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Post-disaster Forest Management and Bark Beetle Outbreak in Tatra National Park, Slovakia
Author(s): Christo Nikolov, Bohdan Konôpka, Matúš Kajba, Juraj Galko, Andrej Kunca, and Libor Janský
Source: Mountain Research and Development, 34(4):326-335. 2014.
Published By: International Mountain Society
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-13-00017.1
URL: http://www.bioone.org/doi/full/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-13-00017.1
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Post-disaster Forest Management and Bark Beetle
Outbreak in Tatra National Park, Slovakia
Christo Nikolov
1
*, Bohdan Konoˆpka
1,2
, Matu´sˇ Kajba
1
, Juraj Galko
1
, Andrej Kunca
1
, and Libor Jansky´
3
* Corresponding author: nikolov@nlcsk.org
1
National Forest Centre, Forest Research Institute, T. G. Masaryka 22, 960 92 Zvolen, Slovak Republic
2
Czech University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Department of Forest Management, Kamycka 129, 165 21 Suchdol,
Prague, Czech Republic
3
Comenius University, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Soil Science, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
Open access article: please credit the authors and the full source.
In November 2004, the
Alzˇbeta windstorm hit the
mountainous areas of
northern and central
Slovakia. The most
affected area was Tatra
National Park, where
downslope wind damaged
12,000 ha of forest,
mostly Norway spruce
(Picea abies [L.] Karst.). In the areas with the highest level of
nature conservation, about 165,000 m
3
of damaged wood
was left uncleared. These uncleared sites triggered a serious
bark beetle outbreak, where Ips typographus (L.) was among
the dominant species. The aim of our work was to quantify and
map forest damage resulting from this windstorm and
subsequent insect outbreak in Tatra National Park. The
objective of this article is also to present simple geographic
information system (GIS) techniques available to forest
managers for the detection and mapping of bark beetle
infestations. The infested areas were studied using GIS and a
series of color-infrared aerial photographs taken in 2005–
2009. More than 50% of all damage was recorded within
300 m, and more than 75% within 500 m, of uncleared
windthrow sites. Based on our findings, we propose
reinforcing post-disaster monitoring with an emphasis on (1)
data acquisition and processing and (2) management of
I. typographus outbreaks. For instance, we recommend
using 300-m phytosanitary buffer zones in mountain
spruce forests to prevent substantial beetle invasion
from uncleared windthrow into adjacent stands.
Keywords: Bark beetle; Ips typographus; GIS; aerial
photographs; windthrow; forest management; Slovakia.
Peer-reviewed: May 2014 Accepted: September 2014
Introduction
Bark beetles and forests in a changing environment
Forest ecosystems worldwide are being damaged by a
variety of harmful agents, resulting in destruction of
individual trees and sometimes the decline of entire
forest complexes (Perry et al 2008). Large-scale
destruction of forest ecosystems usually results in serious
economic losses (eg cessation of stands before they reach
optimum wood production and deterioration of wood’s
technical properties) and ecological consequences
(especially soil erosion, disturbed climatic conditions, and
reduced biodiversity) (Seidl et al 2011). The degradation
of ecological functions of forest ecosystems is a sensitive
topic, especially in protected areas with a high level of
nature conservation, such as national parks (Emerton et al
2006). This is strongly debated in the context of climate
change and related phenomena that might have negative
physiological effects on forest trees and might stimulate
harmful abiotic and biotic agents (Bonan 2008; Lindner et
al 2010; Hla
´sny et al 2014). For instance, pests such as bark
beetles may become more frequent and challenging in the
new environmental conditions (Beniston and Innes 1998;
Kurz et al 2008; Bentz et al 2010; Sambaraju et al 2012).
Natural and meteorological disasters, including
windstorms, have been increasing in the past 20 years
(Birkmann and von Teichman 2010). In the case of the
European spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus L.
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae), the most
destructive bark beetle in the coniferous forests of the
palaearctic region (Christiansen and Bakke 1988),
powerful windstorms and extended periods of severe
drought appear to be important triggers for outbreaks
(Økland and Bjørnstad 2006). These consequences are
related to the fact that physiologically weakened or
mechanically damaged (broken or uprooted) trees
provide suitable breeding material for I. typographus
(Økland and Berryman 2004; Wermelinger 2004). In
recent years, thousands of hectares of spruce forest have
been destroyed by these insects in Europe (Wermelinger
2004; Kausrud et al 2011; Kautz et al 2011).
The current situation in Tatra National Park
Tatra National Park (TANAP) stretches across the Tatra
mountain range in northern Slovakia (49u109490N,
19u559100E). The park was established in 1948 and
currently extends over 73,800 ha, with 20,703 ha of
protective zone. The Tatra Mountains feature 17 peaks
MountainDevelopment
Transformation knowledge
Mountain Research and Development (MRD)
An international, peer-reviewed open access journal
published by the International Mountain Society (IMS)
www.mrd-journal.org
Mountain Research and Development Vol 34 No 4 Nov 2014: 326–335 http://dx.doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-13-00017.1 ß2014 by the authors326

over 2,500 masl, a unique glacier relief, and the greatest
number of endemic species in the Carpathian Range.
Forest soils are prevailingly lithic leptosols and podzols,
and bedrock is mostly granodiorite (S
ˇa
´ly and S
ˇurina
2007). Climate is characterized by low average
temperatures (annual mean of 5.8uC) and moderate
amounts of precipitation (750 mm annually). Mean
January temperature is 25.0uC, and snow cover lasts
approximately 114 days a year. Summers are relatively
mild, and the mean temperature in July is 14.7uC (data
FIGURE 1 Study area with November 2004 windstorm damage shown in orange. (Map by Christo Nikolov and Matu
´s
ˇKajba)
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obtained from the meteorological station in Stara
´Lesna
´).
The forests are dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies
[L.] Karst.) with European larch (Larix decidua Mill.), stone
pine (Pinus cembra L.), and a few broadleaved trees as
admixture species. The timberline is formed by Norway
spruce, joined above by a mountain pine (Pinus mugo) belt
(Fleischer and Homolova
´2011).
On 19 November 2004, an extraordinarily strong
windstorm hit the northern mountainous areas of Slovakia.
In some places the wind reached a velocity of 190 km per
hour. The mostaffected area was TANAP, where downslope
wind damaged 12,000 ha of forest (Falt
ˇan et al 2011). In the
areas with the highest level of protection under TANAP’s
forest management rules and regulations, approximately
165,000 m
3
of damaged wood was left uncleared, and the
total estimated wood damage was 2.5 to 3 million cubic
meters (Vakula et al 2007). These uncleared sites triggered a
serious bark beetle outbreak in the study area (Nikolov
2012). The current outbreak in Slovakia is the largest and
the most severe in recorded history. The total damage
caused by bark beetles in 2008–2011 exceeded wind damage
(Kunca et al 2012), historically the most destructive agent in
Slovakia (Konoˆ pka et al 2008). Since 2008, approximately
89% of damage and loss of Norway spruce has been caused
by I. typographus (Kunca et al 2012).
The need for efficient monitoring of possible solutions
Precise quantification of forest damage after large-scale
calamities is technically difficult if only terrestrial
methods are implemented (Wulder et al 2004). This is
particularly the case with bark beetle outbreaks, where
forest damage is dynamic because the infestation spreads
from its original location in a temporally and spatially
irregular pattern. Images from remote sensing, in
combination with geographic information system (GIS)
tools, offer a more suitable approach (Bucha et al 2010).
The spread of the bark beetle is affected by a complex
interplay between active population factors and habitat
factors with varying degrees of importance (Lausch et al
2011). Susceptibility of spruce forests to bark beetle
infestation is related to site and stand characteristics
(Worrel 1983; Netherer and Nopp-Mayr 2005; Zolubas et al
2009),yetinfestationcommonlyfollowssucheventsaslarge
windstorms that trigger population growth (Christiansen
and Bakke 1988; Økland and Berryman 2004). Several
studies have shown that under outbreak conditions beetle
infestations only spread across short distances, ,500 m (eg
Wichmann and Ravn 2001; Angst et al 2012). Therefore, an
often recommended size of phytosanitary buffer zones
around uncleared windthrow and unmanaged stands is
500 m (Wermelinger 2004; Angst et al 2012). Logging of
FIGURE 2 Ground photos (top) and aerial infrared images (bottom) showing the extent of damage in the spruce stands in Ticha
´Valley in 2006 (A) and 2008 (B) and in Velicka
´
Valley in 2005 (C) and 2009 (D). Spruce trees infested by bark beetles are shown in green in the infrared images. (Photos courtesy of the TANAP Research Station)
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infested trees is the measure most widely used against I.
typographus (Wermelinger 2004). Whereas most documented
effects of salvage logging are negative from an ecological
standpoint, others can be neutral or positive, depending on
the response variables measured (Lindenmayer and Noss
2006). For example, Grodzki et al (2006) found salvage
logging counterproductive, whereas Forster et al (2003)
suggested that infested trees should be processed normally.
The purpose of our study was to quantify and map
forest damage resulting from the November 2004
windstorm and subsequent insect outbreak in TANAP.
This article also presents simple GIS techniques for
detecting and mapping bark beetle infestations. Forest
degradation between 2005 and 2009 was examined using a
time series of aerial orthophotos and GIS. The study area
covers about 39,600 ha in the central and eastern parts of
TANAP, which contains dramatic topographic variation
and elevation ranging from 900 to 2000 masl (Figure 1).
How we collected and processed the data
In the most affected part of TANAP, high-resolution
aerial images in the visible and infrared spectra of
electromagnetic radiation were taken to monitor the
development of forests after the disaster of 2004 (Nikolov
2012). Aerial photographs were taken once a year at the
end of the growing season in late September and early
October, so forest changes were examined at annual
intervals between 2005 and 2009. Aerial photographs
were searched for infestation patches based on the
difference between red and green crowns of trees
(Figure 2), which became detectable 2–4 months after
infestation began.
Simple manual digitizing methods of interpretation
and comparison of aerial photographs in GIS were used.
Manual digitizing was chosen to ensure high accuracy of
image classification. Automated classification results
would have had to be visually inspected and corrected due
to their expected low reliability in the extremely rugged
terrain with varied light conditions (Heurich et al 2010).
Spatial layers were created, using ArcGis (ESRI) 9.2
and aerial photography, to show bark beetle infestation
patches (2005–2009), logged stands (2006–2009), and
uncleared windthrow areas.
Cartographic representation of infested patches
captured trees mainly killed by I. typographus; indeed,
FIGURE 3 Development of infestation in 3 sections of spruce forest in Tatra National Park, 2005–2009, and distance zones from uncleared windthrow areas.
(Map by Christo Nikolov)
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although forest dieback is the result of complex factors
(such as fungi, drought, and emissions), in comparison
with bark beetle, these agents have been found to be
negligible (Kunca et al 2012). Logged stands represent
trees that were cut due to an I. typographus infestation.
This layer was created by comparing differences between
2 consecutive years. In this process, the first year of
recorded logged stands was 2006. These 2 layers were
considered as total damaged area in the final summary of
I. typographus damages.
In the areas under the highest level of protection,
approximately 400 ha of windthrow were left uncleared.
Uncleared sites provide breeding habitat for bark beetles
and potentially trigger bark beetle outbreaks (Økland and
Berryman 2004; Wermelinger 2004; Eriksson et al 2005). To
examine the effects of uncleared windthrowson bark beetle
infestation in the study area, zones 100 meter wide around
the uncleared windthrow areas up to a distance of 1000 m
were created using the analysis tools in ArcGis. Distance
was based on initial observations in ArcGIS, which showed
that 97% of all infestations were recorded within 1000 m of
an uncleared windthrow area. Spatial overlay methods were
used to quantify the areas of infestation patches, logged
stands, and remaining forest stand layers in each distance
zone for each year. Subsequently, the percentage of
damaged area and remaining forest stand as potential
infestation area were calculated.
The study area was divided into 3 sections (Figure 3)
based on the extent of bark beetle damage recorded in
the first year of observation (2005), post-disaster
management strategy, and local climatic conditions:
A Almost no damage; limited management; colder
climatic conditions than in the other 2 sections
(relatively narrow valleys with shadowing from
adjacent ridges); 2866 ha of spruce forest (potential
infestation area) and 185 ha of uncleared windthrow;
B No damage; intensive management; 1852 ha of spruce
forest and 100 ha of uncleared windthrow;
C Substantial damage; intensive management in the
southern part of the section; 4074 ha of spruce forest
and 125 ha of uncleared windthrow.
Due to its protected status, there was little logging of
beetle-killed trees in section A. This action was strongly
opposed by environmental organizations and some
scientists. As a result, in April 2007, the Slovak
Environmental Inspectorate stopped the logging 2 weeks
after it started. Additional logging was conducted in
2008–2009. In June 2012, the Ministry of the Environment
decided not to allow any additional logging in the Ticha
´
and Koˆ prova
´valleys (section A) (Ministry of Environment
of the Slovak Republic 2012).
Spread of Ips typographus in TANAP
The importance of windthrow in the initiation of I.
typographus outbreaks has been recognized for centuries
(Capecki 1986; Christiansen and Bakke 1988; Skuhravy
´
2002; Økland and Bjørnstad 2006). Our results confirm
that uncleared windthrow areas had the greatest
influence on outbreak patterns and spreading in TANAP.
In all sections a remarkable decrease in damaged area was
recorded with increasing distance from windthrow areas
(Figure 4; Tables 1–3). Most infestations were recorded
within 100 m of uncleared sites. More than 50% of total
damage was observed within 300 m of windthrown stands
in each section, compared with about 10% in the most
distant zones (700–1000 m). Epidemic infestations only
spread across distances .500 m (Wichamnn and Ravn
FIGURE 4 Percent of forest damage by year and distance from uncleared windthrow.
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2001; Angst et al 2012). About 80% of total damage was
recorded within 500 m in all sections.
The largest annual bark beetle damage was recorded
4 years after the windstorm in sections A and B and 3 years
after the storm in section C. After a windstorm, peak I.
typographus population densities are commonly reached in
the second summer; the peak occurs in the third summerin
mountain forests (Wermelinger 2004; Kausrud et al 2011).
We assume that population growth in section A was limited
by the colder climate (relatively narrow valleys and shadow
effect of adjacent ridges), yet the outbreak peak was only
temporarily delayed, not inhibited, and beetle damage
remained high until the end of study period.
The most probable cause of delay of the outbreak peak
and the lower infestation level in section B was intensive
management, where approximately 70% of all infested trees
were cleared (Figure 4B). A simulation by Fahse and Heurich
(2011) showed that an outbreak can be controlled if at least
80% of I. typographus specimens are killed. Effectiveness of
sanitary logging in our study area was, however, difficult to
evaluate. At some sites, logging was approved too late (in
2007). Areas of active forest management were intermingled
with nonmanaged, infested forest. Edges of stands cleared of
infestation were reinfested. It is almost impossible to
determine to what degree infestations in unmanaged stands
contribute to new infestations in neighboring managed
stands (Forster et al 2003). Grodzki et al (2003) presumed that
classical sanitary logging often leads to an increase in the
attractiveness of forest edges to bark beetles. Infested trees
are often discovered too late, so that most or all of the filial
beetle generation has emerged, which was probably the case
in the most damaged forest section (section C), which had
already been affected by windthrow and subsequent bark
beetle infestation in 2000 and 2002. Population densities
remained high in 2005 as well.
Implications for forest management in mountain
spruce forests
Our findings support the general recommendations (eg
Ravn 1985; Christiansen and Bakke 1988; Mitchell 1995;
Mitchell and Rodney 2001; Wichmann and Ravn 2001;
Forster et al 2003; Wermelinger 2004; Baier et al 2007;
Fahse and Heurich 2011; Angst et al 2012) for windthrow
TABLE 2 Forest area damaged by bark beetles according to distance from uncleared windthrow, section B.
a)
(Table extended on next page)
Year
Distance from uncleared windthrow / % of total damaged area
b)
100 m 200 m 300 m 400 m 500 m 600 m
2005 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2006 0.38 0.47 0.43 0.97 0.71 0.65
2007 2.29 2.17 2.60 2.17 2.25 1.52
2008 9.91 6.69 6.79 5.08 3.91 2.33
2009 7.18 6.01 5.94 4.45 3.17 2.54
Total 19.76 15.34 15.76 12.67 10.04 7.04
a)
Bold font indicates maximum values.
b)
infested and logged stands were considered as total damaged area.
TABLE 1 Forest area damaged by bark beetles according to distance from uncleared windthrow, section A.
a)
(Table extended on next page)
Year
Distance from uncleared windthrow / % of total damaged area
b)
100 m 200 m 300 m 400 m 500 m 600 m
2005 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.00
2006 0.37 0.20 0.38 0.10 0.06 0.12
2007 15.05 6.18 3.13 1.43 1.08 0.79
2008 8.34 8.93 6.58 4.74 3.11 2.30
2009 5.13 5.38 5.10 4.38 3.78 2.35
Total 28.96 20.72 15.21 10.66 8.04 5.56
a)
Bold font indicates maximum values.
b)
infested and logged stands were considered as total damaged area.
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monitoring and management in spruce-dominated
stands. We propose to reinforce post-disaster monitoring
with an emphasis on 2 aspects: data acquisition and
processing, and management of outbreaks.
Data acquisition and processing steps should include
the following:
NSpatial distribution of windthrows and bark beetle infesta-
tions—Conduct aerial photography of the affected
territory and its surroundings right after a windstorm.
Map the extent and distribution of windthrows, which
have a major impact on the further development and
population dynamics of bark beetles after the distur-
bance. Use remote sensing data and GIS tools to map
initial bark beetle infestation. Evaluate probabilities
for storm damage and bark beetle infestation.
NStand predisposition—Stand-related information (eg
basal area, composition, stand density, diameter at
breast height, and age-class) on the forest compart-
ment layer (ie layer showing internal forest boundaries
with uniform forest types; see Armitage 1998) help to
evaluate the susceptibility of forest stands to bark
beetle infestation in the vicinity of windthrow areas (eg
Netherer and Nopp-Mayr 2005; Hilszczan´ ski et al 2006;
Zolubas et al 2009).
NSite predisposition—Site-related parameters such as air
temperature, topographic parameters (slope, aspect,
and elevation), and solar radiation strongly influence
bark beetle development (Worrel 1983; Jakusˇetal
2003; Grodzki et al 2003, 2006; Baier et al 2007). Most
of these characteristics can be derived from a digital
elevation model.
Spatial analysis in GIS and the combination of created
layers can be used to generate maps illustrating the
hazard of bark beetle outbreaks. The suggested process is
illustrated in a simplified way in Figure 5.
Management of I. typographus outbreaks should include
the following:
NPeaks of I. typographus population densities in moun-
tain forests are reached in the third summer after a
windstorm. In the first 2 years after windthrow, focus
on removing all damaged wood. Windfelled trees in the
vicinity of infestation spots should be cleared first if
possible.
NIn the second stage, focus mainly on zones up to 300 m
from uncleared windthrow. After a windstorm, mon-
itoring and sanitary measures within a 300 m buffer
zone in mountain forests seems sufficient. Monitoring
TABLE 1 Extended.
Year
Distance from uncleared windthrow / % of total damaged area
b)
Total
700 m 800 m 900 m 1000 m (%) (ha)
2005 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.71
2006 0.09 0.15 0.18 0.06 1.71 8.74
2007 0.99 0.56 0.50 0.30 30.01 153.91
2008 1.43 0.81 0.63 0.53 37.40 191.79
2009 2.00 0.99 0.79 0.84 30.74 157.71
Total 4.51 2.51 2.10 1.73 100.00 512.86
TABLE 2 Extended.
Year
Distance from uncleared windthrow / % of total damaged area
b)
Total
700 m 800 m 900 m 1000 m (%) (ha)
2005 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2006 0.44 0.67 0.31 0.16 5.19 13.94
2007 1.33 1.11 0.68 0.66 16.78 45.04
2008 3.26 1.60 1.54 1.18 42.29 113.61
2009 2.49 1.49 1.36 1.11 35.74 95.98
Total 7.52 4.87 3.89 3.11 100.00 268.57
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beetle infestations in wider buffer zones is more
difficult and labor-intensive because of the size of the
area to be controlled.
NCreate buffer zones between sites where it is impossi-
ble to remove damaged wood (due to accessibility or
level of protection) and adjacent managed sites.
NIn small windthrows, an I. typographus outbreak may be
extenuated by the removal of infested trees (standing
and windthrown) in the period between the spring
flight and the emergence of the new generation,
thereby using the windthrown trees as trap trees
(Wichmann and Ravn 2001).
Conclusions
We used aerial photographs and simple GIS techniques to
map the extent and distribution of windthrows and bark
beetle infestations. This study shows how accurately and
easily important forest changes can be documented,
analyzed, and evaluated using GIS. The use of aerial
photographs to visually identify infestation patches using
manual vectorization is very time consuming; thus,
application of this method is restricted to relatively small
areas. Our analyses suggest that the exclusion or delay of
post-disaster management could have adverse consequences
TABLE 3 Forest area damaged by bark beetles according to distance from uncleared windthrow, section C.
a)
(Table extended on next page)
Year
Distance from uncleared windthrow / % of total damaged area
b)
100 m 200 m 300 m 400 m 500 m 600 m
2005 0.09 0.03 0.20 0.16 0.29 0.26
2006 1.44 0.92 1.10 1.19 1.09 1.07
2007 12.30 8.17 6.87 4.49 3.44 2.99
2008 3.25 4.64 4.34 3.15 2.47 1.78
2009 3.05 4.44 3.91 3.07 2.95 1.91
Total 20.13 18.20 16.42 12.06 10.24 8.01
a)
Bold font indicates maximum values.
b)
infested and logged stands were considered as total damaged area.
FIGURE 5 Suggested use of GIS data and data derived from aerial photos to locate areas of high risk for initial bark beetle infestation. (Design by Christo Nikolov)
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for forest ecosystem stability. We believe clearing
windthrows is the most effective control measure. Relatively
small areas of uncleared windthrow and initial I. typographus
infestation spots can trigger extensive bark beetle outbreaks.
We suggest using 300 m phytosanitary buffer zones in
mountain spruce forests to prevent substantial beetle
invasion from uncleared windthrow in adjacent stands.
Lindenmayer and Noss (2006) assert that new
terminology is needed. According to their work, salvage
logging generally does not help regenerate or save
ecosystems, communities, or species and often has the
opposite effect. Therefore, the term ‘‘salvage logging’’
should be replaced by ‘‘postdisturbance logging.’’ It was
impossible to determine to what degree infestations in
adjacent unmanaged stands contribute to new
infestations, but recorded damage in section B, where
70% of infested stands were logged, was lowest.
It is difficult to draw final conclusions based on our
study because an outbreak condition was still being
detected at the end of the study period. The positive and
negative effects of windthrow removal and salvage logging
of infested trees need to be studied in more detail.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency
under contract No. APVV-0045-10 and by the Operational Program of Research
and Development, co-financed with the European Fund for Regional
Development, grant no. ITMS:26220220109, ‘‘Forecasting-information
systems for improving the effectiveness of forest management.’’ We would like
to thank the editors and anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and
suggestions, which were helpful in improving the article.
We are very sad to announce that our co-author Libor Jansky
´passed away on 31
October 2014—just before this article went to press.
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2005 0.04 0.03 0.00 0.00 1.10 11.94
2006 0.79 0.57 0.51 0.87 9.55 102.51
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2008 1.17 0.99 0.89 0.57 23.25 249.46
2009 1.25 0.71 0.42 0.37 22.08 236.96
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