Sino-Arabic script and architectural inscriptions in Xi'an Great Mosque, China

Abstract

The Islamic art have played a significant role in the development of Muslim Chinese community in China, it was
developed through time in response to cultural needs of the minority Muslim groups in China. The Islamic
calligraphy was widely used in architecture, especially in interior and exterior decoration of mosques and
other religious buildings. The aim of this study is to interpret the Islamic art and architecture in China through
application of Sino-Arabic script on mosques and crafts produced by Muslim minority in China in relation to the
Islamic civilization and Chinese civilization, in order to suggest some guidelines for the preservation of this
forgotten Islamic heritage. To achieve the aim of this paper the Sino-Arabic inscriptions will be examined in
order to determine their characteristics and the nature of the effects to which they have been subjected. A
broad range of information was collected from various sources and through a field survey that was carried out
in Xi’an Great Mosque in China. The collected information from field work will be analyzed with particular
regard to the special character of Chinese Islamic art and architecture. This study is an attempt to address
the important topic of Islamic calligraphy and its application on architectural buildings in China as part of
issues of Islamic architectural heritage and its integration with local tradition that have been occurred in the
Muslim world and it is hoped that it is going to be a significant contribution to the subject of Islamic art and
architecture in China as well as revival and preservation of this forgotten heritage. Detailed conclusion will be
arrived at the end and specific suggestions are intended to assist in examining the topic in depth and helping in
developing guidelines for regional expansion and adaptation of Islamic art and architecture with local
environmental condition to contribute more for the future of Muslim heritage and civilization.

Full text

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SINO-ARABIC SCRIPT AND ARCHITECTURAL INSCRIPTIONS IN XI’AN
GREAT MOSQUE, CHINA
Djamel Dilmi
College of Architecture, Design and Planning
Qassim University, KSA
Email Address: djamel@qec.edu.sa /
dilmi1@yahoo.com
Abstract
The Islamic art have played a significant role in the development of Muslim Chinese community in China, it was
developed through time in response to cultural needs of the minority Muslim groups in China. The Islamic
calligraphy was widely used in architecture, especially in interior and exterior decoration of mosques and
other religious buildings. The aim of this study is to interpret the Islamic art and architecture in China through
application of Sino-Arabic script on mosques and crafts produced by Muslim minority in China in relation to the
Islamic civilization and Chinese civilization, in order to suggest some guidelines for the preservation of this
forgotten Islamic heritage. To achieve the aim of this paper the Sino-Arabic inscriptions will be examined in
order to determine their characteristics and the nature of the effects to which they have been subjected. A
broad range of information was collected from various sources and through a field survey that was carried out
in Xi’an Great Mosque in China. The collected information from field work will be analyzed with particular
regard to the special character of Chinese Islamic art and architecture. This study is an attempt to address
the important topic of Islamic calligraphy and its application on architectural buildings in China as part of
issues of Islamic architectural heritage and its integration with local tradition that have been occurred in the
Muslim world and it is hoped that it is going to be a significant contribution to the subject of Islamic art and
architecture in China as well as revival and preservation of this forgotten heritage. Detailed conclusion will be
arrived at the end and specific suggestions are intended to assist in examining the topic in depth and helping in
developing guidelines for regional expansion and adaptation of Islamic art and architecture with local
environmental condition to contribute more for the future of Muslim heritage and civilization.
Keywords: Sino-Arabic script, mosque, civilization, heritage
Abstrak
Seni Islam telah berperan penting dalam perkembangan masyarakat Tionghoa Muslim di China, itu
dikembangkan melalui waktu dalam menanggapi kebutuhan budaya kelompok-kelompok minoritas Muslim di
Cina. Kaligrafi Islam secara luas digunakan dalam arsitektur, terutama dalam dekorasi interior dan eksterior
masjid dan bangunan keagamaan lainnya. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menafsirkan seni Islam dan
arsitektur di Cina melalui aplikasi script Sino-Arab di masjid dan kerajinan yang diproduksi oleh minoritas
Muslim di Cina dalam kaitannya dengan peradaban Islam dan peradaban Cina, dalam rangka untuk menyarankan
beberapa pedoman untuk pelestarian warisan Islam yang terlupakan ini. Untuk mencapai tujuan makalah ini
prasasti Sino-Arab akan diperiksa untuk menentukan karakteristik dan sifat dari efek yang mereka telah
menjadi sasaran. Sebuah berbagai informasi yang dikumpulkan dari berbagai sumber dan melalui survei
lapangan yang dilakukan di Masjid Besar Xi'an di China. Informasi yang dikumpulkan dari kerja lapangan akan
dianalisis khususnya berkaitan dengan karakter khusus seni Islam Cina dan arsitektur. Penelitian ini merupakan
upaya untuk mengatasi topik penting kaligrafi Islam dan penerapannya pada bangunan arsitektur di Cina
sebagai bagian dari masalah warisan arsitektur Islam dan integrasi dengan tradisi lokal yang telah terjadi di
dunia Muslim dan diharapkan bahwa akan menjadi kontribusi yang signifikan terhadap subjek seni Islam dan
arsitektur di Cina serta kebangkitan dan pelestarian warisan terlupakan ini. Kesimpulan rinci akan tiba di akhir
dan saran-saran khusus dimaksudkan untuk membantu dalam memeriksa topik secara mendalam dan membantu
dalam mengembangkan pedoman untuk ekspansi regional dan adaptasi seni Islam dan arsitektur dengan kondisi
lingkungan setempat untuk memberikan kontribusi lebih untuk masa depan warisan dan peradaban Muslim.
Kata Kunci: Sino-Arabic script, masjid, peradaban, warisa
Introduction
Most of the mosques in the world include
Arabic calligraphic inscriptions were participating
in the ornamental program of the construction as
part and partial of their interior design, as well as
the façades and exterior spaces that belongs to the

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mosques where Qur’ānic verses inscribed on domes,
doors or mihrābs.
Many examples of mosques around the world
are showing different styles of Arabic calligraphy
representing various regions of Muslim world
including Arabia, Anatolia, Maghrib, Persia, Sub-
continent India, South East Asia and China. The topic
of Sino-Arabic script and its application on Islamic
architecture in China is another medium of visual art
that can be used to bring up cultural exchange and
artistic interaction as well as inter-civilisations
dialogue
1
.
Research Background
Islamic art and architecture in China is a field
surrounded by controversy for both its name and are
those who question the existence of an Islamic
Chinese culture altogether, and consequently object
to the term Islamic Chinese art and architecture.
What they are really questioning thus is the identity
of Muslim Chinese. As such, it is perceived as an
enigma.
However, the dissemination of Islam in China
articulates the integration between the Islamic and
Chinese civilization. From generation to generation,
Muslims in China were immensely seen with eminent
figures in the history of China including military
strategists, writers, poets, historians, astronomers,
navigators and philosophers. The Muslim
contribution in the field of medicine, politics, trade
and art has been high acknowledged as the
inseparable part of the diversified and
heterogeneous civilization of China.
The study of epigraphy has been commented
upon and evaluated by R. Ettinghausen and
others
2
. In these evaluations, it is put forth that the
importance of architectural inscriptions for the study
of architectural history as well as cultural and social
history. By the time the Mamluks raised the power
in 1260 AD, the use of Arabic inscriptions on
architectural buildings had become a traditional
form of visual communication. Though the use of
inscriptions on buildings is dates back to the first
monument in Islam, the Dome of the Rock (691 H),
the root of Mamluks practice lie in the Fatimid
tradition in Cairo and its interpretation by Ayyubids
after them
3
(figure 1).
Figure 1. The first use of inscriptions on religious
buildings was on the Dome of the Rock
A Brief Introduction Of Xi’an Great Mosque In
China
The Significance of Xi’an Great Mosque
The Great Mosque of Xi’an as it referred to by
Muslim Chinese official sources, is the oldest mosque
in China and hypostyle, courtyard ever built in
mosques of China. The significance of its
architecture is attributed to its artistic merit, its
place in the history of Muslim China, in its unique
style, and its role in religious life of Muslims in Xi’an
city (figure 2). In 1956, the mosque was declared as
an important national historical and cultural site by
the government of the People’s Republic of China.
The Great Mosque also is preserved under the China
Conservation Unit and United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
Figure 2. View of Xi’an Great Mosque that serves as a
centre for religious, political and social activities of Hui
Muslims

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The Architecture and Layout of the Mosque
Xi’an Great Mosque was built in elongated
rectangular site in the densely populated residential
area. It was first built on this site on Hua Jue Lane
as early as the 700s AD during the Tang dynasty, but
the current complex was laid out during the Ming
Dynasty in the late 14th century. Its buildings are a
fascinating fusion of Chinese and Arabic styles.
The planning layout of this mosque was based
on a symmetrical and linear plan composed on four
courtyards, Moon platform and prayer hall along the
east-west axis. It occupies an area between 12,000
to 13,000 square meters with the build-up area of
more 48 meters by 248 meters. The prayer hall
was located on the main axis and each
courtyard is designed as an independent space and it
is separated by screen walls and gateways.
Contrasting with any other mosques, the layout
of Xi’an Great Mosque has much influence of Chinese
temple. It has series of courtyards in a single axis
with pavilions and adapted to suit Islamic function
(figure 3). However, different from other temple
buildings in Chinese architecture, main axis of this
mosque is aligned from the east to the west, facing
Mecca.
Figure 3. The influence of Chinese architectural style on
Xi’an Great Mosque, China shown in the components of
the mosque and its roofing
SURVEY AND ANALYSIS OF SINO-ARABIC
SCRIPT IN XI’AN GREAT MOSQUE
The Application of Sino-Arabic Script in the
Decoration of the Mosque
There was a long tradition in the Muslim world
of using Arabic calligraphic inscriptions, particularly
to decorate the facades and other parts of
monumental structures. The calligraphic decoration
remains in many locations of the mosque internally
and externally such as the prayer room, mihrāb,
minbar, ablution room and courtyards.
The Masterpiece of Full Text of Qur’ān
Carved on Wooden Panels
The Qur’ānic inscriptions of full text of Qur’ān
carved on wooden panels along the interior walls
of worship hall of Xi’an Great Mosque are a major
decorative element of the mosque and are
considered as a masterpiece of Islamic art in China.
The inscription started with Bismilah, surah 1
and then surah 2 followed up to surah 114, since
there is no break in the Qur’ānic text, it implies that
the original idea was to have the Qur’ān itself
inscribed from beginning to the end. One may add
that in spite of the fact that it was not complete, it
was always regarded in popular and folk account
that the mosque contained the whole Qur’ān. But
the fact that it displayed the full text of Qur’ān is a
main difference between Xi’an Great Mosque and
other old mosques of Muslim land. The carved
inscription of the full Qur’ān on wooden panels gives
the mosque a unique character that differentiated
from other mosques of the Muslim world (figure 4).
Figure 4. The full text of Qur’an is carved on wooden
panels at Xian Great Mosque
Location and Placement of Sino-Arabic Script
Inside the Hall of Prayer
Inside the main hall of prayer of Xi’an Great
Mosque, there are many Arabic calligraphic
inscriptions from Qur’ānic verses applied on wood
carving combined with floral motifs

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The Inscription at the central bay
The inscriptions at the central bay are in form
of couplets hang on the wooden columns of the
mosque, the inscriptions are inscribed in vertical
form carved on wood and highlighted in gold
paintings with black background (figure 5).
The inscriptions read the Shahadah and
Divine attribute of God (ninety nine names of
Allah). The names are the complete 99 attributes of
Allah written in vertical form. Every column contains
thirteen small diamond forms inscribing the
attributes on it, starts with:
1) (tr: He is Allah)
2) (tr: The infinitely Good)
3) (tr: The Merciful)
4) (tr: The King)
5) (tr: The Holy)
6) (tr: The Flawless)
7) (tr: The Faithful)
8) (tr: The Guardian)
9) (tr: The Eminent) and
10) (tr: The Compeller)
The other couplets are inscribed with respected
thirteen attributes till the end of the 99 attributes of
God.
Figure 5. The calligraphic inscriptions in form of
couplets hang on the pillars of central bay in Xi’an Great
Mosque
The Inscription at the Mihrāb Wall
In most cases of mosques around the Muslim world
the mihrāb wall is the most decorated piece, it
continues to be a major and highly decorated
element inside the mosque. However, the mihrāb
wall of the Great Mosque of Xi’an is a master piece
of wood carving using calligraphy and floral motifs,
the mihrāb is in concave shape, as in all mihrābs,
and is located in the qiblah wall of the mosque. The
artistic technique was used in the decoration of the
mihrāb wall was mainly wood carving with Arabic
inscriptions as well as geometric patterns and floral
motifs that form a frame around the mihrāb and also
appear in the bottom part of it (figure 6). However,
the interior of the niche, is divided into an upper
and lower section by bands of wood carving, the
upper section has alternately coloured and plain
vertical triangles which meet below the apex of the
arch at a lotus. The lower part is carved with floral
motifs. The mihrāb wall is framed by a wooden
panel carved of floral motifs integrated with two
small inscriptions in two circular frames, which read
ر ﷲ ،
ﷲ
which means God is Amnesty, God
is forgiving.
Figure 6. An Interior view of the prayer hall and its
stylistic calligraphic decoration
Calligraphic inscriptions from Qur’ānic verses
are inscribed on the mihrāb wall in form of bands of
decoration divided into horizontal and vertical as
well as well lower and upper sections. On its
exterior, the mihrāb is framed by three panels of
decoration with alternate floral and geometric
design. At the base of the second of the three
farming panels is a rectangular space on the niche
inscribed with Shahadah: There is no God but Allah
and Muhammad is his messenger. Another square
shape above it was inscribed with one of the shortest
chapters from Qur’an (al-Ikhlas):” He has no
associate. The One, the eternally Besought of all”
[epithets]- "He begetteth not nor was begotten, and
there is none comparable unto Him” (112:3-4,).
Sūrah 112, al-Ikhlās is the other text that is
frequently applied in mosques around the world,
which state the fundamental issues of Islam. Outside
these two bands of decoration there is two bands
around the mihrāb wall being inscribed with Qur’ānic
verses ("We were engaged in (looking after) our

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flocks and herds, and our families: do thou then ask
forgiveness for us." They say with their tongues what
is not in their hearts. Say: "Who then has any power
at all (to intervene) on your behalf with Allah, if His
Will is to give you some loss or to give you some
profit? But Allah is well acquainted with all that ye
do” ( Surah 48. Victory,11).
The Inscription below the Ceiling
Sino-Arabic inscription is found on wooden
plaques located originally below the ceiling of Xi’an
Great Mosque (figure 7). This location of
inscription is one of the major elements in the
mosque. It therefore deserves special attention,
some inscriptions are not legible due to the painting
on the wood which is in fair condition and it needs
some conservation works to highlight the
inscriptions. However, the inscriptions below the
ceiling is conformed by the researcher that are the
attribute of God, but these inscription poses yet one
more serious problem. It is very difficult to read all
of them for some reasons. The first is that its
location is very high up. As a result, it is difficult to
read for the naked eye to see it. The second is that
there are some fragments of the inscription which
are now lost. The third is that the prayers hall is dim
and also the darkness of the hall disturbs one’s vision
inside the hall to a degree that makes the some
inscriptions very hard to read.
Figure 7. The inscriptions below the ceiling of the Xi’an
Great Mosque
Location and Placement of Sino-Arabic Script
Outside the Hall of Prayer
The Inscription at Courtyards
The complex consists of many facilities to serve
the worshipers with educational, social and political
activities. These facilities such as room for
association meeting, room for important official
guests, rooms for ablution and others for exhibitions
for manuscripts and artefacts. However, all these
facilities are located outside the prayers hall at the
courtyards of the mosque, each facility contains
calligraphic inscriptions, and the subject of these
writings can be derived from different sources in
Islam. (figure 8).
Figure 8. View of calligraphic inscriptions at courtyards
which were carved on stone
The Inscriptions on Stone Tablets at Memorial
Hall
The stone inscriptions in three tablets are
inscribed in three languages Arabic, Persian and
Chinese language. From the stone tablets
indicate that Xi’an Great Mosque was originally
set up in 742 AD during the Tang Dynasty. Holding
the history of 1250 years, this complex had
undergone several restoration and renovation during
different dynasties such as Song, Yuan, Ming and
Qing dynasty (figure 9).
Figure 9. The carved stone inscriptions in three tablets
are inscribed in three languages Arabic, Persian and
Chinese language

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The Inscriptions on Imperial Hall
Sino-Arabic inscriptions are found on upper part of
the doors of Imperial Hall. According to table 1, the
theme of these inscriptions can be classified into:
unity of Muslims and performance of Hajj (table 1).
Table 1. The Inscriptions on the Imperial Hall
Inscription Translation Theme
و  ﷲ ﺑ
ااو
اﺗ
And hold fast, all together,
by the rope which Allah (stretches out
for you), and be not divided among
yourselves. (Ali Imran
103).
Unity of Muslims
عا  ا ﺣ سا !
و
"
#إ
Pilgrimage there to is a
duty men owe to Allah, those who can
afford the journey.”(Ali Imran 97).
Hajj to Mecca
The Inscriptions on Garden House
Inscriptions are also found on the wall of
Garden House which is place for resting and relaxing
equipped with benches with landscape. The
calligraphic inscriptions are written in form of fruit
and flowers carved on stone with floral motifs which
is integrated with landscape the garden (figure 10).
According to table 2, the theme of these inscriptions
can be classified into: remembrance of God, role of
mosque, confession of faith teaching of Islam about
good deeds, purification and fear of God (table 2).
Figure 10. The calligraphic inscriptions are carved on
stone in form of fruit and flowers with floral motifs.
Frequent Inscriptions and Themes at Xi’an
Great Mosque
According to several studies on inscriptions
on mosques, the selected themes of inscriptions
at Xi’an Great Mosque are similar to other mosques
around the world. Researcher elaborates the data
under two separate tables. The first table contains
frequent inscriptions and themes in Great mosque
which are applied on the elements inside and outside
the spaces of the mosque with different materials
and techniques (table 3). Table 3 goes into deeper
details about the contents of the chosen verses
written in Xi’an Great Mosque. There are six
common themes that can be drawn out from
researcher’s findings. This is in fact a very important
aspect to be realized. Out of its most importance,
the mosque must reflect its philosophy as the centre
for Muslim unity in its essence and spirit. The most
favourite theme is the Shahādah (Confession of
Faith) the wide spread used in mosques around the
world due to its common consideration to remind the
worshippers in mosques on the Islamic faith which
contained in the Shahādah. Attributes of Allah are
widely used in mosque decoration. They are written
in full version (ninety nine names) or in partial
mainly in the prayer halls. The reason for their
popularity is obvious as the essence of Islam is to
accept no deity except Allah and Muslims are urged
to know their God even deeper.
Similar to other mosques around the world,
the inscriptions at Xi’an Great Mosque contained
inscription on the mihrab, which is the full
Sūrah al-Ikhlās that touches about the Oneness of
Allah. This chapter is chosen for its inspirational
oneness of Allah and the reason behind the
popularity of this chapter in China, possibly, is the
length which is short text easy to memorize and
contained the is one of the most powerful Sūrah’s in
the Qur’ān, the Sūrah completely gets rid of any

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shirk that people are committing, and moves God
away from the doctrines that they have ascribed into
him. The Surah deals essentially and exclusively with
Tawheed.
Table 2. The Inscriptions on Garden House
Inscription Translation Theme
%ا ﻣ 'ﯾ ﷲ )ﺣر
نإ
For the Mercy of Allah is (always)
near to those who do goods.
(Surah 7 The Heights,56).
Remembrance of Allah
م"%ا راد إ ا.ﯾ ﷲ
و
But Allah doth call to the Home of
Peace Surah 10. Jonah, 25)
Remembrance of Allah
%ا ﻣ 'ﯾ ﷲ ﺣر
نإ
For the Mercy of Allah is (always)
near to those who do good. (Surah al-
Aaraf ,7. The Heights, 56).
Remembrance of Allah
او.او <
او./0
But fall ye down in prostration to
Allah, and adore (Him)! (Surah al-
Najm 53. The Star, 62).
Remembrance of Allah
)ﺣا
بﺑ
The door of Mercy
Remembrance of Allah
)ﻣ"%ا
بﺑ
The door of protection
Remembrance of Allah
ﯾ.ا 20 )ﻣ"%ا 34%ﻧ ﻧإ
67!ا
Oh Allah, we ask you in the
protection of religion
Remembrance of
Allah
Classification of Calligraphic Inscriptions in
Xi’an Great Mosque
The inscriptional program of Xi’an Great
Mosque is unusual in that large number of Arabic
calligraphic inscriptions that are inscribed. The
Arabic calligraphic inscriptions that were surveyed in
this mosque can be categorized into two groups:
religious and non- religious. The religious inscriptions
can be divided into major categories:
 The use of complete surahs or selected verse
composed into one text.
 The use of prophetic saying Hadiths
 The Bismilah:” In the name of God the most
Merciful and most Beneficial”.
The Shahadah: ”There is no God but Allah”
 The various attributes of God (99 names of
Allah).
 The name of Prophet Mohammed and angels.
The non-religious inscriptions also can be divided
into major categories:
 The name of the mosque
 The name of patron who contributed to the
restoration of the mosque
The foundation and restoration inscriptions
Table 3. Frequent inscriptions and themes in Xi’an Great
Mosque
Type of
inscription
Textual
inscription Theme
Shahādah
There is no Allah
but
Allah
Confession
of
Faith
Qur’ānic
verse
Sūrah 112, Ikhlās
(Sincere)
Verses 1
-
4
Confession
of
Faith
Attributes
of Allah
99 names
Attributes
of Allah
Foundatio
n
of Mosque
Date and
restoration
work and
acknowledgemen
Foundation
of Mosque
Qur’ānic
verse
Sūrah, Verses
Confession
of
Faith,
Victory
Prophetic
tradition
Hadith
Prayers and
supplications
Names of
Prophet,
his
companion
s and
angels
Muhammad, Abu
Barker,
Ali, Gabriel.
Various
names of
Prophet
Muhammad
Prayers
upon
the
Prophet
Allah’ prayers
upon him
Various
names of
Prophet
Muhammad

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RESULT EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS
Application of Arabic Calligraphic Inscriptions
on Mosques in China
It is worthy to mention that the Arabic
calligraphic inscriptions still standing on religious
buildings of Muslims in China, the tendency was to
employ Arabic script as a logical choice by the
Muslim community whereby the main purpose was to
communicate and pass the message of Islam.
Consequently, legibility was a main requirement for
these inscriptions and Sino-Arabic script being the
most commonly used in China, answered this
requirement.
However, calligraphy as one of the
characteristics of Islamic art that has been used as a
mean of decoration in religious buildings such as
mosques, schools and houses as well in China, it had
its unique form and character that influenced by
Chinese culture, it was written on hang horizontal
inscription boards, or formed antithetical couplets,
not only to manifest the nature of religious buildings
and popularized Islamic doctrine, but also to add a
further dimension to the wide array of decorative
patterns.
The Role of Religion and Philosophy in the
Islamic Calligraphy
The outstanding quality of Sino-Arabic
calligraphic inscriptions is in their variety and
adaptability to the position in which they were
placed in the mosque. Chosen with evident care
and with regard each to its position in exterior and
interior locations of the building, and to its suitable
accommodation to the form of the structure or to its
space provided for it, the inscriptions focus on
religious expression
4
.
The inscriptions are so placed to instruct the
mosque worshipers and visitors, to enable them to
understand the Divine message
5
. These inscriptions
are permanent reminders the Faithful that must ever
be reminded to turn to Allah.
Deciphering the Concept of Islamic Chinese
Art and Architecture
Islamic Chinese art and architecture is basically
a product that produced for human use. It is a
product for Muslim Chinese community’s based on
the people’s way of life in which their values and
organization is about being surrounded by the family
members, customs, religion and a Chinese
community as a whole
6
.
On the other hand, in the Qur’anic inscriptions
Islamic calligraphic conventions are Sinicized, the
proportion and informality reflecting the
Chinese calligraphic preference for dynamic
movement. Thus, even the mosque’s most central
feature in made appealing to Chinese eyes as well as
Muslim sensibilities. In a sense, the mihrāb projects
an image characteristic of Xi’an Great Mosque as a
whole. And although the mosque does not achieve a
genuine fusion of cultures, it does recognize the
requirements of two great artistic traditions, one
Islamic and one Chinese.
Meaning of the Calligraphic Inscriptions and
its Classification
The survey lists the inscriptions and its location
inside and outside the this mosque and divides them
into Qur’ānic and non- Qur’ānic, which make it
easier for the researcher to use it as the data for
making comparison and discussing the meaning
of these inscriptions (figure 11).
As a result, the beauty of inscriptions was not,
however, limited to their visual impact, their
content was also meant to be a source of
inspiration. Naturally the architecture on which
inspiration appeared affected the choice of text,
or to put it in another way, the selection of
particular text was made on the basis of the function
of the architecture. Therefore, the meaning of
inscriptions on architecture will lead the
researcher to overlook the significance of holy text
in Muslim’s life and their faith.
Integration and Transformation of Islamic
Calligraphy in China
The Muslims in China have adopted traditional
Chinese architectural style in building
mosques, which is a temple-like compound with
buildings around a square courtyard, and a screen
wall facing the gate. The construction inside the
mosque was richly ornamented with pillars and
beams carved and painted, and also decorated with
horizontal inscribed boards and antithetical
couplets.
The first is combining the Thulth script
form Islamic calligraphic style with cursive script
from the Chinese calligraphic style within the
same calligraphic composition
7
. The second is the
tendency to draw the letter rather than to transcribe
them, which evidently leads to a decline in the
dominance of one script in its various forms. At the
interpretive level, these characteristics interact and
overlap in their significance or hierarchy. It remains
unknown if the method of drawing the shapes of the
letters instead of writing them resulted in the mixing
of two styles.

Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 3 Issue 1 June 2014
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47
Figure 11: Classification of calligraphic inscriptions at Xi’an Great Mosque
Visual Language of calligraphy in Mosques of
China
The inscriptions that found on different
parts of Xi’an Great Mosque are fulfilling
different purposes lead to the main functions of
writing calligraphy, it is clear that these functions
can be divided into categories: indicative,
commemorative, semantic, iconic, and ornament.
Though writing is extremely intertwined with
ornament in the case of architectural inscriptions,
each has its own paradigms. Writing of calligraphy
deals with a subject matter that might have
apparent or esoteric meanings.
The vocabulary basically deals with aesthetic
concepts of calligraphy and its models of all the
parts of mosque in China. It concerns such issues as
styles, forms, and pattern and colour selection. The
grammar, on the other hand, relates to various
systems of selecting and arranging these calligraphic
works into a coherent whole within the framework of
Islamic concepts of educating religious teaching in
the mosque.
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
This research focused on the Sino-Arabic script
and its application on Xi’an Great Mosque as an
model of Islamic architecture in China. The future
research
could perhaps widen the scope by including the
other Muslim ethnic groups for comparative purpose.
Another issue can also be raised by some scholars in
future by answering the obvious question why? What
is the reason behind the absence of Islamic art in
China from the international scene, particularly at
this age of global communication? There might be
some reasons, some of which were beyond the scope
of this research.
However, it will be useful to consider some
issues that are being experienced with Islamic art
and architecture in China to end up with some
recommendations as follows:
 Even though, this study has examined the
calligraphic inscription that applied on Xi’an
Great Mosque in China, established institutions
specialised on conservation works are called for
emergency intervention to preserve and restore
this heritage which considered as a memory of
Muslim Ummah.
 This research can also bridge the gape between
Muslim and non Muslim and can encourage the
dialogue of civilizations and cultural fusion
through art and architecture.
 Islamic Chinese architecture and Sino-Arabic
script are unique styles which show the beauty
of Islam and the flexibility of Muslim Chinese
personality that was integrated in its local
environment should be encouraged in future
projects and design new Islamic buildings in
China.
C
a
lli
g
r
a
p
h
i
c
Inscriptions
at
Xi’an Great
Mosque
Religious
Inscriptions
Non
-
Religious
Inscriptions

Qur’ānic Verses
 Prophetic
tradition

The Bismilah,
 The Shahadah
 The Divine attributes of
Allah
 Angels

Name of Mosque
 Name of patron
 Foundation and
restoration inscriptions

48
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Journal of Islamic Architecture Volume 3 Issue 1 June 2014
 Islamic architectural heritage in China is
forgotten treasure needs to be preserved and to
be restored as a memory of Muslim Ummah in
Far East.
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