amount of crumb rubber and are dependent on the modeling choice of the equivalent compression strut as the wall panel representative. Finally, the seismic performance of the RC building was studied by the equivalent static approach to explore the influence of the crumb rubber mortar wall panels on internal forces and deformations of the frame. With a higher percentage of crumb rubber, the weight of the infill wall panels and the overall weight of the building are reduced, which meets lower seismic base shear demand. This benefit is, however, traded off with higher lateral deformation and also higher inter-story drift of the studied building frames. Doi: 10.28991/CEJ-2024-010-02-09 Full Text: PDF
... There are serious environmental, social and economic hazards associated with this waste tyre disposal management. Spontaneous fires that occasionally occur in contaminated stockpiles under extreme temperatures release toxic gases (Sidhu et al., 2006;DEQ, 1989). Improperly discarded tyres on landfills are ideal breeding habitats for mosquitoes and rodents. ...
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the use of rubber aggregates derived from waste tyres in order to improve track performance, and Rubber Intermixed Ballast System (RIBS) demonstrated some of the important geotechnical properties that reduce ballast deterioration by partially replacing ballast particles using rubber granules ranging from 9.5 to 19.5 mm. This paper focuses on evaluating the characteristics of RIBS subjected to cyclic loads by conducting large-scale triaxial tests for changing rubber contents (0–15% by weight) under confining pressures (30–60 kPa) and a loading frequency of 20 Hz following a monotonic conditioning phase. The results indicate that irreversible rearrangement of grain configurations was pronounced in RIBS with increased rubber at the conditioning phase leading to a reduction in particle deformation during the cyclic loading. It was also demonstrated that the increased rubber content in RIBS increases the energy absorption capacity and damping properties, reduces ballast breakage and resilient modulus. In addition, the study confirmed 10% by weight as the optimum rubber content in RIBS, considering the overall deformation and degradation performance of ballast.
... Production of tires in the U.S. results in the generation of a significant quantity of waste tires (290 million scrap tires in 2003) that has led to disposal and environmental problems (1)(2)(3)(4). Chemical and mechanical properties enabling a high performance by the tire to withstand any given operating environment or mechanical stress have been investigated rigorously and optimized for each type of vehicle. ...
The thermal decomposition of waste tires has been characterized via thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) tests, and significant mass loss has been observed between 300 and 500 degrees C. A series of gas chromatography-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) measurements, in which the instrument was coupled to a TGA unit, have been carried out to investigate the thermal degradation mechanisms as well as the air pollutant generation including volatile organic carbons (VOCs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a nitrogen atmosphere. In order to understand fundamental information on the thermal degradation mechanisms of waste tires, the main constituents of tires, poly-isoprene rubber (IR) and styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), have been studied under the same conditions. All of the experimental work indicated that the bond scission on each monomer of the main constituents of tires was followed by hydrogenation and gas phase reactions. This helped to clarify the independent pathways and species attributable to IR and SBR during the pyrolysis process. To extend that understanding to a more practical level, a flow-through reactor was used to test waste tire, SBR and IR samples in the temperature range of 500-800 degrees C at a heating rate of approximately 200 degrees C. Lastly, the formation of VOCs (approximately 1-50 PPMV/10 mg of sample) and PAHs (approximately 0.2-7 PPMV/10 mg of sample) was observed at relatively low temperatures compared to conventional fuels, and its quantified concentration was significantly high due to the chemical structure of SBR and IR. The measurement of chemicals released during pyrolysis suggests not only a methodology for reducing the air pollutants but also the feasibility of petrochemical recovery during thermal treatment.
Physical and chemical parameters degrade water causing health issues in living organisms. The present study examines the variation in these parameters in Pamba River at Ranni. Water were collected from five different sources at Mamukku, Ranni and tested at CEPCI Kollam. The study showed that the water quality at Ranni is fit for domestic use in terms of heavy metals. But BOD levels were elevated due to the pressure of organic waste that could have been entered due to the presence of chemical and sewage wastes in water bodies at Ranni. Among the five heavy metals (Cadmium, Chromium, Lead, Mercury and Copper) Copper and Chromium were below the standard limit and the other three heavy metals Lead, Cadmium and Mercury was below detected level. The regular water treatment methods adopted in the area due to recent flood may be the result of water quality in Ranni with respect to heavy metals. The physical parameters like pH of water sources in Ranni is normal except well water which slightly acidic due to chemicals runoff and wastewater discharge. The TDS levels are normal in all five sources but BOD levels are elevated due to the presence of organic wastes entered from chemical and sewage disposal in water bodies.
The Iowa City Landfill in eastern Iowa, United States, experienced a fire lasting 18 days in 2012, in which a drainage layer of over 1 million shredded tires burned, generating smoke that impacted the surrounding metropolitan area of 130,000 people. This emergency required air monitoring, risk assessment, dispersion modeling, and public notification. This paper quantifies the impact of the fire on local air quality and proposes a monitoring approach and an Air Quality Index (AQI) for use in future tire fires and other urban fires. Individual fire pollutants are ranked for acute and cancer relative risks using hazard ratios, with the highest acute hazard ratios attributed to SO2, particulate matter, and aldehydes. Using a dispersion model in conjunction with the new AQI, we estimate that smoke concentrations reached unhealthy outdoor levels for sensitive groups out to distances of 3.1 km and 18 km at 24-h and 1-h average times, respectively. Modeled and measured concentrations of PM2.5 from smoke and other compounds such as VOCs and benzo[a]pyrene are presented at a range of distances and averaging times, and the corresponding cancer risks are discussed. Through reflection on the air quality response to the event, consideration of cancer and acute risks, and comparison to other tire fires, we recommend that all landfills with shredded tire liners plan for hazmat fire emergencies. A companion paper presents emission factors and detailed smoke characterization.
Residents of mobile homes and conventional homes with particleboard subflooring present were studied to determine the relationship between residential formaldehyde levels and the severity of a variety of reported health symptoms. Formaldehyde concentrations were measured concurrently with occupant ratings of symptom severity. Levels were relatively low with median values in mobile homes of 0.12 ppm and 0.07 ppm in conventional homes with particleboard subflooring. Significant relationships were observed for 16 symptoms including eye irritation, dry/sore throat, runny nose, cough, sinus irritation, sinus infection, headaches, fatigue, depression, difficulty sleeping, rashes, bloody nose, nausea, diarrhea, chest pain and abdominal pain. A significant independent effect of formaldehyde on symptom severity was observed even after adjusting for potential confounding variables such as the presence of a smoker in the household, individual age and season of the year.
Residential wood smoke contains inorganic and organic particulates, ash, car bon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, formaldehyde, polycyclic aro matic hydrocarbons (benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[b]fluoran thene, benzo[ghi]perylene, and indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene), phenols and sulfur dioxide. Benzo[a]pyrene and formaldehyde are classified as group B2 and group B1 carcinogens, respectively, by the United States Environmental Pro tection Agency. Reported concentrations and potential health risks of the released contaminants are discussed. In general, wood smoke is an irritant to the eyes, nose, and the respiratory tract. It has the potential to cause chronic respiratory problems. Because there are indications that wood smoke may cause adverse effects on human health, exposure to this source of air pollution should be minimized.
Acetaldehyde and particularly formaldehyde are genotoxic and when chroni cally inhaled by laboratory rodents can produce nasolaryngeal tumours, the distribution of which parallels the severity of irritation to the upper respira tory tract. The carcinogenicity of high concentrations of these compounds may result from a combination of weak tumour-initiating genotoxicity and tumour-promoting activity associated with mucosal cytotoxicity, irritation and hyperplasia. Epidemiological evidence is lacking for a cancer risk follow ing exposure to the low concentrations of these compounds present in ambient air, although laboratory evidence suggests that risk may be increased following chronic exposure to high concentrations.
Until recently, heavy occupational exposures to benzene were frequent in Turkey. Several types of malignancies have been observed with association in such exposures. An increased incidence of leukemia occurred among shoe workers during 1967-1975, but the incidence has recently declined, possibly as a result of phaseout of benzene. A pancytopenic period was found in 26% of the benzene-associated cases of leukemia. Further, acute myeloblastic leukemia, acute erythroleukemia, and preleukemia were the most frequent types of leukemia, a distribution which was significantly different from that in a control group of leukemia patients without benzene exposure. Malignant lymphoma, another malignancy, was observed in nine cases associated with chronic exposure to benzene; one case of paroxysmal nocturnal hematuria related to benzene was also found. Further, occupational benzene exposure was verified in three cases of multiple myeloma. Five patients with carcinoma of the lung, all smokers, had been chronically exposed to benzene. Though these case reports do not prove a causal relationship between benzene exposure and the various malignancies, the frequent finding of this association suggests that benzene may not only cause leukemia but also be involved in other types of malignancy.
Groups of cynomolgus monkeys and guinea pigs were exposed to mixtures of sulfur dioxide, fly ash, and sulfuric acid mist. The exposure concentrations varied between 0.1 and 5.0 ppm for sulfur dioxide, 0.1 and 1 mg/cu m for sulfuric acid mist, while a concentration of approximately 0.5 mg/cu m was used for fly ash. The duration of exposure was 52 weeks for guinea-pigs and 78 weeks for monkeys. Pulmonary function tests and serum biochemical and hematological analyses were conducted prior to and periodically during the exposure period. At the termination of exposure, the lungs were examined microscopically. Analysis of the data revealed that in groups exposed to the mixtures of pollutants, sulfuric acid mist was responsible for the effects observed. No synergistic action between the pollutants was detected.
The primary objective of a standard setting process is to arrive at a drinking water concentration at which exposure to a contaminant would result in no known or potential adverse health effect on human health. The drinking water standards also serve as guidelines to prevent pollution of water sources and may be applicable in some cases as regulatory remediation levels. The risk assessment methods along with various decision making parameters are used to establish drinking water standards. For carcinogens classified in Groups A and B by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) the standards are set by using nonthreshold cancer risk models. The linearized multistage model is commonly used for computation of potency factors for carcinogenic contaminants. The acceptable excess risk level may vary from 10(-6) to 10(-4). For noncarcinogens, a threshold model approach based on application of an uncertainty factor is used to arrive at a reference dose (RfD). The RfD approach may also be used for carcinogens classified in Group C by the USEPA. The RfD approach with an additional uncertainty factory of 10 for carcinogenicity has been applied in the formulation of risk assessment for Group C carcinogens. The assumptions commonly used in arriving at drinking water standards are human life expectancy, 70 years; average human body weight, 70 kg; human daily drinking water consumption, 2 liters; and contribution of exposure to the contaminant from drinking water (expressed as a part of the total environmental exposure), 20%. Currently, there are over 80 USEPA existing or proposed primary standards for organic and inorganic contaminants in drinking water. Some of the state versus federal needs and viewpoints are discussed.
The use of wood stoves has increased greatly in the past decade, causing concern in many communities about the health effects of wood smoke. Wood smoke is known to contain such compounds as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, aldehydes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and fine respirable particulate matter. All of these have been shown to cause deleterious physiologic responses in laboratory studies in humans. Some compounds found in wood smoke--benzo[a]pyrene and formaldehyde--are possible human carcinogens. Fine particulate matter has been associated with decreased pulmonary function in children and with increased chronic lung disease in Nepal, where exposure to very high amounts of wood smoke occurs in residences. Wood smoke fumes, taken from both outdoor and indoor samples, have shown mutagenic activity in short-term bioassay tests. Because of the potential health effects of wood smoke, exposure to this source of air pollution should be minimal.
The role and use of risk assessment methods in the establishment of drinking water standards are described with emphasis on recent applications. The process essentially includes an attempt to quantify human exposure from all routes including drinking water, animal toxicology, and human epidemiology, when available, to arrive at drinking water concentrations at which exposure would result in "no known or anticipated adverse effects on health, with a margin of safety." The process itself is straightforward; however, the application to decision making for substances that are considered to be potentially nonthreshold acting in their toxicity (e.g., carcinogenic) requires many policy choices beyond the scientific data and is subject to considerable controversy.
Cynomolgus monkeys were exposed to sulfur dioxide while a control group was exposed to filtered air. The exposure was for 24 hours a day, seven days a week, for 78 weeks. Frequent measurements were made to evaluate mechanical properties of the lung, distribution of pulmonary ventilation, diffusing capacity of the lung, and arterial blood oxygen tension. Hematological and clinical biochemical determinations were conducted. Microscopic evaluation of organs and tissues was conducted at termination of the exposure of the animals. No deleterious effect could be attributed to SO2 exposure at concentrations of 0.14 to 1.28 ppm. Following 30 weeks of exposure to 4.69 ppm, an overexposure occurred in this group. This was followed by deterioration in pulmonary function which persisted during the following 48 weeks of observation, and alterations in pulmonary tissues were observed upon microscopic examination.
IT has been known since the late nineteenth century that blood of man and animals contains small quantities of carbon monoxide (CO)1; however, only in relatively recent years has it been possible to demonstrate that CO is produced in the body,2 , 3 to make measurements of rates of CO production and to work out some of the processes that influence this rate and the quantity of CO in the body stores. The rate of CO production (Vco) in young normal resting human male subjects averages 0.42 ± 0.07 ml per hour STPD† (6.1 μ1 per hour per kilogram). . . .
Telephone interviews were completed in Western Massachusetts in April 1983 for 399 households (91.5 per cent) in a random sample of households with elementary school children. Woodstoves were used in 64.7 per cent of the homes, but such use was not associated with acute respiratory illness. However, formaldehyde exposure was significantly related, with a risk ratio of 2.4 (95 per cent confidence interval 1.7-3.4). New construction/remodeling and new upholstered furniture had additive effects. Neither woodstove use nor formaldehyde exposure were significantly associated with asthma, chronic bronchitis, or allergies.
In India, rapid urbanization and industrialization have contributed positively toward meeting the materialistic needs of the citizens, but have also resulted in contamination of the atmospheric environment. This paper deals with the assessment of potential health risks posed by carcinogenic substances, namely cadmium, chromium, and nickel, present in certain atmospheric environments in India. Average air concentrations of these carcinogenic metals have been assessed for different states and regions of India (C. R. Krishnamurti and P. Vishwanathan, Toxic Metals in the Indian Environment, Tata/McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1991). Based on these assessments, both individual and societal risks have been estimated in different states of the country, and comparisons were made. Reported concentration, release sources, potential health risks including cancer risk estimates, and ambient air interim guidelines are discussed. The reported environmental releases and cancer risk from cadmium are minimal. There is a potential for increased respiratory cancer risk from exposure to chromium and nickel in some northern Indian states. These metals are irritants to nasal passages and the respiratory tract. Chromium is also corrosive to mucus membranes. They have the potential to cause chronic respiratory problems. Since it appears that these metals may cause some adverse health effects in humans, exposure to these ambient air pollutants should be minimized by managing the release of these contaminants to the environment. There is a need for the development and strict enforcement of national and state regulatory standards.
It was alleged that a defendant added an unspecified amount of undyed formalin solution, containing formaldehyde and methanol, to the victim's bottle of ice and drinking water. The medical report indicated that except for a slight elevation of total creatine kinase, all other chemistry profiles were within normal ranges. The elevation of creatine kinase suggested muscle injury and inflammation; however, the significance of this elevation was not clear. Toxicological evaluations were made by conducting risk assessments. Based upon the medical report and risk assessments, the following conclusions were made: The calculated exposure doses of methanol and formaldehyde were too low to cause appreciable adverse effects; however, formaldehyde may have irritated the gastrointestinal tract causing smooth muscle and mucosal inflammation. The doses of methanol and formaldehyde were too low to cause death. The exposure scenario (a single oral exposure to formaldehyde) would not likely increase the cancer risk in the victim. The risk assessments provided resulted in a reduction in charge from attempted murder to felony.
A fluoride overfeed occurred at a well site near an elementary school in Portage, Michigan. The incident resulted in a high concentration of fluoride (92 milligrams per liter) in drinking water at the school. Seven students who drank water from the school fountain reportedly suffered nausea and vomiting. Toxicological evaluations were made by conducting a risk assessment. On the basis of the symptoms experienced by the students, it was concluded that the fluoride had irritated the stomach causing nausea and vomiting. This mild oral exposure to fluoride was, however, deemed too low to cause any long-term appreciable adverse health effects. Despite subsequent flushing, the concentration of the fluoride in the drinking water remained variable during the first nine days after the incident. With several flushings over the 48 days after the incident, the concentration of fluoride was brought down to optimal levels. The electrical circuit that energized the fluoride system was modified to prevent another overfeed. In addition, operational changes were made to further minimize the impact of such an overfeed.