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Doing Something about Long Hours
... Schor (1991Schor ( , 1999 firstly observed that Americans work 158 hours more per year, equivalent to an extra month of work -from 1969-1989(Schor 1999. Several researchers detected that pattern in other countries too, such as Germany, UK, Sweden, Switzerland, Netherlands and Australia (Golden and Figart 2000, Bell et al. 2000, Campbell and Green 2002, Booth et al. 2003, Pannenberg 2005, Engellandt and Riphahn 2005, Meyer and Wallette 2005, Van Echtelt et al. 2007, Anger 2008, Drago et al. 2009, Swann and Stanford 2016. The phenomenon is still ongoing even after the 2007-8 crisis, as Sturges, (2013), Williams, et al. (2008) and Conway and Sturges (2014) present. ...
... There are also approaches that take historicity and structurality into account, such as the post-Fordist labour processes (van Echtelt 2007), the cyclicality of economy (Hetrick 2000), the nature of industry (Golden and FIgart 2000), the level of unionisation in workplace, the kind of contract (Conway and Sturges 2014, Engellandt andRiphahn 2005), and other organisational factors (Zapf 2015, van der Meer and Wielers 2015, Tseng 2011. Within, the Marxist tradition, the rising unpaid overtime is attributed to the capitalists' pursuit of extracting more surplus value (Philp et al. 2005, Philp et al. 2014, Ioannides et al 2014, Ioannides and Mavroudeas 2018. ...
Unpaid overtime in Britain has been excessive. The article measures the contribution of unpaid overtime in relation to UK industries economic output (Gross Value Added-GVA) for the period 2002-2012, using the Labour Force Survey (LFS) and the Office for National Statistics (ONS-Blue Book), capturing the different patterns before and after the 2007-8 crisis. Measuring unpaid overtime's contribution and the other parts of working day has important implication on labour's remuneration. The paper adopts an output-based approach evaluation of unpaid labour. A decomposed working day is therefore examined by employing statistical regression methods (Pooled OLS, LASSO and FGLS) to account for unpaid overtime's contribution to the UK industries' output (GVA). The results display a strong link between unpaid overtime and GVA, and particularly its post-crisis contribution to GVA is significant in contrast to the weak pre-crisis relationship.
JEL Classifications: E24, D24, J3, C01
http://www.open-access.bcu.ac.uk/11749/
... This is equivalent to an extra month of work each year-based on data from -1989(Schor 1999. In addition to that, Golden and Figart (2000) found that in the US working hours per year have increased 4% since 1980 (p.16). Moreover, Bell et al. (2000) based on data from both UK and Germany analysed the phenomenon of both paid and unpaid overtime. ...
... Although, existing literature has mainly observed that employees in services even before crisis manufacturing experienced record levels of overtime, according to Golden and Figart (2000). This result is not unsound if the nature of work in each industry is taken into account (physical component). ...
This dissertation attempts to measure the contribution of unpaid overtime in relation to UK industries (SIC codes)’ economic output (Gross Value Added) for the period 2002-2012, based on data from the Labour Force Survey (LFS) and the Office for National Statistics (ONS). The study provides the different theoretical approaches of unpaid labour’s definition, and more specifically those of mainstream economic approaches (eg. neoclassical) in comparison to the Marxist categories. Acknowledging that it is not always possible to construct Marxist variables with orthodox datasets, the dissertation uses the Marxist theory to attempt to explain the movement in the orthodox statistics. Unpaid overtime’s effect on the UK industries’ product (GVA) is not examined by wage-based approaches as the mainstream scholars and practitioners tend to do, but by an output-based one, using working-time as the measure of industries’ contribution. In this attempt, both parametric (Statistical regression methods) and non-parametric approaches (Data Envelopment Analysis) are used in order to account for unpaid overtime’s contribution to the UK industries product (GVA) as it is estimated by the orthodox statistics of Britain.
... These are our categories (see Table 2). The first category is the preference to work less (25% of articles) where overemployment is defined as a state in which employees work longer than preferred or wish to (2000), Golden (1996), Golden (2009), Golden (2016), Golden and Gebreselassie (2007), Golden and Figart (2000), Kuroda and Yamamoto (2013), Matta (2015), Osorno and Acosta (2007), Pagan (2017), Ramirez (1998), Sousa-Poza and Henneberger (2002), Sousa-Poza and Ziegler (2003) (2015), Bell (1998) (2013) a Three articles were not coded, as no clear definition of overemployment was given (Bell, 1998;Groezinger et al., 2010;Kahn and Lang, 1995). b Five articles (Golden, 1996;Golden, 2009;Golden and Gebreselassie, 2007;Golden and Figart, 2000;Osorno and Acosta, 2007) did not include or describe a measure of overemployment; Golden (2016) contained two measures. ...
... The first category is the preference to work less (25% of articles) where overemployment is defined as a state in which employees work longer than preferred or wish to (2000), Golden (1996), Golden (2009), Golden (2016), Golden and Gebreselassie (2007), Golden and Figart (2000), Kuroda and Yamamoto (2013), Matta (2015), Osorno and Acosta (2007), Pagan (2017), Ramirez (1998), Sousa-Poza and Henneberger (2002), Sousa-Poza and Ziegler (2003) (2015), Bell (1998) (2013) a Three articles were not coded, as no clear definition of overemployment was given (Bell, 1998;Groezinger et al., 2010;Kahn and Lang, 1995). b Five articles (Golden, 1996;Golden, 2009;Golden and Gebreselassie, 2007;Golden and Figart, 2000;Osorno and Acosta, 2007) did not include or describe a measure of overemployment; Golden (2016) contained two measures. ...
Socioeconomic panel data indicate that numerous employees would prefer to work less, i.e. that they are overemployed. However, due to inconsistent definitions and divergent operationalizations of overemployment, integrating existing research results is challenging and implications for research and practice are difficult to draw. To advance research in this field, we present an analysis of the concept and measurement of overemployment. To analyze the concept, we proceed in two steps. In step 1, we present the range of overemployment definitions in the literature and systematize the similarities and differences in these previous conceptualizations with the aim of arriving at an adequate definition of “overemployment.” In step 2, in view of the partial overlap between existing definitions of overemployment and other concepts used in past research, we demarcate overemployment from related concepts, identify conceptual distinctions between overemployment and other concepts and explore connections between concepts. To analyze the measurement of overemployment, we look at the bandwidth of content, measurement levels and question wording in overemployment measures and discuss the consequences of the different measures used for the overemployment rates found. We then present a consistent approach towards conceptualizing and measuring overemployment which aids future research on overemployment and similar concepts.
... Many workers engaged in long hours would prefer to work fewer hours (Watson et al., 2003). Overwork is a problem as it reduces social productive leisure by 4 restricting time available 'for being an effective marriage partner, parent and citizen.' (Golden and Figart, 2000b:26). The combination of time pressured leisure and overwork reduces time for recuperation and revitalisation as well as for civic involvement, community work, caregiving and lifelong learning. ...
... The combination of time pressured leisure and overwork reduces time for recuperation and revitalisation as well as for civic involvement, community work, caregiving and lifelong learning. This reduces the stock of social and human capital as well producing other health and safety risks (Golden and Figart, 2000b). Indeed, the problem of extended hours and overwork was the catalyst for the Australian Council of Trade Unions pursuing the reasonable hours test case. ...
Drawing on qualitative and survey research in a number of organisations, we report on some of the causes and effects of extended working hours. Extended hours were mostly employer-driven, where workplace regulation of hours was weak so employees were not compensated for extra hours worked, though in a minority of instances it was jointly driven by employers and employees who benefited from overtime pay. Workplace culture was important in shaping extended hours. Employees internalised pressure to work long hours, so that without adequate say on their workload, employees with higher say in their working hours tended to work longer hours. Yet many full-time employees were working more hours than they wanted, and there was strong support for an upper limit on hours. Such a limit failed in implementation, however, where there was no enforcement mechanism and a minority were willing to circumvent it. Yes Yes
... Conceptualization of overemployment a : Note. a Three articles were not coded, as no clear definition of overemployment was given (Bell, 1998;Groezinger et al., 2010;Kahn & Lang, 1995). b Five articles (Golden, 1996;Golden, 2009;Golden & Figart, 2000;Golden & Gebreselassie, 2007;Osorno & Acosta, 2007) did not include or describe a measure of overemployment; Golden (2016) contained two measures. ...
Overemployment, i.e., the preference for fewer work hours, is a widespread phenomenon in western societies, which may have negative consequences for individual well-being and organizational functioning. Previously overemployment has been defi ned from an economic perspective mainly as a time-money trade-off problem. This work is the first to adopt a psychological and subjectivist view on overemployment. Over three research projects a theory of overemployment, its causes and consequences is constructed and tested. In addition, a multidimensional overemployment scale is developed and initially validated. The three research projects include: fi rst, a review on overemployment conceptualizations and measurements; second, a Grounded Theory interview study with the aim to develop a theory on overemployment, its causes, and consequences; and third, a scale development study comprising over 1,400 participants over 4 studies. The importance of overemployment for individual well-being (e.g., burnout, job satisfaction), as well as for organizational variables (e.g., commitment, turnover intention) is shown. Overemployment is found to be a multidimensional construct consisting of three dimensions: length, density, and distribution of work time. The developed theory and scale will allow future researchers to analyze overemployment in more detail. The work offers interesting insights for HR and management practitioners when it comes to creating attractive working conditions.
... This has not (yet) transpired in most countries. It is debated whether the average length of working hours is in general declining, or just for certain subsets of workers-in particular, those who are salaried (Golden and Figart 2000)-but actually we do now devote more hours to labor than before industrial revolution (Schor 2008). Moreover, average real wage rates have stagnated over the past half a century despite a growing rate of labor productivity (Bivens and Mishel 2015). ...
... This has not (yet) transpired in most countries. It is debated whether the average length of working hours is in general declining, or just for certain subsets of workers– in particular, those who are not salaried (Golden and Figart 2000)–but actually we do now devote more hours to labor than before industrial revolution (Schor 2008). Moreover, average real wage rates have stagnated over the past half a century despite a growing rate of labor productivity (Bivens and Mishel 2015). ...
We study how work a schedule flexibility (flextime) affects happiness. We use a US General Social Survey (GSS) pooled dataset containing the Quality of Worklife and Work Orientations modules for 1998, 2002, 2006, 2010, and 2014. We retain only respondents who are either full-time or part-time employees on payrolls. For flextime to be associated with greater happiness, it has to be more than just sometimes flexible or slight input into one’s work schedule, that is, little flextime does not increase happiness. But substantial flextime has a large effect on happiness–the size effect is about as large as that of household income, or about as large as a one-step increase in self-reported health, such as up from good to excellent health. Our findings provide support for both public and organizational policies that would promote greater work schedule flexibility or control for employees. © 2017 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht and The International Society for Quality-of-Life Studies (ISQOLS)
... Even when made economically eqr-rivalent, increases in hours of work might not be perceived as negatively as salary cuts. Neoclassical economiss have conceived time as a scare resource that must be optimized to increase production and corporate profits.However, for the employee, time spent on the job also can play a positive function as a way of constructing personal identiw, actualizing sellworth, and gaining status not only in the workplace but also at home and in society in general(Golden & Figart, 2000).Just as short hours are not necessarily associated with better outcomes, unpaid hours of work are not automatically associated with negative consequences(Barnett & Shen, 1997).Hours of work could thus be perceived as a more complex and flexible resource than money. Salaries, on the other hand, could be conceived as being more of a zerosum resource for which cuts and increases are more vividlv and precisely represented. ...
Research using the minimal group paradigm demonstrates that categorization and ingroup identification can foster intergroup discrimination. However, the positive-negative asymmetry effect shows that less discrimination occurs when negative rather than positive outcomes are distributed. The normative hypothesis explains this asymmetry by the stronger inappropriateness of discrimination in negative than in positive outcome distributions. Results obtained in this minimal group paradigm study (N = 257) did not replicate the asymmetry effect: discrimination occurred in both positive and negative outcome distributions, even if norms against discrimination were stronger in negative than in positive outcome distributions. The absence of the asymmetry effect is explained by the effect of the discrimination justifying ideology.
... In respect of working time Schor pointed out that Americans work 158 hours more per year -which means nearly an extra month of work each year -based on data from 1969-1989(Schor, 1999. Golden and Figart (2000) found that working hours per year have increased 4% since 1980 in the USA (p.16). So far as over time is concerned Hetrick (2000, p.30) argued that during the economic expansion of the 1990s employers in manufacturing industries were more likely than in previous recoveries to increase overtime hours among existing employees than to hire new workers. ...
In the last period, especially before the current economic crisis began, the phenomenon of employees working long hours without been paid has been observed. This trend appears to have become stronger in the last 15 years but there is ample evidence that the tendency began before then. While there have been various explanations put forward as to why employees work paid overtime, theoretical justification for working unpaid overtime by neoclassical economics seems to be fragile; deferred compensation theory, human capital theory, signalling, gift economy theory and Pareto Optimality analyses are not sufficient to explain the existence and persistence of unpaid overtime. Finally an analysis based on Political Economy's principles is proposed; tendencies of surplus value extraction, capitalist restructuring and trade unions may be capable of comprehending this phenomenon. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Papagiannaki, E. (2014) 'Rising unpaid overtime: a critical approach to existing theories', Int. UK dealing with kinds of Unpaid Labour. She studied in the University of Macedonia (Greece). Her Master degree in Economic Theory and Policy. Her Master Thesis is on Unpaid Overtime and was presented in the 1st International Conference of IIPPE (International Initiative for Promoting Political Economy). This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper entitled 'Rising unpaid overtime: a critical approach to existing theories' presented at the Conference 'Beyond the Crisis', International Initiative of the Promotion of Political
... Hour mismatches have been a popular topic in the mass media, which often focuses on overwork (e.g., Thottam, 2005). Hour mismatches have also been discussed as a problem that may warrant government intervention (Golden & Figart, 2000;MacInnes, 2005), and cross-national studies show that they are indeed influenced by country context (Bielenski, Bosch, & Wagner, 2002;Reynolds, 2004;Sousa-Poza & Henneberger, 2002;Stier & Lewin-Epstein, 2003). Finally, researchers have been working to describe hour mismatches and determine how common they are. ...
Mismatches between Americans’ actual and preferred hours of paid work are common, but the understanding of such mismatches is still limited. In this article, the authors provide the first large-scale, longitudinal study of hour mismatches in the United States. They found that the population of workers with hour mismatches is in constant flux. Nevertheless, hour mismatches seem to persist for long periods of time: The vast majority of respondents who wanted fewer hours when first interviewed still wanted fewer hours 5 years later. The authors also found inequalities in the methods through which people develop and resolve mismatches. Women who want fewer hours were less likely than men to resolve their mismatches by working less. Also, they found evidence suggesting that non-Whites who want fewer hours may be settling for the hours they can get rather than getting the hours they want.
... Consequently, many authors have begun to question the claim that workers are free to choose their hours and the assumption that labor markets provide the hours workers want (Böheim and Taylor 2003;Golden 1996;Martinez-Granado 2005). In fact, some authors believe that hour mismatches are such a common and serious problem that they war-Pursuing P Preferences: T The C Creation a and Resolution o of W Work H Hour M Mismatches rant government intervention (Golden and Figart 2000;MacInnes 2005). All these developments have renewed interest in economic models of work hour constraints (Altonji and Paxson 1988;Killingsworth 1983:45-66) and have prompted sociologists to begin developing their own explanations of hour constraints (Clarkberg and Moen 2001;Jacobs and Gerson 2004). ...
Mismatches between the number of hours people actually work and the hours they prefer to work are common, but few studies have examined such hour mismatches from a longitudinal perspective. Using two waves of panel data from Australia, the authors offer a new, dynamic picture of hour mismatches. Their analysis shows a fluid labor market in which many mismatches are created and resolved. Nevertheless, their findings also highlight market imperfections. Many mismatches (especially the desire for fewer hours) appear to persist for more than a year, and although a change of employers can resolve mismatches, it can also create them. Moreover, as seen in the findings, processes that create and resolve mismatches are more closely tied to changes in preferred hours than to changes in actual hours.
... An increasing number of workers report they experience more fatigue, time pressure, speedup and inability to achieve a desired balance in their lives between paid work and their family, personal and civic time (Golden and Figart, 2000). ...
... Also, employees may feel compelled to work more hours because of financial strain, job insecurity, or employer pressure. Even if these long working hours are voluntarily it has been stressed that they can undermine the very quality of living standards they are presumed to boost (Golden and Figart, 2000). Most frequently, working long hours is referred to as overtime and often a distinction is made between mandatory and voluntary overtime. ...
Purpose
This study examined the relationship between two types of mismatch (i.e. non‐correspondence between preferred and actual number of hours), and affective commitment. It was argued that specific groups of employees, i.e. women and part‐time working employees, attach more importance to their working hours and, therefore, are less likely to show affective commitment when they experience a mismatch.
Design/methodology/approach
Using data from 222 employees of a Dutch Ministry, hypotheses were tested using regression analyses.
Findings
It was shown that a mismatch of working more hours was differentially related to the affective commitment of employees who wanted to work more and who wanted to work fewer hours. Moreover, gender and full‐time status were found to moderate the negative relationship between a mismatch and the affective commitment of employees who wants to work less.
Research limitations/implications
The focus is on affective commitment; however, it is possible that other types of commitment are also associated with perceptions of psychological contract breach.
Practical implications
Tailored HRM is needed: assisting employees with a mismatch wanting to work fewer hours can be achieved by allowing them more flexibility in their working schedules. Employees with a mismatch of wanting to work more hours can be assisted with additional support, e.g. shopping services.
Originality/value
HRM practices can be tailored to different preferences: the value of this paper is the examination of different types of mismatch for different group of employees.
The present study investigated the unpaid overtime experienced by BPO rank-and-file employees and its effect on their career growth, well-being, and labor earnings. How unpaid overtime affects the morale and productivity of employees, and how responsive the organization's policies are to their needs. The researchers have used a phenomenological approach to achieve the study's objectives of identifying the causes and effects of the pressing issues of unpaid overtime experienced by workers. Additionally, the researchers used key informant interviews and focus group discussions in gathering the data among the participants by using an unstructured interview questionnaire to collect information and responses based on their experience with the guide questions. As such, the study found that unpaid overtime detrimentally affects the overall productivity and morale of the employees concerning their work quality in performing their job; unpaid overtime has no direct correlation with career growth; however, it has significantly affected their labor earnings and affects the well-being of the employee, numerous labor violations have been discussed and identified including miscalculation of overtime pay or salary disputes, intimidation from superior to work forcefully with overtime, and decreasing the original incentives to be received to what has been agreed upon and compromised the interest of the employees in rendering unpaid overtime work.
Due to the rising importance of the global interdependence, decisions related to supplier selection rely on not only corporate operation conditions, but also corporate social responsibility (CSR). Under this circumstance, this chapter focuses on a supplier selection problem concerning CSR. Particularly, seven criteria and their corresponding importance for supplier selection are analyzed. Meanwhile, some relevant sub-criteria are included as well. Based on existing literature review and managerial interviews obtained from leaders in the southern region of India, these issues are compared and ranked. In this chapter, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is conducted to identify the importance of these considered criteria and sub-criteria. Finally, the chapter concludes with a presentation of rankings and priorities of the proposed seven criteria. Given the obtained results and recommendations, it would be helpful to establish a useful method for selecting the best supplier based on CSR.
Due to the rising importance of the global interdependence, decisions related to supplier selection rely on not only corporate operation conditions, but also corporate social responsibility (CSR). Under this circumstance, this chapter focuses on a supplier selection problem concerning CSR. Particularly, seven criteria and their corresponding importance for supplier selection are analyzed. Meanwhile, some relevant sub-criteria are included as well. Based on existing literature review and managerial interviews obtained from leaders in the southern region of India, these issues are compared and ranked. In this chapter, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) is conducted to identify the importance of these considered criteria and sub-criteria. Finally, the chapter concludes with a presentation of rankings and priorities of the proposed seven criteria. Given the obtained results and recommendations, it would be helpful to establish a useful method for selecting the best supplier based on CSR.
Labor markets are rife with hierarchical distinctions between different categories of work and different groups of workers. Relative wages signify the relative “worth” or “value” of particular forms of work (and types of workers). Class distinctions are often grounded in employment status. Racial-ethnic and gender discrimination in labor markets maintain inequality. Full-time employees are presumed to be more stable and career-oriented than part-time workers. Paid work itself is treated as a marker of one’s social contribution, implicitly and explicitly devaluing unpaid work in homes and communities.
This chapter addresses a number of issues related to work hours and work addiction. The dependent variables associated with working long hours include health-related illnesses, injuries, sleep patterns, fatigue, heart rate and hormone level changes, as well as several work/non-work life balance issues. Motives for working long hours such as joy in the work, avoiding job insecurity or negative sanctions from a superior, employer demands, are addressed in detail, and a multitude of moderators shown to have affected the work hours and well-being relationship, are reviewed. These include reasons for working long hours, work schedule autonomy, monetary gain, choice in working for long hours. The chapter suggests a need for more research to better understand workaholism and work addiction, as well as provides a number of implications and organizational and societal suggestions for addressing work-hour concerns.
This article reviews the literature on the antecedents and consequences of working hours, work intensity, and work addiction particularly among managers and professionals. The dependent variables associated with these include health-related illnesses, injuries, sleep patterns, fatigue, heart rate, and hormone level changes, as well as several work/non-work life balance issues. Motives for working long hours such as joy in work, avoiding job insecurity or negative sanctions from a superior, and employer demands, are addressed in detail, and a multitude of moderators shown to have affected the work hours and well-being relationship are reviewed. These include reasons for working long hours, work schedule autonomy, monetary gain, and choice in working long hours. This article suggests a need for more research to understand better the effects of work hours, work intensity, and workaholism, as well as providing a number of implications and organizational and societal suggestions for addressing work-hour concerns.
Due to the increased attention in recent years toward sustainability issues, supplier selection is a fundamental component of ensuring an efficient supply chain. Selecting a supplier is a burden for any firm, but the fireworks industry faces sustainability issues that are particularly important because of their environmental impact. All these concepts make the purchasing manager's job difficult. Selecting the best supplier based on its level of CSR is too difficult because no single study clearly explains the whole concept. A few research studies exist, but they typically address automobile, textile, or other manufacturing industries. Because CSR is an unstable issue and these issues underscore the supplier selection process that is vital to the fireworks industry, and we propose a model that is validated using an interpretive structural modeling (ISM) approach. Firework industries in south Asian countries generally have not properly employed CSR issues. Therefore, the proposed model addresses firework industry situated in the southern part of India. This study assists purchasing managers to identify the prime issue that underscores the selection of a supplier based on CSR. Based on that prime, managers can more responsibly and confidently make their supplier selection. This study can be extended by diversifying the CSR issues and by including other MCDM tools and it provides a manner to consider other supplier selection issues by implementing a hybrid approach with ISM.
The argument put forward in this paper is that distinguishing between the social and the unpaid sphere has become much more critical as far as societal analysis is concerned than the increasingly blurred distinction between labor and leisure. It proposes a new household model in this respect to provide explanations for phenomena like the high degree of unhappiness experienced by the unemployed and the prevalence of workaholism. The model illustrates that ‘working’ can be as much a source of utility as ‘leisure activities’. The dependency of the budget situation on choices is outlined and the issue of the crowding out of activities in the unpaid sphere is formalized in the model. Policy implications such as decreased pressure on citizens to work and the introduction of a basic income are postulated.
Due to the rising importance of our global interdependence, corporate social responsibility (CSR) is primarily concerned with social, ethical, and economic decisions, particularly as they relate to the selection of suppliers in contemporary supply chains. In this paper, we analyze the importance of seven criteria as a means of selecting the best supplier under CSR environment. Those seven criteria are human rights issues, underage labor, female gender labor, long working hours, pollution, safeguarding mechanisms, and organizational legal responsibilities. We, however, include some relevant sub-criteria as well. These issues are compared and ranked with the combined assistance of several existing literature reviews and by managerial interviews conducted from leaders in the southern region of India. The importance of the criteria and sub-criteria used in the CSR-based supplier selection is identified by the analytical hierarchy process. This paper concludes with a presentation of the rankings and priorities of the proposed seven criteria and establishes a useful method for selecting the best supplier based on CSR.
Work/non-work conflict is important because it tells us about the well-being of individuals and more generally of a particular workplace or organization. Important progress has been made in research literature on the importance of structural policies designed to assist workers to meet competing demands to be at work and at home. More information is needed into organizational influences on the emotional aspects of work/non-work conflict. Based on a survey of over 900 employees, we use factor, correlation and multiple regression analyses to find that exacerbation in work/non-work conflict is a result of high workload pressure, long working hours, unsupportive management and weak employee control, especially control over workload and when employees can take time off.
Research using the minimal group paradigm demonstrates that categorization and ingroup identification can foster intergroup discrimination. However, the positive-negative asymmetry effect shows that less discrimination occurs when negative rather than positive outcomes are distributed. The normative hypothesis explains this asymmetry by the stronger inappropriateness of discrimination in negative than in positive outcome distributions. Results obtained in this minimal group paradigm study (N = 257) did not replicate the asymmetry effect: discrimination occurred in both positive and negative outcome distributions, even if norms against discrimination were stronger in negative than in positive outcome distributions. The absence of the asymmetry effect is explained by the effect of the discrimination-justifying ideology.
How do social economists conceptualize and analyze time, particularly time spent in paid employment? In this symposium regarding this quite "timely" issue, it is evident that social economics views work time as something more than its presentation in neoclassical economics. For neoclassical economists, time is a scarce resource that, when commodified as labor, serves as a factor of production and means to the end of consumption for optimizing firms, individuals, and families. It is also more than the radical political economics understanding of time as the yardstick measuring the value created by labor. Instead, time spent on the job is all at once a source of income, personal identity, and relative status within society, the workplace and household, and a constraint on individuals' ability to pursue self-directed activities and social reproduction. Work time is determined within a complex web of evolving culture and social relations, as well as traditionally conceived market, technological, and macroeconomic forces and institutions such as collective bargaining and government policy. Copyright 1998 by Taylor and Francis Group
A new measure of work time correlates well with the standard self-reported workweek method; however, a closer look reveals that reference periods -last week, versus last year - do have an impact on some workers in the distribution.
During the economic expansion of the 1990s, employers in manufacturing industries were more likely than in previous recessions to increase overtime hours among existing employees than to hire new workers.