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Research synthesis on child welfare: Disproportionality and disparities
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... Families of color comprise a disproportionate number of those involved with child welfare systems (Ma et al., 2019;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013;Roberts, 2012). In addition, there are racial and ethnic disparities (inequities) among children involved with the child welfare system (Cénat et al., 2020;Fluke, Harden, Jenkins, & Ruehrdanz, 2011;Ganasarajah et al., 2017). Black children are signifi cantly more likely to be referred to the child welfare system for abuse and C W L A neglect than White children (Krase, 2013;Lanier et al., 2014), and Black families are subjected to higher rates of investigations than other families . ...
... Youth of color are more likely to be removed from their home, remain in foster care longer (Yi et al., 2020), and experience more placement disruptions than White youth (Becker, 2007;Foster et al., 2011;George & Lee, 2005;Hill, 2006;Wulczyn & Lery, 2007). In addition, children of color involved with the child welfare system are less likely to receive support services such as caseworker visits and mental health or substance use treatment (Ayon, 2009;Fluke et al., 2011;Garcia et al., 2016) than their White counterparts. For example, when Dorch and colleagues (2010) examined the availability of child welfare services in Black neighborhoods, they found that half the neighborhoods in one city, and over one quarter of the neighborhoods in all cities studied, had no access to services and limited access to public transportation. ...
... While there are confl icting theories and reasons as to why disparities exist within the child welfare system, the overrepresentation of families and children of color is evident and refl ected in areas such as experiencing longer and deeper system involvement and reaching poorer life outcomes compared to their White counterparts (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2020; Crofoot & Harris, 2012;Fluke et al., 2011;Ma et al., 2019;Roberts, 2008Roberts, , 2012. In 2016, the federal Children's Bureau acknowledged that the racial and ethnic disproportionality and disparity in the child welfare system C W L A posed a signifi cant concern to the fi eld and established plans to begin addressing the issue (Children's Bureau, 2016). ...
The child welfare system is plagued with an overrepresentation of families and children of color who experience longer and more significant system involvement than their White counterparts. A fundamental goal of implementation science is to integrate research and practice experience to improve the outcomes of those being served. Equitable implementation occurs when equity frameworks are integrated into the strategies of the overall effort. Moving equity into action requires attention to who is involved in deciding what to measure and how to measure it. In such an environment, implementation is anchored by stakeholders, community members, their culture, values, history, and desired outcomes rather than from a singular agency leadership perspective. Equity-anchored implementation requires a participatory approach that includes qualitative and quantitative methods designed to drive continuous quality improvement cycles targeting equity goals and strategies. Th ese cycles promote mutual consultations among community and agency stakeholders to ensure that diverse lived experiences, different forms of knowledge, and different ways of knowing are integrated into planning and strategies. Through this approach, community stakeholders and agency staff partner with organizational leadership to develop and enhance the capacity to assess and use data for equity-based decision-making through modeling, instruction, and coaching. Successful capacity building includes attention to all types of capacity (psychological, behavioral, and structural) at all levels (individual, organization, and community). Th is chapter targets the key considerations, opportunities, and strategies to address racial equity and diversity by applying fundamental tenets of implementation science to child welfare through equity-anchored implementation frameworks.
... Potential race/ethnicity or gender effects on decision-making are defined as disparities. Disparities in decision-making imply that marginalized groups, such as women or minoritized 3 ethnic/racial groups, are being treated unequally compared to advantaged groups, such as men or advantaged ethnic/racial groups (Fluke et al., 2010). ...
... Several scholars have reported racial, ethnic, and migrant disparities in child protection decision-making processes, which relates both to the extent of involvement of families in decision-making processes as well as inequalities in decision-making itself (Fluke et al., 2010). Research has shown that child protection professionals in the United States seem less successful in identifying, locating, and contacting Black and Latinx fathers compared to white fathers (Arroyo et al., 2019). ...
... The observational nature of this study required risk adjustment controls for the analyses of demographic characteristics and case influences that affect decisions in child protection practice. Case influences that affect child protection practice were selected based on a review of relevant literature (Fluke et al., 2010). ...
Professionals who are working in the field of child protection make decisions about children and their families on a daily basis. These decisions range from involving family members to deciding what type of child protection interventions seem needed. Consistency in these decisions, implying that cases with similar case facts result in similar decisions, is important. However, previous studies have shown that these decisions are not always consistent and that racial, ethnic, migrant, and gender disparities seem to occur.
In this PhD thesis, Floor Middel investigated racial, ethnic, migrant, and gender disparities in decision-making processes. A quantitative case file study representing over 1,200 child protection investigations showed that migrant and gender disparities seem to occur regarding the involvement of family members. Professionals seem to have more contacts with mothers and girls during child protection investigations. Within the Dutch context, professionals contact migrant parents less frequently. Further, racial/ethnic/migrant and gender disparities seem to occur in decision-making. The decision to refer a case to continuing services seems more likely when a mother or migrant father seems to be the perpetrator of maltreatment. In an experimental vignette study, Middel aimed to investigate whether stereotypes that professionals form about parents can explain disparities. While this study provided evidence for racial/ethnic and gender disparities, it did not confirm that stereotypes result in disparities. However, the study showed that perceptions of morality that professionals form about parents have a distinct impact on decision-making processes.
... En 2011, alors que les enfants Noirs anglophones représentaient 9 % de la population générale sur l'île de Montréal, ils constituaient 24 % des enfants ayant reçu des services en vertu de la Loi de la protection de la jeunesse (LPJ) (Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020). En ce qui concerne, les causes de cette surreprésentation, elles se regroupent en trois raisons principales : (1) les enfants Noirs connaissent un niveau de besoins plus élevé par rapport aux autres enfants, (2) les enfants Noirs manquent de services accessibles au sein de leur communauté pour répondre à leurs besoins et (3) les enfants Noirs sont victimes de préjugés raciaux qui découlent de la pratique discriminatoire des professionnels et des pratiques organisationnelles (Barth, 2005 ;Boyd, 2014 ;Dettlaff, 2011 ;Fluke et al., 2010 ;Hill, 2004 ;Rivaux et al., 2008). Dans le rapport de 2011 de la Commission des droits de la personne et des droits de la jeunesse (CDPDJ), il est suggéré que des concentrations plus élevées de pauvreté, le désavantage cumulatif des familles immigrantes haïtiennes et l'utilisation de la correction physique comme méthode de discipline éducative pourraient expliquer la surreprésentation des enfants Noirs. ...
... Bien que des études aient déterminé la présence de préjugés lors de la prise de décision des intervenants de la protection de la jeunesse (Fluke et al., 2010 ;Hines et al., 2004 ;Osterling et al., 2008), peu d'études se sont intéressées à la discrimination exercée par le système de protection de la jeunesse lui-même. En fait, les trajectoires différentielles auxquelles sont confrontés les enfants Noirs ont plutôt été comprises à travers une rhétorique de besoins disproportionnés, citant la surreprésentation comme une conséquence des inégalités sociales vécues par les personnes Noires. ...
L’expérience des familles Noires au sein des systèmes de protection de la jeunesse a rarement été examinée sous le regard du racisme anti-Noir. La perspective antiraciste à l’égard du système de protection de la jeunesse est presque absente au Québec. Cet article propose une réflexion critique sur les résultats obtenus lors d’une recherche effectuée sur la surreprésentation des enfants Noirs signalés à la Direction de la protection de la jeunesse (DPJ). Il cherche à comprendre comment le profilage racial, en tant que pratique institutionnelle, est opérationnalisé et maintenu dans le traitement différentiel des enfants Noirs.
... The overrepresentation of Black children in the child welfare system has also been a longstanding issue across North America (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020;Fluke et al., 2010;King et al., 2017;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). In the U.S. and Canadian contexts, Black families are more likely to be involved with the child welfare system, receive poorer quality of placements, remain in care longer, and are less likely to reunify with their caregivers (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al. 2020;Fluke et al., 2010;King et al., 2017;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). ...
... The overrepresentation of Black children in the child welfare system has also been a longstanding issue across North America (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020;Fluke et al., 2010;King et al., 2017;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). In the U.S. and Canadian contexts, Black families are more likely to be involved with the child welfare system, receive poorer quality of placements, remain in care longer, and are less likely to reunify with their caregivers (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al. 2020;Fluke et al., 2010;King et al., 2017;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). This has particular relevance for placement stability since Leathers (2006) found that race was a contributing factor in placement disruption. ...
p>The child welfare system has a responsibility for maintaining young people’s safety and permanency when they are taken from their guardians. Many young people living in out-of-home care (OOHC) experience placement instability, which can negatively impact their development. The overrepresentation of Black families in the child welfare system has also been a longstanding issue across North America, where Black families are more likely to be involved with the child welfare system, receive poorer quality of placements, remain in care longer, and are less likely to reunify with their families. Given the known negative impacts of placement instability and the disparities experienced by Black families, these concerns may be more urgent for Black youth in care. This article shares the findings from a qualitative narrative analysis conducted on 27 interviews with Black Caribbean youth who have lived experiences navigating OOHC in Ontario’s child welfare system. Utilizing Critical Race Theory and Anti-Black Racism Theory as theoretical frameworks, three main narratives were identified: (1) difficult behaviors during placement transitions; (2) disposability; and (3) a pursuit of safety and belonging. These narratives capture the phenomenon of Black youth navigating placement instability in OOHC. Implications for policy, practice, and research are discussed.</p
... In North America, Black youth and their families are overrepresented in the child welfare system and face disparities across the child welfare continuum (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020;Bonnie et al., 2022;Fluke et al., 2010;King et al., 2017;One Vision One Voice (OVOV), 2016;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). In the U.S. and Canadian contexts, Black children are more likely to be involved with the child welfare system, receive poorer quality placements, remain in care longer, and are less likely to reunify with their caregivers (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020Fluke et al., 2010;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). ...
... In North America, Black youth and their families are overrepresented in the child welfare system and face disparities across the child welfare continuum (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020;Bonnie et al., 2022;Fluke et al., 2010;King et al., 2017;One Vision One Voice (OVOV), 2016;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). In the U.S. and Canadian contexts, Black children are more likely to be involved with the child welfare system, receive poorer quality placements, remain in care longer, and are less likely to reunify with their caregivers (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020Fluke et al., 2010;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). When compared to the U.S., the Canadian research investigating racial disparities for Black families in the child welfare system is limited, but there is a growing body of knowledge beginning to document these dynamics (Bonnie et al., 2022;King et al., 2017). ...
p>Black youth have consistently reported that when they are transitioning from out-of-home care (OOHC) into independence, they are not supported or included in decision-making, and they feel isolated and vulnerable as they face an uncertain future. Previous research has documented the ways in which Black youths’ experiences in care are characterized by unpredictability and loss, but then care ends—and they continue to struggle. For Black youth in care, this transition can be exceptionally difficult as they are contending with the additional strain of doing so within the child welfare system and larger social context characterized by a loss of community and the persistence of anti-Black racism. Presently, there are no empirical studies in Ontario that investigate Black youth’s narratives transitioning from OOHC; this manuscript seeks to fill this gap in knowledge. Employing Adultification and Anti-Black Racism Theory as theoretical frameworks, this qualitative study investigated the narratives of 27 Black youth with lived experiences navigating OOHC in Ontario’s child welfare system. This study utilized narrative inquiry as a methodological approach. Three main narratives were identified: (1) the need for finances and a financial literacy; (2) narratives of aging out and (3) the challenges of navigating funding. To better support Black youth in their transition out of care and in independent living, recommendations for policy and practice include earlier transitional support, ensuring youth have a practical understanding of financial literacy, and educating youth about resources and their rights.</p
... The disproportionate and disparate child welfare involvement of Black children, youth, and families has been well-documented in the United States. The literature indicates that Black children are more likely to be reported for suspected maltreatment, substantiated as victims of maltreatment, placed into out-of-home care, and remain in care for longer periods of time in comparison to White children (Barth, 2005;Fluke, Harden, Jenkins, & Ruehrdanz, 2010;Harris & Hackett, 2008;Kim, Drake, & Jonson-Reid, 2020;Krase, 2013;Putnam-Hornstein, Needell, King, & Johnson-Motoyama, 2013;United States General Accounting Office, 2007;Wulczyn, Gibbons, Snowden, & Lery, 2013). Furthermore, Black families involved with the child welfare system are less likely to access high quality services and supports such as mental health care, foster parent services, and caseworker support in comparison to other racial ethnic groups (Everett, Chipungu, & Leashore, 2004;Garland, Landsverk, & Lau, 2003;McRoy, 2004;Urquiza, Wu, & Borrego, 1999). ...
... Other researchers argue that the overrepresentation of Black children in the child welfare system is the result of their disproportionate experiences of poverty and other risk factors associated with maltreatment (Barth, 2005;Drake et al., 2009Drake et al., , 2011Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). Several researchers argue that there are several factors at play, including worker bias, agency-level policy and decision-making, and larger structural forces that result in greater poverty rates for Black families, and that a single explanation such as racism or poverty is insufficient for explaining racial disparities (Boyd, 2014;Dettlaff, 2011;Drake et al., 2011;Fluke et al., 2010). ...
p>Racial disparities in child welfare involvement between Black and White children have been well-documented in the United States, but research in this area is relatively underexplored in Canada. Emerging evidence from Canadian studies indicates that Black families are far more likely to be reported for maltreatment concerns, and that these initial disparities persist as families move deeper into the system. Scholars have begun to identify the factors associated with those disparities in Canada, but there is a need for understanding the larger structural and historical context that shapes the opportunities and constraints for Black families living in Ontario. This analysis will situate child welfare in a nexus of anti-Black policy and structure with respect to immigration restrictions, income disparities, residential segregation, and the functioning of linked institutions such as the mental health, education, and legal systems. The cumulative burden of navigating and contending with these larger systemic forces leave Black families vulnerable to a relatively low threshold for reporting maltreatment concerns and risk of harm to Ontario child welfare agencies. This paper documents the alignment between the circumstances created by anti-Black racism at institutional, provincial, and federal levels and the seemingly race-neutral eligibility criteria embedded within Ontario child welfare, which results in disproportionate reporting of Black families.
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... Les constatations au Québec selon lesquelles la négligence et la pauvreté sont fortement associées à des interventions récurrentes des services de la protection de la jeunesse illustrent davantage cette tendance des besoins chroniques (Esposito et al., 2021b). Bien que le Québec fasse l'objet du présent article, ces tendances de risque différentiel de négligence pour les familles pauvres et racialisées sont similaires dans d'autres administrations canadiennes et dans d'autres pays dotés de services de protection de l'enfance comparables, comme les États-Unis, la Grande-Bretagne, l'Australie et la Nouvelle-Zélande (Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2020 ; Blackstock, 2009 ;Bywaters et al., 2016 ;Commissaire à l'enfance, 2016 ;Drake, Jonson-Reid, Kim, Chiang et Davalishvili, 2020 ;Fluke, Harden, Jenkins et Ruehrdanz, 2011 ;Jonson-Reid, Drake et Zhou, 2012 ;Rothwell et de Boer, 2014 ;Rothwell, Wegner-Lohin, Fast et de Boer, 2018 ;Webb, Bywaters, Scourfield, Davidson et Bunting, 2020b). ...
... Cependant, bien que les données probantes actuelles démontrent de nombreuses associations entre la race, la pauvreté et les facteurs environnementaux liés au risque de l'intervention des services de protection de l'enfance, le manque de données dans les administrations canadiennes et à l'échelle pancanadienne limite les conclusions sur les mécanismes de causalité menant les familles à un risque plus élevé d'avoir des démêlés avec les services de protection de l'enfance. La recherche empirique propose de nombreuses explications à cette situation, telles que les conditions socioéconomiques disproportionnées, la prise de décision des travailleurs sociaux, un manque de soutien préventif approprié pour les familles ou d'autres facteurs de la géographie locale des familles (Ards et al., 2012 ;Ards, Myers, Malkis, Sugrue et Zhou, 2003 ;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020 ;Ben-Arieh et Haj-Yahia, 2006 ;Dettlaff et al., 2020 ;Drake et al., 2020 ;Fluke et al., 2011 ;Jonson-Reid, Drake et Kohl, 2009). ...
Plusieurs études menées au cours de la dernière décennie démontrent une relation claire entre la pauvreté et le risque de faire face à une intervention de la Direction de la protection de la jeunesse au Québec (DPJ). Bien que cette association soit courante dans toutes les administrations nord-américaines, elle est surprenante compte tenu du niveau relativement élevé de politiques sociales progressistes visant à réduire la pauvreté familiale. Bien que les études montrent clairement que la pauvreté des familles et des quartiers est liée au risque d’intervention de la protection de l’enfance, les mécanismes expliquant cette association ne sont pas clairs. La question de recherche de la présente étude est fondée sur des questions de distribution équitable des services. La présente étude s’appuie sur des études antérieures à l’échelle de la province du Québec afin d’examiner, dans une optique géographique, la relation entre la pauvreté et l’implication des services de la protection de la jeunesse, en analysant le rôle de la densité de la population infantile dans les régions du Québec. Les résultats montrent 1) que la densité de la population d’enfants varie considérablement dans la province, et 2) que la relation linéaire entre les rapports corroborés sur la protection de la jeunesse, le placement hors du foyer familial et la pauvreté est plus forte dans les régions à faible densité de population. Ces résultats soulèvent d’autres questions de recherche concernant le rôle des services dans toutes les régions géographiques en ce qui concerne le risque d’intervention des services de protection de la jeunesse pour les familles pauvres et les familles des quartiers pauvres. Cet article incite les décideurs et les chercheurs à considérer la notion d’équité spatiale dans la distribution des services dans les futures analyses de politiques publiques et études de recherche au Québec.
... In North America, Black youth and their families are overrepresented in the child welfare system and face disparities across the child welfare continuum (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020;Bonnie et al., 2022;Fluke et al., 2010;King et al., 2017;One Vision One Voice (OVOV), 2016;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). In the U.S. and Canadian contexts, Black children are more likely to be involved with the child welfare system, receive poorer quality placements, remain in care longer, and are less likely to reunify with their caregivers (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020Fluke et al., 2010;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). ...
... In North America, Black youth and their families are overrepresented in the child welfare system and face disparities across the child welfare continuum (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020;Bonnie et al., 2022;Fluke et al., 2010;King et al., 2017;One Vision One Voice (OVOV), 2016;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). In the U.S. and Canadian contexts, Black children are more likely to be involved with the child welfare system, receive poorer quality placements, remain in care longer, and are less likely to reunify with their caregivers (Antwi-Boasiako et al., 2020;Boatswain-Kyte et al., 2020Fluke et al., 2010;Putnam-Hornstein et al., 2013). When compared to the U.S., the Canadian research investigating racial disparities for Black families in the child welfare system is limited, but there is a growing body of knowledge beginning to document these dynamics (Bonnie et al., 2022;King et al., 2017). ...
Black youth have consistently reported that when they are transitioning from out-of-home care (OOHC) into independence, they are not supported or included in decision-making, and they feel isolated and vulnerable as they face an uncertain future. Previous research has documented the ways in which Black youths’ experiences in care are characterized by unpredictability and loss, but then care ends—and they continue to struggle. For Black youth in care, this transition can be exceptionally difficult as they are contending with the additional strain of doing so within the child welfare system and larger social context characterized by a loss of community and the persistence of anti-Black racism. Presently, there are no empirical studies in Ontario that investigate Black youth’s narratives transitioning from OOHC; this manuscript seeks to fill this gap in knowledge. Employing Adultification and Anti-Black Racism Theory as theoretical frameworks, this qualitative study investigated the narratives of 27 Black youth with lived experiences navigating OOHC in Ontario’s child welfare system. This study utilized narrative inquiry as a methodological approach. Three main narratives were identified: (1) the need for finances and a financial literacy; (2) narratives of aging out and (3) the challenges of navigating funding. To better support Black youth in their transition out of care and in independent living, recommendations for policy and practice include earlier transitional support, ensuring youth have a practical understanding of financial literacy, and educating youth about resources and their rights.
p>Black youth have consistently reported that when they are transitioning from out-of-home care (OOHC) into independence, they are not supported or included in decision-making, and they feel isolated and vulnerable as they face an uncertain future. Previous research has documented the ways in which Black youths’ experiences in care are characterized by unpredictability and loss, but then care ends—and they continue to struggle. For Black youth in care, this transition can be exceptionally difficult as they are contending with the additional strain of doing so within the child welfare system and larger social context characterized by a loss of community and the persistence of anti-Black racism. Presently, there are no empirical studies in Ontario that investigate Black youth’s narratives transitioning from OOHC; this manuscript seeks to fill this gap in knowledge. Employing Adultification and Anti-Black Racism Theory as theoretical frameworks, this qualitative study investigated the narratives of 27 Black youth with lived experiences navigating OOHC in Ontario’s child welfare system. This study utilized narrative inquiry as a methodological approach. Three main narratives were identified: (1) the need for finances and a financial literacy; (2) narratives of aging out and (3) the challenges of navigating funding. To better support Black youth in their transition out of care and in independent living, recommendations for policy and practice include earlier transitional support, ensuring youth have a practical understanding of financial literacy, and educating youth about resources and their rights.</p
We examine population-level associations between birth spacing and child maltreatment using birth records and child welfare records for 1,099,230 second or higher parity children born in North Carolina between 1997 and 2013. Building upon previous research, administrative data linkages were used to address out-of-state migration and family-level heterogeneity in birth spacing and child maltreatment risk factors. Findings provide the strongest evidence to date that very short birth spacing of zero through 6 months from last birth to the index child's conception is a prenatal predictor of child maltreatment (indexed as child welfare involvement) throughout early childhood. Consequently, information about optimal family planning during the postpartum period should become a standard component of universal and targeted child maltreatment prevention programs. However, challenging previous empirical evidence, this study reports inconsistent results for benefits of additional spacing delay beyond 6 months with regard to child maltreatment risk reduction, especially for children of racial and ethnic minorities. These findings call for further inquiry about the mechanisms driving the connections between birth spacing and Child Protective Services assessments.
The present research suggests that automatic and controlled intergroup biases can be modified through diversity education. In 2 experiments, students enrolled in a prejudice and conflict seminar showed significantly reduced implicit and explicit anti-Black biases, compared with control students. The authors explored correlates of prejudice and stereotype reduction. In each experiment, seminar students' implicit and explicit change scores positively covaried with factors suggestive of affective and cognitive processes, respectively. The findings show the malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes and suggest that these may effectively be changed through affective processes.
For over a century, the city of Chicago has provided a natural laboratory for research on juvenile delinquency and child neglect and abuse. In an era of increasing globalization, it is easy to overlook the importance of local community context as a major focus of social reform and scientific investigation. A century ago, it was the city rather than the nation-state that was the key site of social agitation, political mobilization, and governmental action (Rodgers 1998). Chicago, in particular, became a symbol of the destiny of modern society. It was at "ground zero" when the forces of industrialization and immigration first hit the great cities, uprooting traditional rural communities and accelerating the spread of a highly complex and differentiated pattern of urban settlement. The social dislocations stimulated by these transformations made Chicago a leading focus of social reform during the Progressive Era and an important object of sociological investigation after World War I (Ward 1989).
OBJECTIVES: This report presents final 2012 data on U.S. deaths, death rates, life expectancy, infant mortality, and trends by selected characteristics such as age, sex, Hispanic origin, race, state of residence, and cause of death.