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... For some students, alcohol use may become a way of responding to, or coping with, day-to-day stressors. Alcohol has been perceived as a stress reliever since antiquity (Sayette, 1999), and the use of alcohol for stress reduction has played a central role in theoretical models of alcohol use (e.g., Conger, 1956;Cooper, Frone, Russell, & Mudar, 1995;Sher, 1987). For example, the tension-reduction theory suggests that alcohol use will reduce stress in most situations, and that this stress relief will lead people to increase their drinking when stressful situations are encountered, which may lead to the development of alcohol problems (Conger, 1956). ...
... This approach offers a number of advantages for assessing DTC because (a) reports are provided closer in time to when the events occurred (thus reducing recall bias), (b) drinking and stressor reports are collected in the flow of people's day-to-day lives, thereby enhancing ecological validity of the stressor-drinking relationship (Bolger et al., 2003); and (c) the stress-drinking association is directly calculated from daily data, rather than relying on the accuracy of participants' memories or insights into their drinking motivations. Although daily stressor-drinking slopes capture the root contingency of the DTC construct, they may also be influenced by a number of other factors, including beliefs about and effectiveness of alcohol as a stress reliever (Mohr et al., 2013;Sayette, 1999;Sher, 1987). Ultimately, the daily process approach to estimating stressorrelated drinking in day-to-day life may be informative for theory and intervention because it allows researchers to capture the degree to which stressors and drinking actually co-occur in the flow of people's day-to-day lives, and to use this information to inform our understanding of whether or not people with high stressordrinking contingencies are at greater risk for alcohol problems. ...
... Once estimated, daily stressor-drinking slopes can be used as predictors in models directly testing a central hypothesis of motivational models of alcohol use: that increasing alcohol consumption to cope with stress increases risk for future alcohol problems (Cooper et al., 1995). People who increase drinking when stressed may be at greater risk for developing alcohol problems due to the negative reinforcement of reducing stress and negative affect Sher, 1987). Similar to DTC motivations, frequent stress-related drinking may supplant more adaptive coping and emotion regulation strategies, lead to alcohol consumption as the person's primary means of coping with stress (e.g., Armeli et al., 2014;Cooper et al., 1988), and ultimately lead to alcohol abuse episodes and increased risk for psychological dependence. ...
Research using daily designs has shown that daily stressors (i.e., conflict, school/work demands) are associated with alcohol use, and that the strength of within-person links between stressors and alcohol use differs from person to person. However, to our knowledge no research has tested whether individual differences in stressor-related drinking-characterized by within-person associations between daily stressors and drinking-predict risk for future alcohol problems, a relationship suggested by theoretical models. The current study used an Internet-based daily diary design among 744 university students to (a) examine the day-level relationship between stressors and alcohol use during the first 3 years of college, and (b) test whether individual differences in the stressor-drinking relationship, captured by person-specific slopes generated from multilevel models, predicted alcohol problems as measured by the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) in the fourth year of college. Results showed that students were more likely to drink on days with many versus fewer stressors, and on drinking days, students consumed more drinks with each additional stressor they experienced. Next, using individual multilevel modeling slopes as predictors, we found that students whose odds of drinking alcohol increased more sharply on high- versus low-stressor days (steeper slopes) had more severe AUDIT alcohol problems in the fourth year than students whose drinking odds increased less sharply (flatter slopes). Findings highlight the role of daily stressors in college student drinking and suggest stressor-related drinking as a risk factor for future alcohol problems. (PsycINFO Database Record
... Measures under the rubric of negative affectivity include generalized negative affect, perceived lack of control, and negative self-image (Clark, Watson, & Mineka, 1994;Pandina, Johnson, & Labouvie, 1992;Watson, 2000). Such attributes may operate as risk-enhancing moderators, increasing the adverse effect of a given level of substance use, because they could increase reliance on substances as a coping mechanism, increase the likelihood of careless or impulsive actions (e.g., causing accidents involving the self or others), or bring on negative consequences in social situations through provoking conflict with other persons (Cooper et al., 1995;Sher, 1987;Wills & Cleary, 1995). Hence, the prediction is that variables related to poor self-control and negative affectivity will increase the relationship between substance use level and problems. ...
... The measures were relatively brief ones; further research could obtain more intensive assessment of predictor variables (e.g., parental substance use history) and criterion measures of abuse or dependence problems using diagnostic interviews. Physiological reactions to tobacco or alcohol were not directly assessed in the present research; other studies could obtain measures using challenge or reactivity paradigms (e.g., Nagoshi, Wilson, & Rodriguez, 1991;Sher, 1987). The analyses of moderation were based on cross-sectional data; further research involving longitudinal analyses of substance use problems in relatively large samples would be desirable. ...
The authors tested predictions, derived from a self-regulation model, about variables moderating the relationship between level of substance use (tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana) and problems associated with use. Data were from two independent studies of adolescents, with mean ages of 15.4 and 15.5 years (Ns = 1,699 and 1,225). Factor analysis indicated correlated dimensions of control problems and conduct problems. Protective moderation was found for variables indexing good self-control; risk-enhancing moderation was found for variables indexing poor self-control. These effects were generally independent of deviance-prone attitudes and externalizing symptomatology. Multiple-group structural modeling indicated moderation occurred for paths from life stress and coping motives and for paths from level to control and conduct problems. Moderation effects were also found for parental variables, peer variables, and academic competence.
... To date, research has been supportive of a positive relationship between overall life stress and psychological distress (Ensminger & Celentano, 1988;Hamilton, Broman, Hoffman, & Renner, 1990;Kessler, Turner, & House, 1987Krause, 1987;Menaghan, 1989;Pearlin, Menaghan, Lieberman, & Mullan, 1981;Ross & Huber, 1985;Voydanoff & Donnelly, 1988; for a review, see Cohen & Wills, 1985). However, the relationship between overall life stress and alcohol involvement has been found to be inconsistent (for reviews, see O'Doherty & Davies, 1987;Sher, 1987;Wills, 1990). One explanation for this inconsistency is that social support may act as a moderator in the life stress-alcohol involvement relationship (Cooper, Russell, Skinner, Frone, & Mudar, 1992;Gorman & Brown, 1992;Lindenberg, Gendrop, & Reiskin, 1993;Sher, 1987). ...
... However, the relationship between overall life stress and alcohol involvement has been found to be inconsistent (for reviews, see O'Doherty & Davies, 1987;Sher, 1987;Wills, 1990). One explanation for this inconsistency is that social support may act as a moderator in the life stress-alcohol involvement relationship (Cooper, Russell, Skinner, Frone, & Mudar, 1992;Gorman & Brown, 1992;Lindenberg, Gendrop, & Reiskin, 1993;Sher, 1987). The purposes of this longitudinal study were to (a) test the life stress-alcohol involvement relationship using a specific life stress (financial stress) and (b) assess the extent to which specific facets of perceived social support moderate this relationship. ...
This study examined whether specific facets of social support (tangible assistance, appraisal, and belonging) moderate the relationship between a specific type of stress (financial stress) and alcohol involvement (drinking to cope, heavy drinking, and alcohol problems). Data were derived from a community sample stratified by education and race. Respondents (N = 1, 040) were interviewed in 1986 and 1989 and had drunk alcohol during the year preceding both interviews. Results supported the buffering influence of tangible support on the financial stress–alcohol involvement relationship. In contrast, neither appraisal nor belonging support consistently revealed a buffering pattern. These findings indicate the importance of taking into account specific components of social support when examining the relationship between specific sources of life stress and alcohol involvement.
... Hull & Bond, 1986;Marlatt, 1976) and distinctive individual reactivities to alcohol (cf. Hull et al., 1986;Levenson, Oyama, & Meek, in press;Sher, 1987) again play some role in this variability, but alcohol can have powerful effects on these states even when expectancies are held constant and even among the vast majority of drinkers who have no special reactivity to the drug. ...
... Clearly, extreme, near-ataxic doses of alcohol can prevent worry without distraction by preventing thought of any sort. Also, alcohol has been shown to reduce anxiety (most consistently on measures of cardiovascular activity) among some subtypes of subjectsw for example, the children of alcoholics (Levenson et al., in press;Sher, 1987) and those individuals who are high in self-consciousness (e.g. Hull et al., 1986)wapparently without accompanying distraction (although variation in experimental procedures makes the role of distraction in these effects difficult to assess; see Wilson, 1988, for a more thorough discussion of these effects). ...
This article explains how alcohol makes social responses more extreme, enhances important self-evaluations, and relieves anxiety and depression, effects that underlie both the social destructiveness of alcohol and the reinforcing effects that make it an addictive substance. The theories are based on alcohol’s impairment of perception and thought—the myopia it causes—rather than on the ability of alcohol’s pharmacology to directly cause specific reactions or on expectations associated with alcohol’s use. Three conclusions are offered (a) Alcohol makes social behaviors more extreme by blocking a form of response conflict. (b) The same process can inflate self-evaluations. (c) Alcohol myopia, in combination with distracting activity, can reliably reduce anxiety and depression in all drinkers by making it difficult to allocate attention to the thoughts that provoke these states. These theories are discussed in terms of their significance for the prevention and treatment of alcohol abuse.
... For millennia, humans have used drugs such as alcohol to avoid or alleviate the detrimental effects of psychological stressors (Hanson, 2013;Sher, 1987). Frequent, excessive use of alcohol when "drinking to cope" with some stressors may eventually lead to exaggerated stressor reactivity, which may cause, maintain, or exacerbate alcohol use disorder and other psychopathology Koob & Volkow, 2010). ...
... In remains unclear, however, how large of a dampening effect on stress reactivity would be sufficient to increase risk for addiction. Furthermore, three decades of so-called alcohol Stress Response Dampening (SRD) laboratory research has made clear that alcohol's effects on stress reactivity are often weakly observed, if observed at all (Sayette, 2017;Sher, 1987). The historical inconsistently of discernable alcohol SRD effects has reinforced the need to identify the stressor characteristics that most strongly and reliability predict it. ...
Alcohol’s effects on reactivity to stressors depend on the nature of the stressor and the reactivity being assessed. Research that identifies characteristics of stressors that modulate reactivity and clarifies the neurobehavioral, cognitive, and affective components of this reactivity may help prevent, reduce, or treat the negative impacts of acute and chronic alcohol use and have implications for other psychopathology involving maladaptive reactivity to stressors. We used a novel, multimeasure, cued, electric-shock-stressor paradigm in a greater-university community sample of adult recreational drinkers to test the effects of alcohol ( n = 64), compared with no alcohol ( n = 64), on reactivity to stressors that vary in both their perceived certainty and controllability. Preregistered analyses suggested alcohol significantly dampened subjective anxiety (self-report) and defensive reactivity (startle potentiation) more during uncertain stressors than during certain stressors regardless of controllability, which suggests that stressor uncertainty—but not uncontrollability—may be sufficient to enhance alcohol’s dampening of stress reactivity and thus negative reinforcement potential.
... Furthermore, individuals with Alexithymia have difficulty in distinguishing and appreciating the emotions of others, which is thought to lead to a non-empathic and ineffective emotional responding (36)(37)(38)(39)(40)(41) . Physiological Responses to Induced Stress in Individuals Alcohol consumption has also been shown to impact autonomic responses (42)(43)(44). Heart Rate Variability (HRV) and specific respiratory rates are considered objective and sensitive measures of physiological functioning of heart rhythm in response to internal and external demands (45). While Heart Rate (HR) focuses on the average beats per minute, HRV measures the specific changes in time (variability) between successive heart beats. ...
... To date, only a few studies have comprehensively investigated in AUD individuals with dual diagnosis and Alexi-thymia, a subclinical condition indicating subtle changes in the autonomic nervous system dysfunctions (43,60). Thus, the aim and also the novelty of the present investigation were to disclose in AUD individuals the emotional and cognitive stress responses to selected physiological parameters (HRV, EDA, RF and ST) assessed by ProComp5 Infiniti™ encoder in AUD patients suffering alexithymia with or without dual diagnosis. ...
Alcohol use disorders (AUD) are among the most common and undertreated mental disorders in developed countries. The co-occurrence of psychiatric comorbidity and AUD has already been well documented. Moreover, alexithymia was found associated with heavy drinking and alcohol dependence. A large part of AUD individuals, between 45 and 67%, have been identified as alexithymics. Both psychiatric comorbidity and alexithymia can negatively impact the course of recovery from alcohol. Alcohol consumption has also been shown to significantly influence autonomic responses. Chronic use of alcohol may induce significant changes in heart rate variability, respiratory frequency, electrodermal activity and skin temperature. To date, only a few studies have comprehensively investigated the comorbidity of alexithymia in AUD individuals with dual diagnosis. Thus, the aim and also the novelty of the present investigation were to disclose in individuals with AUD the emotional and cognitive stress responses to selected physiological parameters measured by ProComp5 Infiniti™ encoder in AUD patients suffering alexithymia with or without concomitant dual diagnosis. Quite interestingly, in AUD subjects with concomitant dual diagnosis we found that the alexithymia elevated skin temperature, heart rate variability and decreased respiratory frequency. Alexithymia, if associated with the dual diagnosis condition in AUD individuals, can be considered as a further vulnerability factor to stressing factors, impacting psychosomatic processing and inducing alterations in physiological parameters. In this paper, we discuss the implications of these findings in the early treatment of alexithymic AUD individuals.
... It suggests that alcohol increases a normatively positive behavior that is likely to endear the actor in the eyes of social interaction partners and observers. Consistent with this perspective, research has shown that alcohol consumption can increase self-disclosure (Caudill, Wilson, & Abrams, 1987;Monahan & Lannutti, 2000), can decrease social anxiety (Hull, 1981;Sayette, 2017;Sher, 1987;Steele & Josephs, 1990), and consistently increases extraversion, including a gregariousness facet subscale (Winograd, Littlefield, Martinez, & Sher, 2012;Winograd, Steinley, & Sher, 2014;Winograd, Steinley, Lane, & Sher, 2017). In addition, research has found that alcohol can increase happiness and sociability (Abe, 1968;Babor, Berglas, Mendelson, Ellingboe, & Miller, 1983;Kirchner, Sayette, Cohn, Moreland, & Levine, 2006;Martin, Earleywine, Musty, Perrine, & Swift, 1993;Sayette et al., 2012), helping behaviors (Steele, Critchlow, & Liu, 1985), generosity (Lynn, 1988), and social bonding (Kirchner et al., 2006), and decrease negative emotional responses to social stressors (Sayette, Smith, Breiner, & Wilson, 1992). ...
... Furthermore, there may be some individuals for whom consuming alcohol would have more negative (or positive) consequences for both the accuracy and positivity of personality impressions. Finally, these positive short-term social consequences of alcohol consumption may reinforce drinking behavior and could therefore contribute to the development of alcohol use disorders (Sayette, 2017;Sher, 1987). ...
People are motivated to be perceived both positively and accurately and, therefore, approach social settings and adopt means that allow them to reach these goals. We investigated whether alcohol consumption helps or hinders the positivity and accuracy of social impressions using a thin-slicing paradigm to better understand the effects of alcohol in social settings and the influence of alcohol on self-expression. These possibilities were tested in a sample of 720 participants randomly assigned to consume an alcohol, placebo, or control beverage while engaged in conversation in three-person groups. We found support for the hypothesis that alcohol (compared with placebo or control) increased the positivity of observers’ personality expression, but did not find support for the hypothesis that alcohol increased the accuracy of personality expression. These findings contribute to our understanding of the social consequences of alcohol consumption, shedding new light on the interpersonal benefits that alcohol can foster.
... During the decade of the 1980s, much of the research on drinking and negative affect revolved around the stress-response damp-ening (SRD) model (see Sher, 1987, for a review). Proponents of this approach asserted that alcohol intoxication reduces emotional response to aversive stimuli largely by suppressing autonomic reactivity to stress and that this effect could contribute to the reinforcing value of drinking-particularly when it occurs in potentially stressful contexts. ...
Effects of alcohol and cognitive demands on reactions to threat were examined using startle response potentiation to index negative emotion. Men and women received nonalcoholic or alcoholic beverages prior to a series of trial blocks, signaled by light cues indicating that shocks might be delivered (“threat” blocks) or that none would occur (“safe” blocks). Within half of the blocks, participants intermittently viewed pleasant photographic slides. Alcohol attenuated overall startle reactivity, but robust fear potentiation (larger startle magnitudes and shorter latencies during threat versus safe blocks) did not differ by beverage condition. Decomposition of the Beverage × Threat × Slide interaction revealed significant fear potentiation in all conditions, except the one in which alcohol was combined with slides. Thus, dampening of stress response by alcohol may depend on diminished ability to process competing cognitive demands.
... Alcohol's reinforcing properties are not invariant and appear to depend on biobehavioral variables such as stress (Sher, 1987;Vogel, De Turck, & Miller, 1986). It is widely believed that stress increases alcohol use, but the mechanism underlying this effect remains unclear. ...
To determine the influence of stress on intoxication and blood alcohol concentration (BAC) 60 healthy male and female volunteers were exposed to a could pressor test, distressing film, or control condition after consuming a moderate dose of alcohol. Two measures of perceived intoxication suggested a sobering effect of acute stressors. In addition, Ss viewing the distressing film showed longer latency to peak BAC than Ss in the control condition. As BAC began to fall, the cold pressor test initially increased rate of alcohol elimination. These stress-induced changes in intoxication and the BAC curve support a biobehavioral model in which stress may increase alcohol use partly because it attenuates alcohol's psychopharmacological impact.
... A pharmacological basis for these effects must, of course, exist, or alcohol expectancies would never have developed among humans. The precise nature of these reinforcing pharmacological effects remains elusive, however (see Blane & Leonard, 1987; see especially Cappell & Greely, 1987;Sher, 1987). ...
An accumulating literature has shown the influence of childhood experiences associated with alcohol use on later drinking practices. Recent studies have suggested that alcohol-related expectancy may serve as an intervening variable to connect these early experiences with the later, proximal decision to drink when opportunities for actual alcohol consumption arise. Those studies, however, have collected expectancy and drinking data concurrently, whereas the present study for the first time reports on the power of expectancies measured in early adolescents (seventh and eighth grades) to predict self-reported drinking onset and drinking behavior measured a full year later. Results show that five of seven expectancy scores readily discriminated between nonproblem drinkers and those subsequently beginning problem drinking and accounted for a large portion of the variance in a continuous quantity/frequency index and a problem drinking index. The strength of these time-lagged relations strengthens the case for inferring that expectancies have causal power on drinking behavior and suggests prevention strategies.
... The TRT has generated a prolific literature and remains viable even though its empirical status is somewhat ambiguous and its generality has been limited (Cappell & Greeley, 1987;Sher, 1987). Equally important, however, the conceptual strategy manifested in the TRT for delineating the conditions that determine the reinforcing value of alcohol has come to dominate psychological theory and research on alcohol abuse. ...
Behavioral theories of choice are applied to an analysis of the conditions under which alcohol consumption emerges as a highly preferred activity from among a set of available activities. This approach highlights two classes of variables as important determinants of alcohol preference: (a) direct constraints on access to alcohol and (b) availability of other reinforcers and constraints on access to them. A selective review of studies of human and animal alcohol and drug self-administration indicates that preference for alcohol and drug consumption (a) varies inversely with direct constraints on consumption and (b) varies inversely with the availability of alternative reinforcers and directly with constraints on access to them. Environmental conditions under which alcohol consumption emerges as a highly preferred activity may thus involve minimal constraints on access to alcohol and sparse alternative reinforcers and/or heightened constraints on access to them. The latter variables may be more important in determining alcohol consumption in natural environments. A research application to alcoholic relapse is described, and general implications for clinical research in natural environments are explored. Limitations of the approach and its complementary relation to other approaches to studying alcohol abuse are discussed.
... According to tension reduction theory, tension-producing circumstances (i. e., stressors) lead to increased drinking (Kawaida et al., 2018;Young, Oei, & Knight 1990;Sher, 1987). Alcohol is perceived to reduce tension and therefore, it could be argued that increased tension (strains or stress) may cause drinking (Kawaida et al., 2018;Critchlow, 1986;Leigh, 1989). ...
... Stress has long been associated with drinking alcohol, and several theoretical frameworks have been proposed and tested to explain the link. The most common negative reinforcement models propose that drinking alcohol is a means to manage stress by dampening the stress response (Carver et al., 1989;Marlatt & George, 1984;Sher, 1987), or that drinking alcohol is a means of medicating against the emotional distress and providing stress relief (Blume et al., 2000;Khantzian, 1987). However, the specific processes by which stress may promote alcohol intake, especially in nonclinical samples, has not been clearly identified and tested. ...
Stress has been linked to increased alcohol use but how stress may increase drinking in social drinkers is not well understood. Negative reinforcement processes may explain this link but the role of specific motivational processes, such as craving, and how these motivational processes are altered by drinking have not been studied. The current study assessed social drinkers (n = 81) for recent quantity and frequency of alcohol intake (quantity and frequency index, QFI) upon study enrollment, who then completed 30 days of electronic daily records of stress, craving, and alcohol intake. Multilevel structural equation models tested if person-averaged (between-person) and daily (within-person) craving mediated the link between stress and later drinking each evening and if recent quantity-frequency of drinking (QFI) moderated these associations. At the between-person level, both greater subjective stress, Est = .38, 95% confidence interval (CI) [.19, .57], and higher QFI predicted higher levels of craving, Est = .34, 95% CI [.20, .49]. Higher craving predicted more frequent drinking throughout the study, Est = .34, 95% CI [.01, .29]. At the within-person level, higher subjective stress predicted higher within-person craving; and the link between craving and later drinking was significant among those who had a higher QFI, Est = .84, 95% CI [.58, 1.12]. The subjective stress-drinking relationship was mediated by a greater alcohol craving response in social drinkers, and higher the QFI, greater the alcohol craving response. These results indicate that both higher levels of stress and greater recent alcohol intake patterns sensitize the craving response that in turn facilitates later alcohol intake. The findings suggest that higher recent alcohol use predict greater stress-potentiated initiation of drinking via higher craving responses. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... For example, empirical studies regarding the affect regulation model of alcohol use (see Sher & Grekin, 2007, for a review) have demonstrated the effects of positive/ negative affect on alcohol and vice-versa. Similarly, theoretical models such as the stressresponse dampening model (Sher, 1987), tension-reduction hypothesis (Greely & Oei, 1999), and self-medication (Khantzian, 2003) suggest that alcohol plays a role in dampening negative affect and obtaining the desired affective payoff. These models have consistently suggested that alcohol has a regulating effect by attenuating negative affect, enhancing positive affect, and stabilizing daily stress (Dvorak et al., 2018;Treloar et al., 2015). ...
The present research explored whether the well‐established U‐shaped relationship between age and happiness varied with personality. Individuals ranging from 15 to 75 years of age (N = 10,456, 84.9% female) completed online surveys of subjective well‐being (i.e. life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect) and the Big Five personality traits (International Personality Item Pool [IPIP]). The results of hierarchical multiple regression using the PROCESS macro not only supported the prediction of a U‐shaped relationship between age and well‐being but also revealed that the quadratic relationship is moderated by agreeableness and neuroticism. Specifically, well‐being did not bounce back in later adulthood on the well‐being curve across different age groups with low agreeableness and high neuroticism. Moreover, positive affect did not increase and even decreased in later adulthood among those with low agreeableness. This study discusses the potential mechanisms.
... Our results highlight potential distinctions in the difference between tension-reduction hypotheses, in which subjective stress prompts greater use, and the stress-dampening effects of alcohol, or the notion that alcohol reduces acute levels of subjective stress and/or reactivity to subsequent stress ( Sher, 1987 ;Sher et al., 2007 ). Stress-dampening effects may be more prominent during earlier stages of alcohol use, while alcohol's tension-reduction effects might follow more sustained and clinically-significant alcohol use (e.g., alcohol use disorder). ...
Background: Understanding how stress dynamically associates with alcohol use could provide a finer-grain resolution of drinking behavior, facilitating development of more effective and personalized interventions. The primary aim of this systematic review was to examine research using Intensive Longitudinal Designs (ILDs) to determine if greater naturalistic reports of subjective stress (e.g., those assessed moment-to-moment, day-to-day) in alcohol-drinkers associated with a) greater frequency of subsequent drinking, b) greater quantity of subsequent drinking, and c) whether between-/within-person variables moderate or mediate any relationships between stress and alcohol use. Methods: Using PRISMA guidelines, we searched EMBASE, PubMed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases in December 2020, ultimately identifying 18 eligible articles, representing 14 distinct studies, from a potential pool of 2,065 studies. Results: Results suggested subjective stress equivocally predicted subsequent alcohol use; in contrast, alcohol use consistently demonstrated an inverse relationship with subsequent subjective stress. These findings remained across ILD sampling strategy and most study characteristics, except for sample type (treatment-seeking vs. community/collegiate). Conclusions: Results appear to emphasize the stress-dampening effects of alcohol on subsequent stress levels and reactivity. Classic tension-reduction models may instead be most applicable to heavier-drinking samples and appear nuanced in lighter-drinking populations, and may depend on specific moderators/mediators (e.g., race/ethnicity, sex, relative coping-strategy use). Notably, a preponderance of studies utilized once-daily, concurrent assessments of subjective stress and alcohol use. Future studies may find greater consistency by implementing ILDs that integrate multiple within-day signal-based assessments, theoretically-relevant event-contingent prompts (e.g., stressor-occurrence, consumption initiation/cessation), and ecological context (e.g., weekday, alcohol availability).
... Overall, there is some support for both stress-induced drinking effects and stress-response dampening effects, but both are highly conditional on both dispositional and contextual variables (Sher & Grekin, 2007). For example, laboratory studies suggest that stressful situations are more likely to result in increased consumption when the risk of punishment for intoxication is low and when more effective methods for coping with the stressor are not available (Sher, 1987). Field, diary, and EMA studies lead to similar conclusions (Sher & Grekin, 2007). ...
Modern nosologies (e.g., ICD-11, DSM-5) for alcohol use disorder (AUD) and dependence prioritize reliability and clinical presentation over etiology, resulting in a diagnosis that is not always strongly grounded in basic theory and research. Within these nosologies, DSM-5 AUD is treated as a discrete, largely categorical, but graded, phenomenon, which results in additional challenges (e.g., significant phenotypic heterogeneity). Efforts to increase the compatibility between AUD diagnosis and modern conceptualizations of alcohol dependence, which describe it as dimensional and partially overlapping with other psychopathology (e.g., other substance use disorders) will inspire a stronger scientific framework and strengthen AUD's validity. We conducted a systematic review of 144 reviews to integrate addiction constructs and theories into a comprehensive framework with the aim of identifying fundamental mechanisms implicated in AUD. The product of this effort was the Etiologic, Theory-Based, Ontogenetic Hierarchical Framework (ETOH Framework) of AUD mechanisms, which outlines superdomains of cognitive control, reward, as well as negative valence and emotionality, each of which subsume narrower, hierarchically-organized components. We also outline opponent processes and self-awareness as key moderators of AUD mechanisms. In contrast with other frameworks, we recommend an increased conceptual role for negative valence and compulsion in AUD. The ETOH framework serves as a critical step towards conceptualizations of AUD as dimensional and heterogeneous. It has the potential to improve AUD assessment and aid in the development of evidence-based diagnostic measures that focus on key mechanisms in AUD, consequently facilitating treatment matching.
... For example, empirical studies regarding the affect regulation model of alcohol use (see Sher & Grekin, 2007, for a review) have demonstrated the effects of positive/ negative affect on alcohol and vice-versa. Similarly, theoretical models such as the stressresponse dampening model (Sher, 1987), tension-reduction hypothesis (Greely & Oei, 1999), and self-medication (Khantzian, 2003) suggest that alcohol plays a role in dampening negative affect and obtaining the desired affective payoff. These models have consistently suggested that alcohol has a regulating effect by attenuating negative affect, enhancing positive affect, and stabilizing daily stress (Dvorak et al., 2018;Treloar et al., 2015). ...
Drinking alcohol and exercising are two of the most popular ways of dealing with stress. Despite the fact that they often co‐occur, few studies have examined the role of the two activities together in everyday well‐being. The current research aimed to investigate the dynamics between these two daily activities and various indices of well‐being in a natural environment by using a daily diary method and ecological momentary assessment. We asked 478 adults to record their alcohol intake, exercising activity, and momentary well‐being, three times a day for 2 weeks. Significant detrimental effects of drinking alcohol and beneficial effects of exercising on well‐being were observed on the next day, whereas no significant effect of well‐being was found on the likelihood of drinking and exercising on the second day. Furthermore, sleep quality was identified as one of the factors influencing the changes of well‐being induced by the drinking and exercising engaged in the previous day. The present research allows us to deepen our understanding of the lagged relationship between the daily activities of drinking alcohol/exercising and well‐being and demonstrates the underlying mechanism for the observed effects. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... Individual differences in responsiveness to alcohol's stressreducing properties have been posited as a risk factor for alcohol abuse. Subjects in whom alcohol greatly diminishes certain physiological responses associated with stress may be more prone to alcohol abuse than those who exhibit weaker responses (Sher 1987). ...
Young adults have a higher prevalence of alcohol consumption and binge drinking than any other age group. They also drink more heavily and experience more negative consequences of drinking. Rates of alcohol abuse and dependence are disproportionately higher among those between the ages of 18 and 29 compared with other age groups. Young adults are also overrepresented among alcohol-related traffic fatalities. Over time, distinct patterns of change in frequent binge drinking occur, and most heavy-drinking young adults appear to "mature out" of abusive drinking patterns as the responsibilities of later adulthood supervene. Drinking patterns are affected by demographic, psychological, behavioral, and social factors as well as minimum drinking age legislation and the cost of alcohol. Motivational programs designed to reduce risks and consequences associated with young-adult drinking may help in reducing alcohol consumption and its consequences.
... 33 Early research on stress and alcohol used these technological advancements to test the operant tension-reduction hypothesis, albeit with mixed results. 34 ...
A substantial number of people who have problems with alcohol also experience strong anxiety and mood problems. This article provides an overview of the evolving perspectives of this association in the context of three related disciplines-psychiatry, psychology, and neuroscience. Psychiatric and epidemiological studies show that having either an anxiety- or alcohol-related diagnosis elevates the prospective risk for developing the other disorder. From the psychological perspective, behavioral research demonstrates that drinking to cope with negative affect is a potent marker for current and future problems with alcohol. Neuroscientific research implicates overlapping neurobiological systems and psychological processes in promoting the rise of negative affect and alcohol misuse. The psychiatric perspective that alcohol misuse and co-occurring anxiety represent neurobiologically distinct diagnostic conditions has dominated the field for many decades. However, recent research provides increasing support for the neuroscientific perspective that these conditions share underlying, mutually exacerbating, neurobiological processes.
... Much of the previous work focused on the relationship between alcohol problems and internalizing psychopathology conceptualized broadly as a single multifactorial dimension. Previous studies have suggested that increased alcohol problems in high internalizing individuals is related to motivation to use alcohol as a means of tension or stress reduction (Conger, 1956;Sher, 1987) and that internalizing symptoms are a risk factor for development of alcohol problems. ...
Objective:
The co-occurrence of alcohol use disorder (AUD) and internalizing psychopathology, such as anxiety and depression, has been well documented. However, most studies of the association between alcohol problems and anxiety, and do not simultaneously consider depression or borderline personality, which covary strongly with both anxiety symptoms and AUDs. The current study examined sex differences in the association between alcohol problems and anxiety, while accounting for depressive and borderline personality (BPD) symptoms.
Method:
A sample 810 (364 females) young adults aged 18-30 recruited from the community, who varied widely in lifetime alcohol problems, were administered diagnostic interviews and measures of a trait anxiety, depression, and BPD symptoms.
Results:
Analyses revealed that trait anxiety, depression, and borderline symptoms were all significantly associated with higher lifetime alcohol problems in both males and females. However, the association between trait anxiety and alcohol problems was significantly stronger for males compared with females, even when controlling for depression and BPD symptoms. There were no significant sex differences in the association between alcohol problems and symptoms of either depression or BPD symptoms.
Conclusion:
This suggests specific sex differences in the mechanisms by which trait anxiety is associated with alcohol problems.
... Racial discrimination was also significantly associated with the alcohol consumption (r = 0.12) and at-risk drinking (r = 0.14) composite; however, the low number of effect sizes included in the latter (k = 4) could also have potentially influenced the validity of such findings. The stress-dampening effects of consuming alcohol may negatively reinforce coping drinking behaviors, resulting in accelerated drinking rates and related problems over time [58,59]. ...
Background and Aims
Findings of the association between racial discrimination and alcohol use and related consequences are inconsistent and the role of potential moderators in the association is largely unknown. This meta‐analysis aimed to synthesize the discrimination‐alcohol literature among Black Americans, estimate magnitude of associations, and explore differences as a function of sample characteristics.
Methods
Empirical studies reporting the association of racial discrimination with alcohol‐related behaviors in an all‐Black sample were identified via systematic literature search. A random‐effects meta‐analysis was conducted using 33 effect sizes extracted from 27 studies, all of which used U.S. samples (n = 26,894).
Results
Significant positive associations were found for racial discrimination with alcohol consumption (k = 9, CI = [0.08, 0.17], I² = 49%, r = .12), heavy/binge drinking (k = 12, CI = [0.02, 0.10], I² = 27%, r = .06), at‐risk drinking (k = 4, CI = [0.06, 0.23], I² = 0%, r = .14), and negative drinking consequences (k = 5, CI = [0.09, 0.25], I² = 94%, r = .25), but not with alcohol use disorder (k = 3, CI = [‐0.01, 0.20], I² = 90%, r = .10). Only alcohol consumption and negative drinking consequences showed significant between‐study heterogeneity and had a sufficient quantity of studies for moderation analysis (k ≥ 4). The positive association of racial discrimination with negative drinking consequences was stronger among younger samples; the association with alcohol consumption did not differ by age or proportion of men.
Conclusions
Experiences of racial discrimination are associated with diverse alcohol‐related behaviors among Black Americans, with a stronger association with problematic alcohol use particularly among younger individuals.
... These data also highlight that the stimulus characteristics and neurobiological systems that drive affective response are at least partially separable from the characteristics that recruit increased attention (Berridge et al., 2009). Decades of research broadly indicate that the affective 'stress response dampening (SRD)' properties of alcohol reinforce alcohol use among both recreational drinkers and alcoholics alike (Sher, 1987;Sayette, 2017). However, it remains important to clarify when, how and for whom alcohol SRD occurs to answer fundamental questions about this popular drug's reinforcing effects and to mitigate the negative consequences associated with its excessive use (Bradford et al., 2013). ...
Developing a better understanding of how and under what circumstances alcohol affects the emotions, cognitions and neural functions that precede and contribute to dangerous behaviors during intoxication may help to reduce their occurrence. Alcohol intoxication has recently been shown to reduce defensive reactivity and anxiety more during uncertain versus certain threat. However, alcohol’s effects on emotionally motivated attention to these threats is unknown. Alcohol may disrupt both affective response to and attentional processing of uncertain threats making intoxicated individuals less able to avoid dangerous and costly behaviors. To test this possibility, we examined the effects of a broad range of blood alcohol concentrations on 96 participants’ sub-cortically mediated defensive reactivity (startle potentiation), retrospective subjective anxiety (self-report), and cortically assessed emotionally motivated attention (probe P3 event related potential) while they experienced visually cued uncertain and certain location electric shock threat. As predicted, alcohol decreased defensive reactivity and subjective anxiety more during uncertain versus certain threat. In a novel finding, alcohol dampened emotionally motivated attention during uncertain but not certain threat. This effect appeared independent of alcohol’s effects on defensive reactivity and subjective anxiety. These results suggest that alcohol intoxication dampens processing of uncertain threats while leaving processing of certain threats intact.
... Nevertheless, a wealth of data across numerous laboratories reveals that individuals receiving a placebo beverage nearly always believe that they have consumed at least some amount of alcohol (Martin and Sayette, 1993). Accordingly, though the placebo does not induce the same degree of perceived intoxication as do even moderate alcohol dose conditions (Martin and Sayette, 1993), it nevertheless may account for some of the effects of consuming alcohol and has been used in many seminal studies aimed at developing and testing alcohol theories (Hull, 1981;Sayette and Wilson, 1991;Sher, 1987;Steele and Josephs, 1990). ...
Background
Placebo beverage conditions remain a key element in the methodological toolkit for alcohol researchers interested in evaluating pharmacological and nonpharmacological factors influencing the effects of alcohol consumption. While interest in experimentally examining alcohol in social context is on the rise, there has been little research examining the effectiveness of placebo manipulations in group settings, when just one suspicious participant could potentially jeopardize the effect of the placebo on group members. Moreover, research has rarely considered the association between individual difference factors (e.g., gender) and placebo manipulation effectiveness. The present study, using an uncommonly large sample of placebo consuming participants, was well suited to investigate fundamental questions regarding placebo efficacy that have not been assessed previously. Specifically, we aimed to examine placebo efficacy and general processes of placebo functioning in a group context. We also assessed potential associations between a variety of individual difference factors and placebo response.
Methods
240 participants (50% male) consumed placebo beverages during a triadic drinking period (across 80 three‐person groups). Participants reported their subjective intoxication, stimulation, and sedation eight minutes following drink consumption and estimated the alcohol content of their drink at the end of the study.
Results
Participants consuming placebo beverages in groups were nearly universal in reporting that they had consumed alcohol (>99%), and had experienced an increase in feelings of intoxication [t(239) = 22.03, p < 0.001] and stimulation [t(239) = 5.53, p < 0.001], levels that were similar to those observed in prior studies conducted with participants drinking placebos in isolation. Further, participants’ placebo responses were independent of their two group members and were largely unaffected by a variety of individual difference factors.
Conclusions
Placebo response generally operated independently of group‐member influences, suggesting that researchers can successfully conduct placebo beverage studies utilizing group drinking designs.
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... First, in general, victims who binge drink are regarded as more responsible for the rape than nondrinking victims, and individuals are less likely to regard an incident as rape if the victim and assailant had been drinking (Grubb & Turner, 2012). In addition, binge drinking can interfere with a victim's ability to assertively resist the assailant, and also can serve to reduce physiological arousal (e.g., the fight-or-flight response) and fear during the assault (Sher, 1987;Ullman, 2003). Finally, heavy drinking can interfere with the victim's ability to form a clear memory of what occurred during the rape, including their resistance behaviors and the forceful tactics used by the perpetrator. ...
Unacknowledged rape, labeling a rape as a nonvictimizing event, remains largely unstudied among non-college women. This study therefore sought to examine differences in assault characteristics, adjustment, and disclosure by rape acknowledgment status among a sample of lower income rape victims ( n =104) recruited from a reproductive health clinic (mean age = 28.8 years). Although unacknowledged rape was infrequent (17.1% of victims), unacknowledged victims reported that the perpetrator used less force and were less likely to have assertively resisted, as compared to acknowledged victims. There were no significant differences in disclosure, depression, and somatic complaints between unacknowledged and acknowledged rape victims. Implications of the findings for understanding rape acknowledgment and postrape adjustment among community women are discussed.
... These latter studies have generated critical information necessary to understand the impact of alcohol in circumstances in which drinking typically occurs. Most often, such studies have examined the impact of alcohol following administration of a stressor (Sher, 1987). Far less experimentation has focused on the effects of alcohol on positive stimuli, and, in particular, on comedy manipulations. ...
There is considerable interest in understanding the emotional effects of alcohol. While a great deal of experimental research has focused on alcohol’s ability to relieve negative emotions, there has been far less focus on the effects of alcohol on positive emotions. Further, the available research on positive emotion tends to test alcohol while participants are alone. Yet alcohol is often consumed in social settings, and enhancing social pleasure is consistently identified as being a primary motive for drinking. We aimed to address this gap in the literature by investigating the impact of alcohol on positive emotional experience in a social setting. We used the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) to examine in a large sample the effects of alcohol on response to comedy in a group setting. Five hundred thirteen social drinkers (51.9% female) were assembled into groups of three unacquainted persons and administered either a moderate dose of alcohol, a placebo, or a nonalcohol control beverage. Following beverage consumption, groups listened to a roughly 5-min comedy clip while their facial expressions were video recorded. More than 5 million frames of video were then FACS-coded. Alcohol consumption enhanced enjoyment (Duchenne) smiles—but not nonenjoyment social smiles—and elevated mood ratings. Results provide multimodal evidence supporting the ability of alcohol to enhance positive emotional experience during a comedy routine delivered in a social context. More broadly, this research illustrates the value of studying emotion in a social context using both self-report and behavior-expressive approaches.
... As hypothesized, there was a significant association between perceived stress and level of alcohol use (e.g., Ayer, Harder, Rose, & Helzer, 2010;Sher, 1987). Similar to U.S. college students, Korean college students drink alcohol for social gatherings. ...
The drinking culture in South Korea is fairly permissive, and the country is one of the world's fastest growing leaders in Internet connectivity. Given very slim knowledge on the mediating role of sensation-seeking on the association between stress, alcohol consumption, and Internet use among Korean college students, a cross-sectional study was conducted using Structural Equation Modeling on 870 college students (Mean age = 21.9 (SD = 2.4), Males: 65.6%). Sensation-seeking positively mediated between perceived stress level and alcohol use, but no effect on Internet use was found. Findings suggest the need to understand the direct effect of stress on drinking as well as linkages between stress, sensation-seeking, and alcohol consumption.
... Several hypotheses have been offered for this effect. For example, alcohol binds to GABA A receptors, leading to neuronal inhibition, sedation, and muscle relaxation (tension-reduction hypothesis; Sher, 1987). Alcohol may also decrease in the apparent self-relevance of anxiogenic cues (self-awareness model; Hull, 1981) and divert attention away from such cues by narrowing attentional capacity (attention-allocation model; Steele & Josephs, 1988). ...
Introduction:
It is well established that some individuals self-medicate their anxiety with alcohol. Though much evidence exists that alcohol consumption can be negatively reinforcing, there remains uncertainty regarding what mediates the relationship between alcohol and anxiety. An unexplored possibility is that, for some, alcohol impairs interoceptive sensitivity (the ability to accurately perceive one's physiological state), thereby decreasing state anxiety. Consistent with this, highly accurate heartbeat perception is a risk factor both for elevated trait anxiety and anxiety disorders. However, the direct impact of alcohol on cardioceptive accuracy has not to our knowledge been previously examined.
Methods:
Sixty-one social drinkers came to the lab in groups of 4-6 on two days spaced a week apart. Each participant was randomly assigned to receive alcoholic drinks targeting a BAC of 0.05% on one testing day and placebo drinks on the other, with the order counter-balanced. On both testing days, participants engaged in a Schandry heartbeat perception task on three occasions: at baseline, after an alcohol absorption period, and after physiological arousal was raised via exercise.
Results:
For men only, alcohol significantly impaired cardioceptive accuracy relative to a placebo at both low and high levels of arousal, with medium to large effect sizes.
Conclusions:
Though preliminary, this finding is consistent with the proposed hypothesis linking alcohol consumption and anxiety, at least for men. Future studies should directly examine whether, among individuals with anxiety disorders, cardioceptive sensitivity mediates the relationship between alcohol consumption and state anxiety.
... In rodent models, stress effects on alcohol drinking behavior depend on many factors such as sex, preexposure to alcohol, timing, duration, and pattern of stress exposure in relation to drinking, type of stressor, and genetic predisposition toward alcohol preference (Becker, Lopez, & Doremus-Fitzwater, 2011;Chester, de Paula Barrenha, DeMaria, & Finegan, 2006;Chester et al., 2004). A large body of literature supports the idea that, for some individuals, AUDs can develop in response to a cyclical pattern of alcohol consumption by individuals consuming alcohol to alleviate anxiety symptoms that were either pre-existing or induced by alcohol (Conger, 1956;Sher, 1987;Sinha et al., 1998;Weiss & Rosenberg, 1985). This theory, often referred to as the "tension-reduction hypothesis", has been explored for many decades and is thought to contribute to the development of comorbid anxiety and AUDs in some individuals. ...
Background:
Studies show that repeated nicotine use associates with high alcohol consumption in humans and that nicotine exposure sometimes increases alcohol consumption in animal models. However, the relative roles of genetic predisposition to high alcohol consumption, the alcohol drinking patterns, and the timing of nicotine exposure both with respect to alcohol drinking and developmental stage remain unclear. The studies here manipulated all these variables, using mice selectively bred for differences in free-choice (FC) alcohol consumption to elucidate the role of genetics and nicotine exposure in alcohol consumption behaviors.
Methods:
In Experiments 1 and 2, we assessed the effects of repeated nicotine (0, 0.5, or 1.5 mg/kg) injections immediately before binge-like (drinking-in-the-dark; Experiment 1) or during FC alcohol access (Experiment 2) on these alcohol drinking behaviors (immediately after injections and during re-exposure to alcohol access 14 days later) in adult high- (HAP2) and low-alcohol-preferring (LAP2) female mice (co-exposure model). In Experiments 3 and 4, we assessed the effects of repeated nicotine (0, 0.5, or 1.5 mg/kg) injections 14 days prior to binge-like and FC alcohol access on these alcohol drinking behaviors in adolescent HAP2 and LAP2 female mice (Experiment 3) or adult HAP2 female mice (Experiment 4).
Results:
In Experiment 1, we found that repeated nicotine (0.5 and 1.5 mg/kg) and alcohol co-exposure significantly increased binge-like drinking behavior in HAP2 but not LAP2 mice during the re-exposure phase after a 14-day abstinence period. In Experiment 2, 1.5 mg/kg nicotine injections significantly reduced FC alcohol intake and preference in the third hour postinjection in HAP2 but not LAP2 mice. No significant effects of nicotine treatment on binge-like or FC alcohol drinking were observed in Experiments 3 and 4.
Conclusions:
These results show that the temporal parameters of nicotine and alcohol exposure, pattern of alcohol access, and genetic predisposition for alcohol preference influence nicotine's effects on alcohol consumption. These findings in selectively bred mice suggest that humans with a genetic history of alcohol use disorders may be more vulnerable to develop nicotine and alcohol co-use disorders.
... These data also highlight that the stimulus characteristics and neurobiological systems that drive affective response are at least partially separable from the characteristics that recruit increased attention (Berridge et al., 2009). Decades of research broadly indicate that the affective 'stress response dampening (SRD)' properties of alcohol reinforce alcohol use among both recreational drinkers and alcoholics alike (Sher, 1987;Sayette, 2017). However, it remains important to clarify when, how and for whom alcohol SRD occurs to answer fundamental questions about this popular drug's reinforcing effects and to mitigate the negative consequences associated with its excessive use (Bradford et al., 2013). ...
Developing a better understanding of how and under what circumstances alcohol affects the emotions, cognitions and neural functions that precede and contribute to dangerous behaviors during intoxication may help to reduce their occurrence. Alcohol intoxication has recently been shown to reduce defensive reactivity and anxiety more during uncertain vs certain threat. However, alcohol's effects on emotionally motivated attention to these threats are unknown. Alcohol may disrupt both affective response to and attentional processing of uncertain threats making intoxicated individuals less able to avoid dangerous and costly behaviors. To test this possibility, we examined the effects of a broad range of blood alcohol concentrations on 96 participants' sub-cortically mediated defensive reactivity (startle potentiation), retrospective subjective anxiety (self-report) and cortically assessed emotionally motivated attention (probe P3 event related potential) while they experienced visually cued uncertain and certain location electric shock threat. As predicted, alcohol decreased defensive reactivity and subjective anxiety more during uncertain vs certain threat. In a novel finding, alcohol dampened emotionally motivated attention during uncertain but not certain threat. This effect appeared independent of alcohol's effects on defensive reactivity and subjective anxiety. These results suggest that alcohol intoxication dampens processing of uncertain threats while leaving processing of certain threats intact.
... These recent demonstrations that alcohol only provides stress response dampening during unpredictable but not predictable threats may help resolve the long history of what previously appeared to be inconsistent effects across studies (Curtin & Lang, 2007;Sher, 1987). The unpredictability lens may also provide a comparable mechanism for patterns of alcohol stress response dampening proposed by influential cognitive theories. ...
Stressors clearly contribute to addiction etiology and relapse in humans, but our understanding of specific mechanisms remains limited. Rodent models of addiction offer the power, flexibility, and precision necessary to delineate the causal role and specific mechanisms through which stressors influence alcohol and other drug use. This review describes a program of research using startle potentiation to unpredictable stressors that is well positioned to translate between animal models and clinical research with humans on stress neuroadaptations in addiction. This research rests on a solid foundation provided by three separate pillars of evidence from (a) rodent behavioral neuroscience on stress neuroadaptations in addiction, (b) rodent affective neuroscience on startle potentiation, and (c) human addiction and affective science with startle potentiation. Rodent stress neuroadaptation models implicate adaptations in corticotropin-releasing factor and norepinephrine circuits within the central extended amygdala following chronic alcohol and other drug use that mediate anxious behaviors and stress-induced reinstatement among drug-dependent rodents. Basic affective neuroscience indicates that these same neural mechanisms are involved in startle potentiation to unpredictable stressors in particular (vs. predictable stressors). We believe that synthesis of these evidence bases should focus us on the role of unpredictable stressors in addiction etiology and relapse. Startle potentiation in unpredictable stressor tasks is proposed to provide an attractive and flexible test bed to encourage tight translation and reverse translation between animal models and human clinical research on stress neuroadaptations. Experimental therapeutics approaches focused on unpredictable stressors hold high promise to identify, repurpose, or refine pharmacological and psychosocial interventions for addiction.
... Regarding mood, alcohol has anxiolytic and stress-reducing properties (see Sayette, 1999, for a review). Specifically, these effects have been found to be dose-and context-dependent (e.g., Donohue, Curtin, Patrick, & Lang, 2007;Sher & Wallitzer, 1986), with intoxicating doses consistently acting as robust anxiolytics, but lower doses not necessarily doing so (Sher, 1987;Sher & Wallitzer, 1986). Along with the reduction of negative emotion is the increase of positive emotion with alcohol. ...
Across various cultures there are robust stereotypes regarding how alcohol intoxication alters individuals’ normative personalities. However, whether these stereotypes are rooted in genuine average effects or in salient, socially proliferated exemplars remains unclear. The current study tested if differences between sober and intoxicated personality expression can be observed reliably by trained raters during a drinking episode. Participants (N = 156), half of whom received alcohol, attended laboratory sessions in same-gender friend groups and engaged in activities designed to elicit a range of personality expression. Participants completed self-reports of their “typical” sober and drunk personalities 2 weeks prior to their sessions and via two short measures during the session. In addition, participants were recorded and rated by multiple (range = 5–17) trained raters using three personality measures. Self-perceptions of sober-to-drunk personality differences were more pervasive than observer-perceptions, but alcohol-induced changes in Extraversion, specifically, were robust across measures and reporters.
... Bewältigungsstrategien angewendet werden (Wolff & Brand, 2013 Marlatt, Kosturn & Lang, 1975;Sher, 1987;Strickler, Tomaszewski, Maxwell & Suib, 1979;Tucker, Vuchinich & Sobell, 1981). ...
Abstract
Aims The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine possible
relationships across the attitude towards cognitive-enhancing drugs, academic
stress and coping style on the basis of the Transactional Model of Stress and
Coping. Sample The sample included 101 students of several German universities
who participated in an online survey. Method The academic stress was assessed
using the Perception of Academic Stress Scale, while the Cognitive Enhancement
Attitude Scale was used to measure the attitude towards cognitive-enhancing
drugs (CEDs). A set of different coping styles were assessed using the StressCoping-Inventar.
Findings and Conclusions A lifetime-prevalence of 12.9% for
CEDs was found. Furthermore significant relationships between the attitude
towards CEDs and academic stress (r = .335, p < .001), maladaptive emotionfocused
coping (r = .409, p < .001) as well as problem-focused coping (r = -.36, p
< .001) were found. These findings suggest that students with insufficient adaptive
coping strategies may be more prone to cope with academic stress by using
CEDs. To validate these conclusion, further research is necessary.
Keywords: coping, academic stress, cognitive-enhancing drugs, neuroenhancement,
Smart Drugs, university students, nootropics
... The finding that tension-reduction expectancies were associated with weekday-drinking, but not with weekend-drinking escalations, should be highlighted given the potential implication. Drinking as a way to manage negative emotions or for negative reinforcement is conceptualized to be a central contributor to the cause and maintenance of problematic drinking behaviors (Cooper, Frone, Russell, & Mudar, 1995;Greenley & Oei, 1999;Sher, 1987). Drinking with the goal of reducing negative affect or to cope with stress has been associated with an increased risk for problem-prone drinking (Brown, 1985;Christiansen, Vik, & Jarchow, 2002;Pabst et al., 2014). ...
In the current investigation, we sought to examine "day-of-the-week" drinking of an at-risk sample of nonstudent emerging adults and whether specific factors are associated with differential drinking patterns. Our study aims were to (a) identify differences in weekday versus weekend drinking, and (b) examine specific expectancies (i.e., sociability, tension reduction) and demographic factors (e.g., age, sex) relating to weekend versus weekday drinking after controlling for harmful drinking and holiday drinking. Participants were heavy-drinking noncollege attenders recruited from the community (N = 238; 63.4% men, 35.7% women; M age = 21.92 years). They reported daily drinking for the previous 30 days and completed measures of harmful drinking, alcohol expectancies, and demographic information. Results showed that more drinks were consumed on the weekends (i.e., Thursday to Saturday) than weekdays, with 63% of drinks consumed on weekends. Multilevel modeling analyses indicated that weekday drinking was associated with tension-reduction expectancies, social expectancies, sex, and age. Weekend-drinking increases were related to social expectancies, but not tension-reduction expectancies. Our final model indicated that, after controlling for the effect of holiday drinking, the within-person weekday-weekend distinction explained 18% of the total variance. In general, our findings highlight the importance of alcohol expectancies and drinking contexts in understanding the drinking behaviors of nonstudents. The differential role of tension-reduction and social-facilitation expectancies on drinking throughout the week imply that different cognitive pathways are involved in weekday versus weekend drinking, and both types of expected alcohol effects should be targets of risk-reduction efforts with nonstudent drinkers. (PsycINFO Database Record
... Several reviews have examined the impact of emotions on substance-use behaviors, such as alcohol consumption (e.g., Greeley & Oei, 1999;Sher, 1987), but the unique goal for this chapter was to review the experi- mental research available to date on some of the cognitions and individual differences thought to underlie this mood-drug-use asso- ciation (cf. Maisto et al., 1999). ...
... They also argued that most of alcohol's effects on affect and emotional responding were secondary to effects on cognition (and subsequent processing of relevant contextual cues and their relevance to the self). However, it has long been known that intermediate doses of alcohol have unpredictable effects on negative emotions, though as the dose of alcohol approaches those associated with "binge" levels of intoxication, negatively and positively reinforcing effects tend to be observed reliably, independent of context (see Sher, 1987). More recent studies (e.g., Donohue, Curtin, Patrick, & Lang, 2007;Sher, Bartholow, Peuser, Erickson, & Wood, 2007) have clearly demonstrated unconditional effects on negative emotions across diverse measures and experimental paradigms (see Sher & Grekin, 2007). ...
Adolescence is often described as a time of experimentation with risky or problem behaviors (Arnett, 2000), and substance use is one such behavior that is initiated during this age period. Substance use and addictive disorders are topics of considerable importance both because of their significance for adolescent development and because of their public health impact. For example, considering both adults and adolescents, recent estimates are that the use and abuse of alcohol, nicotine, and illegal drugs cost the United States approximately $257 billion per year, exceeding the costs associated with heart disease or cancer (Institute of Medicine, 1994a). Surprisingly, given its importance, adolescent substance use as a research area is relatively new, although it has seen rapid and significant expansion in the past three decades.
This study assessed the magnitude and specificity of parental alcoholism as a risk factor for internalizing symptomatology, externalizing symptomatology, and alcohol and drug use in adolescence. We evaluated parents' and children's reports of symptomatology and children's reports of alcohol and drug use in a community sample of 454 adolescents. The results showed that parental alcoholism was a moderate to strong risk factor, with stronger risk associated with recent (rather than remitted) parental alcoholism. Multivariate analyses showed that the specificity of risk varied with the outcome measure. In predicting externalizing symptomatology, the risk associated with parental alcoholism was mediated by co-occurring parental psychopathology and environmental stress. However, in predicting alcohol use, the father's alcoholism was a specific risk factor above and beyond the more generalized effects of stress and family disruption.
Now in its fourth edition, the acclaimed Oxford Textbook of Psychopathology aims for both depth and breadth, with a focus on adult disorders and special attention given to personality disorders. It provides an unparalleled guide for professionals and students alike. Esteemed editors Robert F. Krueger and Paul H. Blaney selected the most eminent researchers in abnormal psychology to provide thorough coverage and to discuss notable issues in the various pathologies which are their expertise. This fourth edition of the Oxford Textbook of Psychopathology is fully updated and also reflects alternative, emerging perspectives in the field (e.g., the National Institute of Mental Health’s Research Domain Criteria Initiative [RDoC, the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology [HiTOP]). The Textbook exposes readers to exceptional scholarship, the history and philosophy of psychopathology, the logic of the best approaches to current disorders, and an expert outlook on what researchers and mental health professionals will be facing in the years to come. This volume will be useful for all mental health workers, including clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers, and as a textbook focused on understanding psychopathology in depth for anyone wishing to be up to date on the latest developments in the field.
Drinking and drinking problems are complex phenomena. Understanding the etiology of alcohol use disorder requires consideration of biological, psychological, and social processes. It is our view that the last of these dimensions is just beginning to receive adequate scrutiny. In this selective review, we discuss the concept of a biopsychosocial analysis of the effects of alcohol. After briefly addressing biological and psychological research on alcohol's emotional effects, we bid to make a case for the vital role that social processes play in understanding why people drink. The bulk of the paper describes research illustrating the contributions that a social psychological perspective can make to advance understanding of the rewarding effects of alcohol. Overall, studies incorporating social contexts have revealed reliable evidence that alcohol enhances emotional experience in many social environments and have identified socio-contextual variables that moderate responses to alcohol. Further, these studies have broadened the scope of constructs thought to be socially rewarding, including social bonding, relationship functioning, and humor enjoyment. Our analysis concludes by identifying research areas we believe would profit from additional research.
Highlights
•Suicidality rates are high among adults seeking substance use disorder treatment.
•Suicidality groups differed in demographics, substance use, and health indicators.
•Suicidality groups did not differ in drug/alcohol toxicology outcomes throughout treatment.
•Adults with recent suicidal ideation did not maintain reductions in severity of alcohol problems at 6-months post-treatment.
•Adults with past suicide attempts showed less improvement in drug use severity from post-treatment to 6 months post-treatment.
Sucht und Angststörungen treten bei älteren Erwachsenen häufig gemeinsam auf. Vor dem Hintergrund der körperlich-biologischen, psychologischen und sozialen Aspekte des Alterns erwächst der Bedarf einer spezifischen Betrachtungsweise dieser Komorbidität. Insbesondere hinsichtlich Grundlagen und Interventionen im Kontext von Beratung und Therapie besteht diesbezüglich ein großer und angesichts der demografischen Entwicklung auch wachsender Bedarf. Daher werden in diesem Kapitel zunächst die Charakteristika der Komorbidität von Sucht und Angststörungen im Alter aufgezeigt und anhand eines Fallbeispiels in dieses Thema eingeführt. Nachdem in den vorangegangenen Kapiteln bereits die spezifischen Charakteristika von Abhängigkeitserkrankungen im Alter dargestellt wurden, werden in diesem Kapitel insbesondere Phänomenologie und Prävalenz von Angsterkrankungen im Alter beschrieben und Anhaltspunkte für die Beratung und psychotherapeutische Behandlung bei entsprechenden Krankheitsbildern aufgezeigt.
Alcohol use disorders and internalizing disorders are highly comorbid, but how this comorbidity unfolds over development is not well understood. The present study investigated effects of internalizing symptoms in late childhood on speed of transition between three alcohol involvement milestones: first drink, first binge, and onset of first alcohol dependence symptom. Greater early internalizing symptoms were expected to predict a later age of first drink, a slower transition from first drink to first binge, and a faster transition from first binge to first dependence symptom. The effects of age and moderating effects of gender were also examined. Data were from a longitudinal study of children of alcoholics and matched controls (N = 454) followed from late childhood to midlife. Generally, stage-specific hypotheses were not supported; rather, greater internalizing symptoms predicted an earlier age of first drink and a faster transition through the full interval from first drink to first dependence symptom. Regarding gender moderation, internalizing significantly predicted a faster transition between each milestone as well as through the full interval among women but not men. These results suggest that early internalizing problems confer risk for a rapid transition through all stages of alcohol involvement, and this risk may be limited to women.
This study investigated the effect of receiving prior exposure to alcohol and the laboratory environment on the stress-reducing effects of alcohol. Sixteen heavy drinkers were matched on a measure of risk for alcoholism and assigned to 1 of 2 groups. During Days 1 and 2, the alcohol group drank alcohol (0.5 g/kg) and the placebo group drank a placebo in a distinct laboratory environment while measures of heart rate were obtained. During Day 3, both groups received a placebo in an effort to discern whether the groups differed in their response to alcohol cues. During Day 4, both groups received alcohol followed by a stressful task. The groups differed in neither their response to alcohol cues nor their initial response to alcohol. However, the alcohol group did demonstrate a reduced heart rate response during the stress phase. These results suggest that the stress-reducing effects of alcohol may reflect the influence of experiential as well as pharmacological factors related to alcohol consumption.
The platelet MAO activity of 557 male Ss (aged 21–26 yrs) was assessed with substance use and abuse, family history of alcoholism, and personality traits. Low platelet MAO activity was associated with (1) undercontrolled behavioral style as evidenced by high scores on measures of antisociality, (2) increased use of cigarettes, and (3) increased rates of illicit drug use and adverse consequences of drug use. Low MAO activity was not related to either alcohol use or abuse. In an experimental study, 17 Ss with MAO activity in the lowest decile and 38 Ss with MAO activity in the highest 2 deciles were administered either a .625 g/kg dose of alcohol or a placebo and exposed to an anxiety-provoking stressor. Low-MAO-activity Ss appeared to show stronger stress response dampening on heart rate than high-MAO-activity Ss. No other differences in response to alcohol were found, and MAO activity was not related to general reactivity to the stressor.
Internalizing disorders co-occur with alcohol use disorder (AUD) at a rate that exceeds chance and compromise conventional AUD treatment. The "vicious cycle" model of comorbidity specifies drinking to cope (DTC) as a link between these disorders that, when not directly addressed, undermines the effectiveness of conventional treatments. Interventions based on this model have proven successful but there is no direct evidence for how and to what extent DTC contributes to the maintenance of comorbidity. In the present study, we used network analysis to depict associations between syndrome-specific groupings of internalizing symptoms, alcohol craving, and drinking behavior, as well as DTC and other extradiagnostic variables specified in the vicious cycle model (e.g., perceived stress and coping self-efficacy). Network analyses of 362 individuals with comorbid anxiety and AUD assessed at the beginning of residential AUD treatment indicated that while internalizing conditions and drinking elements had only weak direct associations, they were strongly connected with DTC and perceived stress. Consistent with this, centrality indices showed that DTC ranked as the most central/important element in the network in terms of its "connectedness" to all other network elements. A series of model simulations-in which individual elements were statistically controlled for-demonstrated that DTC accounted for all the relationships between the drinking-related elements and internalizing elements in the network; no other variable had this effect. Taken together, our findings suggest that DTC may serve as a "keystone" process in maintaining comorbidity between internalizing disorders and AUD. (PsycINFO Database Record
Understanding why people drink alcohol and in some cases develop drinking problems has long puzzled researchers, clinicians, and patients alike. In the mid-1940s and early 1950s, experimental research began to systematically investigate alcohol’s hedonic properties. Presumably, alcohol consumption would prove reinforcing as a consequence of its capacity either to relieve stress or to brighten positive emotional experiences. This article reviews experimental research through the years examining the impact of alcohol on both the relief of negative affect and the enhancement of positive affect. It covers initial accounts that emphasized direct pharmacological effects of ethanol on the central nervous system. These early studies offered surprisingly tepid support for the premise that alcohol improved emotional states. Next, studies conducted in the 1970s are considered. Informed by social learning theory and employing advances derived from experimental psychology, this research sought to better understand the complex effects of alcohol on emotion. Coverage of this work is followed by discussion of current formulations, which integrate biological and behavioral approaches with the study of cognitive, affective, and social processes. These current perspectives provide insight into the particular conditions under which alcohol can boost emotional experiences. Finally, future research directions and clinical implications are considered.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol-use disorders have a high rate of co-occurrence, possibly because they are regulated by common genes. In support of this idea, mice selectively bred for high (HAP) alcohol preference show greater fear potentiated startle (FPS), a model for fear-related disorders such as PTSD, compared to mice selectively bred for low (LAP) alcohol preference. This positive genetic correlation between alcohol preference and FPS behavior suggests that the two traits may be functionally related. This study examined the effects of fear conditioning on alcohol consumption and the effects of alcohol consumption on the expression of FPS in male and female HAP2 and LAP2 mice. In experiment 1, alcohol consumption (g/kg) under continuous-access conditions was monitored daily for 4 weeks following a single fear-conditioning or control treatment (foot shock and no shock). FPS was assessed three times (once at the end of the 4-week alcohol access period, once at 24 h after removal of alcohol, and once at 6–8 days after removal of alcohol), followed by two more weeks of alcohol access. Results showed no change in alcohol consumption, but alcohol-consuming, fear-conditioned, HAP2 males showed increased FPS at 24 h during the alcohol abstinence period compared to control groups. In experiment 2, alcohol consumption under limited-access conditions was monitored daily for 4 weeks. Fear-conditioning or control treatments occurred four times during the first 12 days and FPS testing occurred four times during the second 12 days of the 4-week alcohol consumption period. Results showed that fear conditioning increased alcohol intake in both HAP2 and LAP2 mice immediately following the first conditioning session. Fear-conditioned HAP2 but not LAP2 mice showed greater alcohol intake compared to control groups on drinking days that occurred between fear conditioning and FPS test sessions. FPS did not change as a function of alcohol consumption in either line. These results in mice help shed light on how a genetic propensity toward high alcohol consumption may be related to the risk for developing PTSD and co-morbid alcohol-use disorders in humans.
Behavioral approaches have made significant contributions to understanding the etiology and treatment of alcohol dependence. The present chapter provides a brief overview of changes that have occurred within this perspective over the past decade. Significant changes at a theoretical level have included a move toward mediational cognitive—behavioral models of etiology and maintenance, integrative multivariate models, and an empirical, developmental model based on the natural history of the drinking and alcohol problems. Significant changes in clinical practice have included an expanded role of assessment within the context of a biopsychosocial model of alcoholism, an increased focus on secondary prevention and brief intervention with less-alcohol-impaired individuals, a focus on “harm reduction” as a goal of such interventions, the development of a stepped-care approach to treatment with a reliance on patient-treatment matching, an increased emphasis on the maintenance of therapeutic gain and relapse prevention, and the incorporation of behavioral and cognitive principles into self-help programs.
The personality traits of behavioral undercontrol (BU) and negative emotionality (NE) are associated with alcohol problems. The authors examined gender differences in the associations of BU and NE with alcohol problems in 710 adolescents recruited from community and treatment sources. Multiple measures were used to characterize each construct, and the specified 2-factor model provided a reasonably good fit to the data. ANCOVAs were used to examine each construct by gender across four groups: never-regular drinkers, regular drinkers, and those with DSM-IV alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. Males had significantly higher BU and lower NE than did females. BU and NE both increased with degree of alcohol problems. However, there was not a significant Gender x Alcohol Group interaction for BU or NE. Although there are gender differences in levels of BU and NE, mechanisms of alcohol involvement related to these 2 personality traits map operate similarly in adolescent males and females.
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