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Metabolism of desmosterol in the prawn, Penaeus japonicus
... The apparent dietary requirement for cholesterol in crustaceans can potentially be satisfied by sterols other than cholesterol. Conversion of other sterols to cholesterol has been demonstrated for brassicasterol in Artemia salina Leach (Teshima & Kanazawa, 1973a), β-sitosterol in Portunus trituberculatus Miers (Teshima & Kanazawa, 1972), desmosterol in Palaemon serratus Pennant (Teshima, Ceccaldi, Patrois & Kanazawa, 1975) and M. japonicus (Teshima & Kanazawa, 1973b), and ergosterol in A. salina ) and P. trituberculatus (Teshima, 1971). ...
The efficacy of three sterol supplements to satisfy the dietary requirement of juvenile Litopenaeus vannamei Boone for cholesterol was evaluated in a 57-day growth trial. Sterol supplements were (1) cholesterol SF, which contained ≥91% cholesterol and ≥97% total sterol, (2) cholesterol FG, which contained ≥60% cholesterol and ≥75% total sterol, and (3) sterols M1M, which contained only 21% cholesterol and 63% total sterol. The composition of sterols other than cholesterol in M1M was similar to that in FG. Diets contained five levels of the sterol additives (0.0, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4%). Survival (64-91%) was not affected by either the level or type of sterol supplement. Mean weight gains ranged from 1.6 g for the base diet without sterol supplements to 7.0 g for the diet with 0.4% FG. For sterol levels above 0.05%, growth on both SF and FG was greater than on M1M. Growth increased with sterol level up to 0.4% for FG and M1M, and up to 0.2% for SF with no further increase for 0.4% SF. The growth data suggested that the cholesterol requirement for optimum growth was satisfied by either 0.16% cholesterol SF or 0.25% cholesterol FG, that the dietary requirement for cholesterol by L. vannamei was 0.15%, and that sterols other than cholesterol in FG and M1M can partially, but not completely, satisfy the dietary requirement for cholesterol.
... Cholesterol is obtained from the diet either directly or via the metabolic conversion of other dietary sterols such as p-sitosterol, ergosterol, stigmasterol, desmosterol, brassicasterol and 24' methylcholesterol. The brine shrimp, Artemia salina zawa) 1971d, e), the prawn, Penaeus japonicus (Teshima, 1971,a; and Kanazawa, 1973), and the crab, Portunus trituberculafus (Teshima, 1971b), have been shown to possess this metabolic ability. However, limited experimentation with purified diets suggests that dietary cholesterol is nutri tionally superior to other sterols for larval and postlarval development (Kanazawa et al.,t97].a; . ...
Changes in the sterol composition of an extruded diet revealed that juvenile Pacifastacus leniusculus requires at least 0.4% (dry weight) of dietary sterols for survival. A mixture of plant-derived sterols (phytosterols) is as effective as an equal amount of cholesterol in the partial satisfaction of the requirement.The experimental diet is composed primarily of unrefined feedstuffs and has been used in the intensive raceway culture of juvenile P. leniusculus. Growth was comparable to that achieved with a natural food diet composed primarily of vegetables and fish. The extruded diet can be formulated from readily available ingredients and should serve as a prototype for either intensive nursery or pond culture.
... Cholesterol is obtained from the diet either directly or via the metabolic conversion of other dietary sterols such as p-sitosterol, ergosterol, stigmasterol, desmosterol, brassicasterol and 24' methylcholesterol. The brine shrimp, Artemia salina zawa) 1971d, e), the prawn, Penaeus japonicus (Teshima, 1971,a; and Kanazawa, 1973), and the crab, Portunus trituberculafus (Teshima, 1971b), have been shown to possess this metabolic ability. However, limited experimentation with purified diets suggests that dietary cholesterol is nutri tionally superior to other sterols for larval and postlarval development (Kanazawa et al.,t97].a; . ...
Juvenile lobsters were fed purified or unrefined diets in which the qualitative and quantitative sterol composition varied. Dietary cholesterol was required. A level of dietary cholesterol as low as 0.12% (dry weight) in a purified diet was satisfactory for normal growth and survival. No significant increases in growth were observed when lobsters were fed unrefined diets with cholesterol levels ranging from 0.19 to 0.59% (dry weight). Total cholesterol content of the whole body tissue lipid ranged from 0.012 to 0.046% (wet weight), lowest values being characteristically associated with those animals fed purified diets virtually devoid of cholesterol. Serum sterol levels were similar except for reduced levels associated with the sterol-free diet.Total replacement of cholesterol with a mixture of phytosterols composed primarily of β-sitosterol did not yield good growth and survival. Phytosterols composed large proportions of the total body sterols of those lobsters fed diets containing phytosterols exclusively. At least a portion and possibly all of the sterol requirement of juvenile lobsters is specific for cholesterol.
... A 24 sterol reductase that reduces the double bond in the side chain, thereby converting desmosterol to cholesterol, has been found in the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta (Svoboda and Thompson, 1985). Experiments with labeled sterols have shown that the prawn P. japonicus also possesses the ability to use desmosterol as a precursor for the synthesis of cholesterol (Teshima and Kanazawa, 1973). ...
In crustaceans, cholesterol is an essential nutrient, which they must directly obtain from their food or by bioconversion from other dietary sterols. Eukaryotic phytoplankton contain a great variety of sterols that differ from cholesterol in having additional substituents or different positions and/or number of double bonds in the side chain or in the sterol nucleus. In this study, we investigated to what extent these structural features affect the growth and reproduction of Daphnia galeata in standardized growth experiments with the cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus supplemented with single sterols as food source. The results indicated that delta 5 (sitosterol, stigmasterol, desmosterol) and delta 5.7 (7-dehydrocholesterol, ergosterol) sterols meet the nutritional requirements of the daphnids, while the delta 7 sterol lathosterol supports somatic growth and reproduction to a significantly lower extent than cholesterol. Dihydrocholesterol (delta 0) and lanosterol (delta 8) did not improve the growth of D. galeata, and growth was adversely affected by the delta 4 sterol allocholesterol. Sterols seem to differ in their allocation to somatic growth and reproduction. Thus, structural differences of dietary sterols have pronounced effects on life-history traits of D. galeata.
One of the most important aspects in aquaculture is the nutrition, as for optimum development of organisms, it is essential to have all the necessary nutrients, in terms both of quantity and quality. Nutrients are important for species in culture to stay alive, be healthy and to grow. Even though nutritional principles are similar for all animals, the required level of nutrients varies between species. Animals in production systems need a diet that is properly balanced for the specific requirements of species; however it must also be considered that nutritional requirements are affected by the growth rate, growing conditions, and environmental factors. Knowledge of these allows the formulation of well-balanced and cost-effective feeds. This chapter summarizes information concerning the fate of energy and nutritional requirements of fish and shrimp.
Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) have been implicated in many biochemical processes in marine organisms, but the major emphasis has been directed to their role as UV protectant compounds. The quantitation of MAAs, mycosporine-glu-gly, mycosporine-gly, usujirene and palythene in the sponge Dysidea herbacea suggests that whereas some mycosporine amino acids may serve in this capacity, others are intrinsically involved in the reproductive process. The role of other compounds, such as homarine, gadusol and arachidonic acid, in reproduction of this sponge is also discussed.
Previous published results (Hall et al., 1995) showed that two plasma proteins involved in the immune response in the crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) are lipoproteins, suggesting an apparent functional association between lipid transport and the immune response system in crustaceans. The crayfish Astacus astacus is sensitive to a disease caused by the fungus Aphanomyces astaci, which is responsible for high mortalities in the natural environment. Since vitellogenesis is accompanied by a massive accumulation and transport of lipids to ovaries, the present study examines the effect of the crayfish plague fungus A. astaci on lipid transport during sexual development in the crayfish A. astacus. Comparison of the plasma lipid composition between animals sampled before and at the end of the ovarian development cycle revealed that mature females contained more lipids than males or immature females. The high-density lipo-protein (HDL) hemolymph fractions contained four to seven times more lipids than the very high-density lipoprotein (VHDL) fractions; triacylglycerols (TAG) were detected only in the HDL of females. There were no significant changes in hemolymph lipid levels in vitellogenic females subjected to an experimental fungal infection. However, in males exposed to the same experimental conditions, there was a significant decrease in phospholipids (PL) concomitant with an increase in diacylglycerols (DAG) and cholesterol (CH). No differences were observed in the lipid content of either the hepatopancreas (of males and females) or the ovaries due to infection, except a slight decrease in the ovarian PL level. Clotting protein was found relatively more abundant in plasma samples obtained from infected animals after subjecting them to polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under native conditions. The results of the present study suggest that long-term exposure to a sub lethal dose of the fungus may allow in future studies, a better evaluation of the effect of an infection on lipid composition in shrimp plasma and tissue samples.
The nutritional value of 11 sterols to larval prawn, Penaeus japonicus, was examined using defined, artificial diets containing carrageenan as a binder. Growth and survival of the prawn larvae fed on a diet with 1.0% cholesterol, 6.0% pollack liver oil, and 3.0% soybean lecithin as lipid sources were similar to those of the control group receiving both Chaetoceros gracilis and Artemia salina nauplii. A sterol-free diet resulted in poor survival and slight retardation of larval development. These results show that the prawn larvae require dietary sources of cholesterol or other sterols as indispensable nutrients.Cholesterol had the highest dietary value among the sterols examined in terms of promoting growth and survival. Ergosterol and 24-methylenecholesterol had a similar dietary value to that of cholesterol. 24-Methylcholesta-5,22-dienol, isofucosterol, and 7-cholestenol also effectively supported growth, whereas stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, 22-dehydrocholesterol, fucosterol, and lanosterol promoted growth weakly or not at all. Isofucosterol, β-sitosterol, and 22-dehydrocholesterol increased the rate of survival of the prawn larvae slightly, but stigmasterol, fucosterol, 7-cholestenol, and lanosterol were ineffective. The results of the present study suggest that P. japonicus larvae are probably incapable of de novo sterol synthesis but may be able to dealkylate some C28 and C29 sterols to cholesterol, which is the most effective sterol.
This paper contains a bibliography of papers published on dietary and nutritional work with shrimps and prawns. In addition, selected papers on related topics, such as the nutrition of other crustacea, the natural food of shrimps and prawns, and physiology, are included. The bibliography is intended to be an aid to existing workers in the field of shrimp and prawn nutrition, to be a launch pad for scientists entering this field for the first time, and to assist those wishing to review specific aspects of this subject.
The results of dietary trials with shirmp and prawns published in the decade ending in early 1976 are reviewed. Current knowledge and priorities for future work are assessed under the headings: palatability and physical dietary structure, lipids and sterols, protein, carbohydrate, minerals, vitamins and larval feeding. The problems of drawing quantitative comparisons between the work of different authors are discussed and suggestions for standardizing techniques for dietary trials are made.
1. 1. Certain aspects of β-sitosterol metabolism at various stages of the molting cycle in the prawn Penaeus japonicus Bate were studied. 2. 2. The radioactivity (dis/min) per mg of tissue or organ of prawn injected with [14C]β-sitosterol was very high in the gonads and hepatopancreas, high in hypodermis at stages A-B, C1-C2, C3-C4, D1-D2; and high in the gonad, hypodermis and hepatopancreas at stage D4. 3. 3. The rate of bioconversion of β-sitosterol to cholesterol in the hepatopancreas of prawn at stage A-B, three days after injection, was 30-40%. 4. 4. Thin-layer chromatographic analyses of lipids indicated the presence of free sterol, steryl ester and polar steroid in all the tissues and organs. Free sterol was predominant, accounting for 75.7-97.4% of the radioactive compounds present.
Feeding by marine invertebrates affects dietary lipids as they pass through the gut (Volkman et al, 1980s; Tanoue et al, 1982; Prahl et al, 1984a, b,1985; Neal et al, 1986; Harvey et ah, 1987,1989). Not only do animals appear to alter the dietary lipids but they also contribute their own lipids to the egested material. Faecal pellets are thus likely to have a lipid composition which has contributions from the ingested food material, the animal itself and the microbial populations residing in the animal's alimentary system.
The present study analyses some biochemical variables in haemolymph proposed as predictive indicators of the maturation capability following eyestalk ablation. Haemolymph of captive females was obtained before and 8 days after eyestalk ablation, and levels of haemocyanin, total proteins, glucose, lactate, cholesterol, triacylglycerides and vitellogenin were determined. Biochemical variables were also analysed in the hepatopancreas at the end of the experiment. Females were grouped as immature (previtellogenic stage) and mature (vitellogenic and cortical stages) based on histological analysis done 8 days after eyestalk ablation. To analyse haemolymph variables before eyestalk ablation in relation to maturation capability, immature females were classified as those with a low maturation capability and mature females as those with a high maturation capability. Females of high maturation capability had significantly higher vitellogenin levels before eyestalk ablation than females of low maturation capability. No significant differences were found for the other biochemical variables. Vitellogenin was also higher in mature than in immature females at the end of the experiment. These results indicate that vitellogenin levels in haemolymph could be used as possible predictive criteria of maturation capability, possibly because they reflect the degree of ovarian development at the time of eyestalk ablation.
1.1. The sterols present in the prawn Penaeus cheraturus are all 3-β-hydroxysterols. The various constituents were identified on the basis of the respective retention times relative to acetylated cholesterol and on the basis of the mass spectra of the corresponding acetyl derivatives. In order to record the mass spectra of the minor components the mixture of acetylated sterols was fractionated by thin-layer argentation chromatography.2.2. The composition of the sterol fraction of P. cheraturus is very similar to that of other crustaceans belonging to the same genus. The following constituents were identified: 24-norcholesta-5,22-dien-3-β-ol (0.5%), cholesta-5,22-dien-3-β-ol (3.4%), cholest-5-en-3-β-ol (94.5%), 24-methylcholesta-5,22-dien-3-β-ol (0.8%), and 24-methylenecholest-5-en-3-β-ol (0.7%). However, some doubt remains about the actual constitution of the product identified as 24-methylcholesta-5,22-dien-3-β-ol, as it was not possible to record the mass spectrum of this constituent.3.3. Finally, it was possible to determine that the sterol fraction of P. cheraturus accounts for 0.18% of the weight of the prawn's muscle tissue.
Wild-caught and pond-reared female mud crab Scylla serrata at different stages of ovarian maturation were collected from Samar and Capiz, Philippines. Crabs were categorized into five stages according to the external morphological and microscopic appearance of the most advanced oocytes. The ovaries, hepatopancreas, muscle and newly spawned eggs (NSE) were analysed for lipid class components and fatty acids. Total lipid was higher in pond-reared than in wild-caught crabs but increased with ovarian maturation in both groups. Ovarian lipid peaked at the fully mature stage, coinciding with a decline in hepatopancreatic and muscle lipids. Lipid levels declined significantly in spent females. The tissues contained elevated highly unsaturated fatty acids such as arachidonic (20:4n-6), eicosapentaenoic (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic (22:6n-3) acids, but at higher levels in late maturing and fully mature ovaries and in NSE. The type of lipid class and fatty acid components in mature ovaries as well as in NSE are generally considered to be indicative of their importance in reproductive physiology and embryonic and larval development.
Neutral lipid and phospholipid fractions and their component lipid classes in the digestive gland, abdominal muscle, epidermis and cuticle ofPenaeus esculentus Haswell were analysed and compared during the moulting cycle and during starvation. The prawns were collected from Moreton Bay, Queensland, Australia, by trawling during 1985–1987, and were fed on a standard, semi-purified diet. The digestive gland appears to be a major site of lipid synthesis, storage and mobilisation in preparation for moulting. Neutral lipid, 59 to 80% of which was triacylglycerol, was the larger fraction. It accumulated during early premoult, mainly due to the increase in triacylglycerol. The digestive gland contained only 18% of the total body lipid, or 8% of body lipid as triacylglycerol. Thus, the reserve lipid available for energy production is very small. Digestive gland triacylglycerol was markedly depleted after 4 d starvation and was almost completely absent after 8 d. In the other tissues, the major fraction was phospholipid, of which over 50% was phosphatidylcholine and up to 20% phoshatidylethanolamine; cholesterol was the major class in the neutral lipid fraction and appeared to be very stable. Most of this lipid was probably a component of cellular membranes. The lipid composition of muscle changed very little during the moulting cycle: total lipid levels in the epidermis were high in late premoult and early postmoult, when new cuticle is being secreted, but the proportions of the component lipids were closely similar. Cuticle lipid, together with other major components, was resorbed from the old cuticle prior to ecdysis, but the cuticle phospholipids appeared to be labile at all moult stages. The total of all lipids in fedP. esculentus was about 3.6% dry weight, of which about 70% was phospholipid. Earlier research had shown that when digestive gland lipid is exhausted after a short period of starvation, muscle is metabolised for energy. The present research showed that in the remaining muscle only about 13% of lipid was lost after 21 d starvation, mostly as phosphatidylcholine. This is in keeping with the need to maintain this tissue in a functional state. In contrast, epidermal lipid levels were markedly reduced after only 4 d starvation and the proportions of phospholipids changed significantly. This sensitivity of the cuticle lipids to starvation may be the cause of delayed moulting, which is characteristic of poor nutrition.
This paper describes the effect of two vertebrate steroid hormones, testosterone propionate (TSP) and testosterone acetate (TSA), on the androgenic gland and testis of the marine prawn, Parapenaeopsis hardwickii. Separate groups of prawns were given 10 μg of either TSP or TSA on alternate days for 10 or 20 days. The androgenic gland of all treated prawns showed a higher activity (hypertrophy and hyperplasia) and a significant (P < 0.05) increase in the diameter of testicular follicles, testis weight, testic index and number of mature spermatocytes per follicle compared with controls. Associated biochemical changes in the midgut gland and testis were also determined. A significant (P < 0.05) decrease in testicular protein and midgut gland glycogen and fat and an increase in testicular glycogen and fat were noticed after both 10 and 20 day treatments. The results show that vertebrate androgenic steroids can stimulate testicular development in a crustacean.
The objectives of the present study were to characterize the benthic life strategies of Aristeus antennatus (Crustacea: Penaeidea), Parapenaeus longirostris (Crustacea: Penaeidea) and Nephrops norvegicus (Crustacea: Astacidea) on the basis of biochemical composition (proximate chemical composition, total lipids, glycogen and cholesterol contents), and its response to biological and environmental factors (sex, maturation, reproduction, food availability and depth) into account. The specimens were collected at depths between 200 and 600 m off the Portuguese south coast (Algarve). The nektobenthic species (A. antennatus and P. longirostris) showed higher protein, lipid, cholesterol and glycogen contents, and lower moisture content in the muscle than the benthic–endobenthic species (N. norvegicus). Consequently, the energy content of the nektobenthic species was also higher. Principal component analyses were used to assess the relationship between the different biochemical contents and to relate them to the biotic and abiotic factors. Depth seems to have the most important role in the observed trends of the biochemical composition. The increase of the ovarian lipid levels occurs as a result of the maturation process. The highest values were obtained in mature N. norvegicus females. The differences can be due to maternal investment (lipid metabolism of the female is geared to the provision of egg lipid), since N. norvegicus produce large lecithotrophic eggs. The biochemical differences observed in the three species did not seem to be due to distinct trophic strategies, but instead were a consequence of depth, which may have a significant interspecific effect on food intake. It was also evident that reproductive cycle has profound effects upon the biochemistry of the three species. Gonadal maturation has large associated energy costs due to the increase in biosynthetic work. Moreover, the biochemical composition would be influenced by or synchronized with seasonal feeding activity or food availability.
Redclaw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus) females at different stages of vitellogenesis were sampled to investigate variations in soluble protein, lipid and water content and in the amino acid and fatty acid composition of the hepatopancreas and ovaries. During vitellogenesis, the changes in the content of soluble proteins and lipids in the hepatopancreas and ovaries were dependent on both diet and the reserves from the hepatopancreas. However, in comparison to the ovary, the fluctuation of the amino acid composition in the hepatopancreas suggested that the protein resources mobilized from this organ was compensating for those gained from feeding. Changes in the fatty acid composition of the hepatopancreas showed limited compensatory function as for the quick accumulation of lipids in the ovaries. The proportional amounts of saturated fatty acids/mono-unsaturated fatty acids/poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and the predominant fatty acids in both tissues indicated that the mobilization and utilization of fatty acids in freshwater species are different from that in marine species. Based on the redclaw's feeding habits, the commercial pellets used in this study may not be optimal, and a diet with less PUFA may suffice for its vitellogenesis and reduce the feeding costs.
1.1. The bioconversion of desmosterol to cholesterol during the molting cycle of the shrimp, Palaemon serratus, was investigated in conjunction with the variation of lipids, unsaponifiable matter and sterol concentrations.2.2. The lipid concentration was high at stages D1′ and D1″ (early premolt). The unsaponifiable matter concentration was high at stages A2, B1 and B2 (postmolt). However, the sterols were contained at an almost constant level in the tissues throughout all the molting stages examined.3.3. The ability for conversion of desmosterol to cholesterol rose markedly at stages A2-B1, decreased at stage B2 and then appeared to increase slightly up to stage D1′ and decreased notably at stages D1′-D1″ to the almost constant levels maintained throughout the late premolt (stages D1‴ and D2).
In order to study the biosynthesis, composition, and origin of sterols in the Florida land crabs, Cardisoma guanhumi (Latreille), we fed 17 male crabs either a cholesterol-free or a high cholesterol diet for 2 to 7 weeks. The origin of sterols in these crabs, whether from biosynthesis or from the diet, was determined by tahree procedures: the incorporation of isotopic mevalonate into the cholesterol when the diet was cholesterol-free; the absorption of isotopic cholesterol and sitosterol from the diet; the cholesterol and plant sterol concentrations of hepatopancreas, plasma, and muscle under conditions of cholesterol-free and high cholesterol diets. In addition, the interconversion of cholesterol and sitosterol was investigated. Dietary sterols of plant and animal sources were readily absorbed and provided the major source of sterols for this species of crab. The biosynthesis of cholesterol from mevalonate in this crab was minimal. However, cholesterol was synthesized from dietary sitosterol by dealkylation. Cholesterol and the three plant sterols (24 epsilon-methyl cholesterol, stigmasterol, and sitosterol) were found in the hepatopancreas, plasma, and muscle of the crab. Plant sterols contributed from 9 to 37% of the total sterols in the hepatopancreas, plasma, and muscle of the crabs fed a cholesterol-free diet.
The major impediment to the culture of penaeid shrimp in captivity in the United States has been an inability to obtain ovarian maturation and spawning. Lipid profiles of tissues (gonads, hepatopancreas, and tail muscle) of Penaeus setiferus caught at sea have shown that cholesterol is the dominant sterol and that polyunsaturated fatty acids known to be essential in man comprise a significant portion of the fatty acid fraction. A prioprietary marine ration contains cholesterol, but is devoid of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Ovarian maturation and spawning were obtained when the shrimp diet was supplemented with an annelid rich in lipids containing these compounds. The biochemical significance of these findings is discussed.
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