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277
Tile & Brick
Interceram 05/2012
INTERCERAM 59 (2010) No. 2 pp. 79–166
02•10 APRIL VOL. 59 G5593
www.ceramic-news.info
02
2010
Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Ceramic Bricks Filling
– Energy Saving
Including Special TILE
&
BRICK
Tile surface
Trade Fairs
&
Conventions
POWTECH 2010, Germany
CERA GLASS 2010, India
QUALICER 2010, Spain
IPB 2009, China
Ceramics Forum
The Glass Industry in the
EU Today – a Survey
High-Performance
Ceramics
Composition Modifications
on the Properties of Some
Bioactive Glasses and
Glass Ceramics
Titanium Nitride Coating
of Cobalt Chromium
Coronary Stents:
a SEM-EDS Analysis
Ceramic Based
Bio-Medical Implants
Preparation of Ca-_/`-
Sialon Powders by Micro-
wave Reaction Nitridation
Building Materials
Effect of Bi2O3 on Cordie-
rite Formation in Cordieri-
te Based Bodies
TILE
&
BRICK
The Use of Residues in
the Manufacture of
Ceramic Tile Bodies
Hot-Pressed Gres
Porcellanato Body
Effect of Calcite on the
Brick Body Closing
Glossiness and Slipperi-
ness of Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Effect of Diaspore Addition
on Microwave-Assisted
Sintering of Floor Tile
U1_U4_IC_2_10.indd 2 12.04.10 13:54
Interceram_LOGO.indd 1 20.07.10 09:21
1 Introduction
The relationship between design and fabri-
cation is one of the key topics in the new
paradigm of contemporary architecture.
This paradigm emerges from the appear-
ance of digital tools and drastically trans-
forms the classical understanding of both
design and construction processes in archi-
tecture. Concepts such us standardization
and mass production that were coined dur-
ing the Industrial Revolution have been re-
placed by variation and customization in
the age of the “digital revolution.”
The development and availability of power-
ful software tools opens up the opportunity
of dealing with a higher level of geometrical
complexity. Therefore, design strategies and
construction processes are shifting from
standard solutions and simple forms to cus-
tomized components and complex ge-
ometries. Particularly interesting is the de-
velopment of component-based systems
that evolve in space according to structural
and environmental parameters.
What has been commonly defined as a para-
metric model is a digital model that incor-
porates variation in its definition and
evolves according to specific parameters
(e.g. geometrical, environmental, or struc-
tural). Hence, the global form is defined by
the assembly and arrangement of nonstand-
ard components and, although digital tools
enable the design of complex and appealing
forms, the main difficulty lies in their path
towards materialization. In other words, the
difficulty is in the translation from the dig-
ital to the analog and from the un-material
potential to the material constraints. Conse-
quently, material emerges as a contempo-
rary interface between material information
(digital) and material performance (analog)
and between environment (digital and
physical) and form.
In this new digital context, the general ten-
dency in architecture is to respond with
complex tools to complex designs confer-
ring all the trust to the power of technology.
With the motto: “everything is feasible in
the Digital Age,” architects and engineers
have abandoned themselves to the seduc-
tion and power of tools neglecting the expe-
rience and knowledge inherited from tradi-
tional materials and techniques.
One good example of the material evolution
from traditional techniques to contempo-
rary technologies is the case of ceramics
and, particularly, brick construction. Brick
construction could be considered as a tradi-
tional precedent of component-based sys-
tems and, thus, brick could be seen as one of
the first industrial systems mass produced
for construction. In addition, it is produced
by the use of manufacturing techniques
such as molding or extrusion. This fabrica-
tion process confers brick an implicit geom-
etry that leads, in a first stage, to prismatic
geometries.
However, architects such as Rafael
Guastavino or Antoni Gaudí or engineers
such as Eladio Dieste or Eduardo Torroja
explored the potential of building curved
structural surfaces by applying innovative
solutions and a deep technical understand-
ing of the tradition of brick construction.
1.1 Cohesive construction
At the end of the 19th century, the Spanish
architect Rafael Guastavino (1842–1908)
developed a construction system based on
the traditional technique of the Catalan
vault, which he called cohesive construction.
His works represent a good example of how
traditional techniques can be explored and
evolved [2].
Guastavino distinguished two fundamental
structural types: construction by gravity
and cohesive construction. While mechani-
cal construction, or construction by gravity,
J. Castellón*
Cellular Ceramics: Reinforced Brick
Construction in the Digital Age
This paper summarizes a research project started in
London at the Architectural Association School of
Architecture which is currently under development at
the Chair of Structural Design at the Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology (ETH). The research project is
focused on the development of a parametric con-
struction system based on the assembly of a limited
amount of ceramic nonstandard bricks combined with
honeycomb mesh reinforcement [1]. In addition, this
project is presented as an alternative to contempo-
rary design processes that explore complexity from a
formal perspective. Alternately, this proposal explores
material logics as the main activator of the design
process.
parametric design,
material systems,
ceramics, brick
construction
Interceram 61 (2012) [5]
The corresponding author, Juanjo Castellón,
studied architecture at the Universitat Politècni-
ca de Catalunya. He is a registered architect in
Spain and received his Master in Emergent
Technologies & Design from the Architectural
Association School of Architecture. He has
been developing his professional career from
2001 by collaborating with architectural firms
such as Cloud9 in Barcelona, FOA in London, Abalos & Herreros in
Madrid, SHoP Architects in New York, and Herzog & de Meuron in
Basel. He is currently researcher at the Chair of Structural Design
at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich and Adjunct
Professor at the Barcelona Institute of Architecture.
E-Mail: castellon@arch.ethz.ch
The auThor absTracTKeywords
* Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich,
Faculty of Architecture, Wolfgang-Pauli-Str.15,
8093 Zurich, Switzerland
277-282_TB_Castellon.indd 277 31.08.12 08:49
278
Interceram 05/2012
Tile & Brick
INTERCERAM 59 (2010) No. 2 pp. 79–166
02•10 APRIL VOL. 59 G5593
www.ceramic-news.info
02
2010
Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Ceramic Bricks Filling
– Energy Saving
Including Special TILE
&
BRICK
Tile surface
Trade Fairs
&
Conventions
POWTECH 2010, Germany
CERA GLASS 2010, India
QUALICER 2010, Spain
IPB 2009, China
Ceramics Forum
The Glass Industry in the
EU Today – a Survey
High-Performance
Ceramics
Composition Modifications
on the Properties of Some
Bioactive Glasses and
Glass Ceramics
Titanium Nitride Coating
of Cobalt Chromium
Coronary Stents:
a SEM-EDS Analysis
Ceramic Based
Bio-Medical Implants
Preparation of Ca-_/`-
Sialon Powders by Micro-
wave Reaction Nitridation
Building Materials
Effect of Bi2O3 on Cordie-
rite Formation in Cordieri-
te Based Bodies
TILE
&
BRICK
The Use of Residues in
the Manufacture of
Ceramic Tile Bodies
Hot-Pressed Gres
Porcellanato Body
Effect of Calcite on the
Brick Body Closing
Glossiness and Slipperi-
ness of Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Effect of Diaspore Addition
on Microwave-Assisted
Sintering of Floor Tile
U1_U4_IC_2_10.indd 2 12.04.10 13:54
Interceram_LOGO.indd 1 20.07.10 09:21
bor for its execution and, second, the need
for advanced structural and geometrical
knowledge. These two reasons and the fast
development of reinforced concrete made
reinforced brick an obsolete construction
system.
Research on cellular ceramics seeks to recov-
er the principles developed by Rafael
Guastavino and Eladio Dieste and attempts
to bring them to the contemporary scenario
by the use of new material logics and the ap-
plication of digital tools. The initial ques-
tion is how to design reinforced ceramic
surfaces, whose geometries are generated by
specific parameters and whose embodi-
ments are obtained by the combination of
ceramics and aluminum honeycomb mesh.
The main aims are for this system to work
structurally and to explore all its architec-
tural and spatial qualities.
Taking as reference the structural system de-
veloped by Eladio Dieste, two main material
logics are extracted: the steel reinforcement
produced by the arrangement of linear com-
ponents on a regular grid and hollow bricks
assuming compression forces.
The hypothesis of the research is a contem-
porary interpretation of both material log-
ics in order to transform this system into
another that incorporates variation and par-
ametric control of the global form.
2.1 Mesh reinforcement – from linear
elements to spatial mesh
The role of steel reinforcements in the
Gaussian vaults built by Dieste was purely
functional and secondary in terms of de-
sign. Steel bars were placed following the
geometry of the formwork and within the
joints produced by the bricks. Consequent-
ly, the resulting mesh had no geometrical
information per se and became just a struc-
tural component in the system, thus, a
smart technical solution to deal with ten-
sile stresses.
4
is based on the resistance that any solid op-
poses to gravity when it interacts with an-
other solid by friction, cohesive construc-
tion uses the adhesive strength between dif-
ferent layers of materials (in this case, mor-
tar and ceramics) as its structural principle
[3]. However, this technique only allows the
construction of structures under pure com-
pression forces and, consequently, single-
curved geometries.
Guastavino’s vaults could usually be con-
structed using little or no false-work since
the brickwork was self-supporting. This
fact, combined with the use of quick-setting
mortar, greatly reduced the time and cost of
construction compared to conventional ma-
sonry vaulting at that time [4]. Cohesive
construction, in its most common form, the
“timbrel vault,” uses no steel.
Nevertheless, Rafael Guastavino Exposito
(Rafael Guastavino’s son) continued with
the development of his father’s construction
system and his main contribution was the
study of timbrel vaults under tensile
strength. He analyzed the parts of the struc-
ture with critical tension stresses and intro-
duced metal reinforcements, as shown in
Fig. 1 [5].
Despite the fact that the theories devised by
Rafael Guastavino about cohesive con-
struction contained some imprecision and
were not completely correct, he demon-
strated empirically the potential of his sys-
tem using his deep understanding of tradi-
tional Catalan vaulting and his knowledge
on the then-new discipline of graphic stat-
ics [6]. Furthermore, he realized that the
problem of masonry vault construction
was not the understanding of resistance
but of geometry [7].
1.2 Reinforced ceramics
Eladio Dieste, a Uruguayan engineer (1917–
2000), built a set of buildings from 1945 to
1975 based on his invention of reinforced
ceramics [8]. This hybrid technique, devel-
oped by Dieste, combined the traditional
brick technique with the use of steel rein-
forcement. This combination provided the
system with the ductility and mechanical
properties of reinforced concrete, while it
offset the poor tensile performance of brick-
work. Dieste employed, in the construction
of his vaulting system, hollow bricks called
ticholos usually of 8 to 12 cm thickness ar-
ranged in a grid. Consequently, the only way
to place reinforcements was to insert metal
bars between the joints following the iso-
static lines as shown at Fig. 2. This process
was difficult and time consuming. Con-
versely, vaults were able to save up to 50 m
span without columns.
Eladio Dieste’s reinforced brickwork vaults
can be divided two main typologies: the
free-standing barrel vault and the Gaussian
vault. The first type encompasses single-
curvature shells whose section follows a cat-
enary curve. The second type, the Gaussian
vault, is a double-curved thin-walled shell
that is designed to be resistant to buckling.
What makes Eladio Dieste’s vaults especially
fascinating is that they consist of a single
layer of brickwork, creating beautiful large-
span shells [9]. The method applied by Di-
este to analyze the structural behavior of
these “ceramic shells” was the same em-
ployed for the calculation of cylindrical con-
crete shells. The Lundgren method, also
known as “beam theory,” assumes that the
whole shell performs as a great beam whose
cross-section is the arch defined by the lami-
nar profile selected [10].
The conglomerate of brick, cement, and
steel is more heterogeneous than ferro-con-
crete. The tensile stresses are absorbed by
the steel while the compression stress goes
to the brick and mortar compound. Dieste’s
solution was focused on the behavior of the
vaults in both the longitudinal direction and
the cross-section, which consisted of either
catenary profiles or double-curvature seg-
ments (Fig. 3). Reinforced brickwork played
a fundamental role in the success of his
structures, on one hand, by reducing the
need for continuous scaffolding and per-
mitting a higher standardization and con-
trol during execution and, on the other
hand, optimizing the use of local skills and
materials and achieving both structural and
economic efficiency [11].
2 Cellular ceramics
Although reinforced ceramics proved to be a
thoroughly effective and sustainable tech-
nique, its development stopped for two
main reasons: first, the lack of qualified la-
Fig. 1 • Patent for reinforced timbrel vault by
Rafael Guastavino Exposito
1
Fig. 2 • Reinforced ceramics. Layers and construc-
tion system
2
Fig. 3 • Gaussian vault. Section of one wave
3
277-282_TB_Castellon.indd 278 31.08.12 08:49
279
Tile & Brick
Interceram 05/2012
INTERCERAM 59 (2010) No. 2 pp. 79–166
02•10 APRIL VOL. 59 G5593
www.ceramic-news.info
02
2010
Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Ceramic Bricks Filling
– Energy Saving
Including Special TILE
&
BRICK
Tile surface
Trade Fairs
&
Conventions
POWTECH 2010, Germany
CERA GLASS 2010, India
QUALICER 2010, Spain
IPB 2009, China
Ceramics Forum
The Glass Industry in the
EU Today – a Survey
High-Performance
Ceramics
Composition Modifications
on the Properties of Some
Bioactive Glasses and
Glass Ceramics
Titanium Nitride Coating
of Cobalt Chromium
Coronary Stents:
a SEM-EDS Analysis
Ceramic Based
Bio-Medical Implants
Preparation of Ca-_/`-
Sialon Powders by Micro-
wave Reaction Nitridation
Building Materials
Effect of Bi2O3 on Cordie-
rite Formation in Cordieri-
te Based Bodies
TILE
&
BRICK
The Use of Residues in
the Manufacture of
Ceramic Tile Bodies
Hot-Pressed Gres
Porcellanato Body
Effect of Calcite on the
Brick Body Closing
Glossiness and Slipperi-
ness of Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Effect of Diaspore Addition
on Microwave-Assisted
Sintering of Floor Tile
U1_U4_IC_2_10.indd 2 12.04.10 13:54
Interceram_LOGO.indd 1 20.07.10 09:21
bor for its execution and, second, the need
for advanced structural and geometrical
knowledge. These two reasons and the fast
development of reinforced concrete made
reinforced brick an obsolete construction
system.
Research on cellular ceramics seeks to recov-
er the principles developed by Rafael
Guastavino and Eladio Dieste and attempts
to bring them to the contemporary scenario
by the use of new material logics and the ap-
plication of digital tools. The initial ques-
tion is how to design reinforced ceramic
surfaces, whose geometries are generated by
specific parameters and whose embodi-
ments are obtained by the combination of
ceramics and aluminum honeycomb mesh.
The main aims are for this system to work
structurally and to explore all its architec-
tural and spatial qualities.
Taking as reference the structural system de-
veloped by Eladio Dieste, two main material
logics are extracted: the steel reinforcement
produced by the arrangement of linear com-
ponents on a regular grid and hollow bricks
assuming compression forces.
The hypothesis of the research is a contem-
porary interpretation of both material log-
ics in order to transform this system into
another that incorporates variation and par-
ametric control of the global form.
2.1 Mesh reinforcement – from linear
elements to spatial mesh
The role of steel reinforcements in the
Gaussian vaults built by Dieste was purely
functional and secondary in terms of de-
sign. Steel bars were placed following the
geometry of the formwork and within the
joints produced by the bricks. Consequent-
ly, the resulting mesh had no geometrical
information per se and became just a struc-
tural component in the system, thus, a
smart technical solution to deal with ten-
sile stresses.
The material, in this case steel, became a
servant of the global form playing no role in
the design process.
In order to subvert this situation and to acti-
vate material logics as a design principle, the
question is how to transform this passive
structural mesh into an active design and
structural component. The proposal is to
develop a mesh reinforcement that is not
built on site by the addition of linear ele-
ments (steel re-bars) but manufactured as a
flexible 3D-Mesh. It is possible to find a
precedent in this direction in the works de-
veloped by Vicente Sarrablo. He patented a
system called flexbrick [12] that is based on
the manufacture of a ceramic structural fab-
ric made out of metal mesh and ceramic
bricks (Fig. 4). This system speeds up the
construction process of ceramic vaults and
confers more control and precision to the fi-
nal form. However, the role of the mesh is
still dependent on the grid produced by
standard bricks and its form relies on the
formwork. Therefore, it represents an ad-
vance in manufacturing and construction
processes, but not in terms of geometry and
material properties.
2.1.1 Honeycomb structures – aluminum
honeycomb mesh
Cellular solids such as foams are widely used
in engineering applications, mainly due to
their superior mechanical behavior and
lightweight high strength characteristics.
The low density feature of cellular struc-
tures allows the design of light and stiff
components, for instance sandwich panels
[13]. Particularly, this is the case of honey-
comb structures. Honeycomb structures are
widely used as a core layer in sandwich pan-
els conferring to them stiffness and helping
to ensure an efficient distribution of loads.
Besides, the hexagonal form of the cells of-
fers an ideal relationship between wall sur-
face and volume (minimal weight and mini-
mal material cost). This natural principle
becomes an effective and material-saving
construction method [14].
Particularly, the aluminum honeycomb
panel was chosen for the research because
of the properties it presents. When used as
the core material in a sandwich panel, the
honeycomb aluminum panel is light, re-
sistant and strong under compression and
shear stresses. In addition, it is incombusti-
ble, recyclable, corrosion resistant, and a
good electrical and thermal conductor. Be-
cause of its flexibility, the honeycomb pan-
el is also suitable for the fabrication of
curved elements, for example in planes and
automotive com ponents. The most general
way to produce such curvatures is by using
a vacuum bag molding process, where a
curved mold is used in combination with a
surface-laminating process. The honey-
comb is made into a suitable shape by the
vacuum mold and then held in place until
the surfaces are attached to the honey-
comb. Despite the limitation on curvature,
it can be increased by altering the honey-
comb cell size and thickness.
Another very important aspect to analyze
for the research is the manufacturing proc-
ess (Fig. 5). First, the aluminum mesh is
produced according to a standard with a foil
thickness of 50 and 70 μm. These foils are
first arranged into a block and thermally
welded following the desired pattern. Sec-
ondly, the block is cut into slices of the re-
quired thickness creating nonexpanded
panels (NEX), which are extremely flexible.
Finally, the slice is stretched in order to form
the actual panel with a homogeneous cell
size. Cell sizes can vary from 6 to 19 mm in a
standard product and different densities
and properties can be obtained by combin-
ing the foil thickness with the cell size.
Therefore, the standard panel [15] is a ho-
mogeneous panel with a specific cell size
produced when the panel is stretched using
Fig. 4 • Flex-brick.
Reel and placement
on site
4
Fig. 5 •
Honeycomb mesh panel. Fabrication process
5
1975 based on his invention of reinforced
ceramics [8]. This hybrid technique, devel-
oped by Dieste, combined the traditional
brick technique with the use of steel rein-
forcement. This combination provided the
system with the ductility and mechanical
properties of reinforced concrete, while it
offset the poor tensile performance of brick-
work. Dieste employed, in the construction
of his vaulting system, hollow bricks called
ticholos usually of 8 to 12 cm thickness ar-
ranged in a grid. Consequently, the only way
to place reinforcements was to insert metal
bars between the joints following the iso-
static lines as shown at Fig. 2. This process
was difficult and time consuming. Con-
versely, vaults were able to save up to 50 m
span without columns.
Eladio Dieste’s reinforced brickwork vaults
can be divided two main typologies: the
free-standing barrel vault and the Gaussian
vault. The first type encompasses single-
curvature shells whose section follows a cat-
enary curve. The second type, the Gaussian
vault, is a double-curved thin-walled shell
that is designed to be resistant to buckling.
What makes Eladio Dieste’s vaults especially
fascinating is that they consist of a single
layer of brickwork, creating beautiful large-
span shells [9]. The method applied by Di-
este to analyze the structural behavior of
these “ceramic shells” was the same em-
ployed for the calculation of cylindrical con-
crete shells. The Lundgren method, also
known as “beam theory,” assumes that the
whole shell performs as a great beam whose
cross-section is the arch defined by the lami-
nar profile selected [10].
The conglomerate of brick, cement, and
steel is more heterogeneous than ferro-con-
crete. The tensile stresses are absorbed by
the steel while the compression stress goes
to the brick and mortar compound. Dieste’s
solution was focused on the behavior of the
vaults in both the longitudinal direction and
the cross-section, which consisted of either
catenary profiles or double-curvature seg-
ments (Fig. 3). Reinforced brickwork played
a fundamental role in the success of his
structures, on one hand, by reducing the
need for continuous scaffolding and per-
mitting a higher standardization and con-
trol during execution and, on the other
hand, optimizing the use of local skills and
materials and achieving both structural and
economic efficiency [11].
2 Cellular ceramics
Although reinforced ceramics proved to be a
thoroughly effective and sustainable tech-
nique, its development stopped for two
main reasons: first, the lack of qualified la-
277-282_TB_Castellon.indd 279 31.08.12 08:49
280
Interceram 05/2012
Tile & Brick
INTERCERAM 59 (2010) No. 2 pp. 79–166
02•10 APRIL VOL. 59 G5593
www.ceramic-news.info
02
2010
Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Ceramic Bricks Filling
– Energy Saving
Including Special TILE
&
BRICK
Tile surface
Trade Fairs
&
Conventions
POWTECH 2010, Germany
CERA GLASS 2010, India
QUALICER 2010, Spain
IPB 2009, China
Ceramics Forum
The Glass Industry in the
EU Today – a Survey
High-Performance
Ceramics
Composition Modifications
on the Properties of Some
Bioactive Glasses and
Glass Ceramics
Titanium Nitride Coating
of Cobalt Chromium
Coronary Stents:
a SEM-EDS Analysis
Ceramic Based
Bio-Medical Implants
Preparation of Ca-_/`-
Sialon Powders by Micro-
wave Reaction Nitridation
Building Materials
Effect of Bi2O3 on Cordie-
rite Formation in Cordieri-
te Based Bodies
TILE
&
BRICK
The Use of Residues in
the Manufacture of
Ceramic Tile Bodies
Hot-Pressed Gres
Porcellanato Body
Effect of Calcite on the
Brick Body Closing
Glossiness and Slipperi-
ness of Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Effect of Diaspore Addition
on Microwave-Assisted
Sintering of Floor Tile
U1_U4_IC_2_10.indd 2 12.04.10 13:54
Interceram_LOGO.indd 1 20.07.10 09:21
surfaces. Alternately, ceramic cells are pro-
posed as nonstandard bricks that are cus-
tom made according to the global form that
is produced together with the honeycomb
mesh. This requires innovative manufactur-
ing logics based on digital fabrication tech-
niques and a deep geometrical understand-
ing of the system. Consequently, the next
aim of the research is the exploration of the
geometrical potential of cellular ceramics in
order to achieve variation with a limited
amount of ceramic cells.
In a first stage, very simple geometrical tests
are developed to define the main geometri-
cal rules and parameters of the system. Basi-
Fig. 10 • Diagram of cylindrical mesh arrangement
10
Fig. 12 • Combinatory system with a limited amount of different ceramic components
12
isotropic deformation in the manufacturing
process (Fig. 6). However, if the panel is
stretched using anisotropic deformation
(Fig. 7), the global form has a completely
different geometrical behavior. Hence, by
modifying cell geometry, it is possible to
control the panel curvature to produce
double-curved surfaces.
From the analysis of the deformation behav-
ior of the honeycomb mesh, we can con-
clude that its global form is directly related
to local cell deformation. Consequently, it is
possible to parametrically control the global
form of the mesh by the specific definition
of the cell geometry. This direct link between
local cell and global mesh is the main princi-
ple that makes cellular ceramics a material
logic that activates the design process. In or-
der to proceed further with this material sys-
tem, the expanded panels were replaced by
nonexpanded (NEX) meshes (Fig. 8). In the
NEX honeycomb mesh, the cell geometry is
not fixed (before stretching) and, conse-
quently, another material logic is required
to control and define the global form: the
ceramic cell.
2.2 Ceramic cells – from standard bricks
to nonstandard cells
Cellular ceramics is defined as a material
system that combines two material logics:
On one hand, NEX aluminum honeycomb
mesh is the metal reinforcement for tensile
stresses with implicit geometry from the
manufacturing process. On the other hand,
ceramic cells are nonstandard bricks per-
forming under compression forces, thereby
fixing the cell’s geometry and, hence, defin-
ing the global form by the parametric con-
trol of their geometry (Fig. 9).
Standard bricks are manufactured using ex-
trusion processes. They present, in their
most common form, prismatic geometry
and are mass produced by serial repetition.
Therefore, an additional formwork or false-
work is needed to generate and build curved
Fig. 6 • Isotropic deformation in a standard panel
6
Fig. 7 • Anisotropic deformation in a standard panel
7
Fig. 8 • NEX. Non-expanded slice
8
Fig. 9 • Cellular ceramics. Material system’s model
9
277-282_TB_Castellon.indd 280 31.08.12 08:49
281
Tile & Brick
Interceram 05/2012
INTERCERAM 59 (2010) No. 2 pp. 79–166
02•10 APRIL VOL. 59 G5593
www.ceramic-news.info
02
2010
Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Ceramic Bricks Filling
– Energy Saving
Including Special TILE
&
BRICK
Tile surface
Trade Fairs
&
Conventions
POWTECH 2010, Germany
CERA GLASS 2010, India
QUALICER 2010, Spain
IPB 2009, China
Ceramics Forum
The Glass Industry in the
EU Today – a Survey
High-Performance
Ceramics
Composition Modifications
on the Properties of Some
Bioactive Glasses and
Glass Ceramics
Titanium Nitride Coating
of Cobalt Chromium
Coronary Stents:
a SEM-EDS Analysis
Ceramic Based
Bio-Medical Implants
Preparation of Ca-_/`-
Sialon Powders by Micro-
wave Reaction Nitridation
Building Materials
Effect of Bi2O3 on Cordie-
rite Formation in Cordieri-
te Based Bodies
TILE
&
BRICK
The Use of Residues in
the Manufacture of
Ceramic Tile Bodies
Hot-Pressed Gres
Porcellanato Body
Effect of Calcite on the
Brick Body Closing
Glossiness and Slipperi-
ness of Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Effect of Diaspore Addition
on Microwave-Assisted
Sintering of Floor Tile
U1_U4_IC_2_10.indd 2 12.04.10 13:54
Interceram_LOGO.indd 1 20.07.10 09:21
surfaces. Alternately, ceramic cells are pro-
posed as nonstandard bricks that are cus-
tom made according to the global form that
is produced together with the honeycomb
mesh. This requires innovative manufactur-
ing logics based on digital fabrication tech-
niques and a deep geometrical understand-
ing of the system. Consequently, the next
aim of the research is the exploration of the
geometrical potential of cellular ceramics in
order to achieve variation with a limited
amount of ceramic cells.
In a first stage, very simple geometrical tests
are developed to define the main geometri-
cal rules and parameters of the system. Basi-
cally, a flat mesh configuration could be
built by the repetition of a standard cell.
This cell can be manufactured with tradi-
tional extrusion techniques. However, if this
extrusion is nonstandard (tapered in one di-
rection), the mesh configuration will re-
spond to a cylindrical geometry. According
to that, it is possible to change the curvature
of the cylindrical mesh by changing the level
of tapering (Fig. 10). In other words, the
curvature depends on the ceramic cell ge-
ometry. Likewise, a conical mesh can be ob-
tained by having a different ceramic cell ge-
ometry on each row of the mesh (Fig. 11).
Consequently, the global form of cellular ce-
ramics can be precisely controlled by the ge-
ometrical information defined in the local
cell and, therefore, the curvature of the sur-
face is defined by the cell’s geometry.
In conclusion, we can establish a criterion
that relates brick cell geometry and global
form. With this simple logic and using para-
metric tools, it is possible to explore differ-
ent formal configurations that evolve in
space.
2.3 Parametric model – from repetition to
variation
For the exploration of spatial configurations
using cellular ceramics, several digital ex-
periments were developed. The first digital
model explores spatial configurations re-
sulting from a combinatorial system using a
limited amount of cellular panels. In this
case, four basic configurations are defined
(Fig. 12). These configurations are generat-
ed with two different radii (R1 and R2).
Configurations 01 and 02 are generated on
the XY plane, and configurations 03 and 04
are generated on the YZ plane. Therefore,
configurations 05, 06, 07, and 08 are gener-
ated by the combination of those four basic
geometries. Consequently, the system is
based on eight permutations that enable in-
finite configurations in space (Fig. 13).
The second digital model is reduced here to
the combination of two single configura-
tions, one curved and one flat (Fig. 14).
These configurations produce a loop ar-
rangement in order to define a space. The
result is a continuous surface that becomes
floor, wall, and roof.
Finally, the digital model was implemented
to incorporate structural principles into the
architectural form. Following the principles
applied by Eladio Dieste, the architectural
form incorporates catenary sections, in or-
der to optimize its structural behavior. Form
and structure become, in that way, interre-
lated concepts. The digital model is imple-
Fig. 10 • Diagram of cylindrical mesh arrangement
10
Fig. 11 • Diagram of conical mesh arrangement
11
Fig. 12 • Combinatory system with a limited amount of different ceramic components
12
Fig. 13 • Example of possible configuration from
the combinatory system
13
Fig. 8 • NEX. Non-expanded slice
Fig. 9 • Cellular ceramics. Material system’s model
277-282_TB_Castellon.indd 281 31.08.12 08:49
282
Interceram 05/2012
Tile & Brick
INTERCERAM 59 (2010) No. 2 pp. 79–166
02•10 APRIL VOL. 59 G5593
www.ceramic-news.info
02
2010
Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Ceramic Bricks Filling
– Energy Saving
Including Special TILE
&
BRICK
Tile surface
Trade Fairs
&
Conventions
POWTECH 2010, Germany
CERA GLASS 2010, India
QUALICER 2010, Spain
IPB 2009, China
Ceramics Forum
The Glass Industry in the
EU Today – a Survey
High-Performance
Ceramics
Composition Modifications
on the Properties of Some
Bioactive Glasses and
Glass Ceramics
Titanium Nitride Coating
of Cobalt Chromium
Coronary Stents:
a SEM-EDS Analysis
Ceramic Based
Bio-Medical Implants
Preparation of Ca-_/`-
Sialon Powders by Micro-
wave Reaction Nitridation
Building Materials
Effect of Bi2O3 on Cordie-
rite Formation in Cordieri-
te Based Bodies
TILE
&
BRICK
The Use of Residues in
the Manufacture of
Ceramic Tile Bodies
Hot-Pressed Gres
Porcellanato Body
Effect of Calcite on the
Brick Body Closing
Glossiness and Slipperi-
ness of Polished Porcelain
Stoneware Tiles
Effect of Diaspore Addition
on Microwave-Assisted
Sintering of Floor Tile
U1_U4_IC_2_10.indd 2 12.04.10 13:54
Interceram_LOGO.indd 1 20.07.10 09:21
mented with parameters that control the
length and morphology of the catenary sec-
tions (Fig. 15). Therefore, the loop is able to
adapt its form according to environmental,
spatial, and structural criteria (Fig. 16).
3 Conclusions and further
development
Cellular ceramics is proposed as a potential
construction system that combines material
and manufacturing logics with geometrical
and structural principles. In addition, this
system is only possible through the use and
application of digital tools. However, at this
point of the research, both geometrical
principles and material logics have been
physically tested at a nonarchitectural scale
and with very limited technical resources.
Therefore, the research on cellular ceramics
will continue, at the Chair of Structural De-
sign ETH Zurich, with the development of a
full-scale prototype.
On the one hand, the fabrication of the NEX
honeycomb mesh is, as described in Sect.
2.1.1, a highly standardized process. Conse-
quently, all the experiments were developed
using a 19-mm cell mesh, which is the maxi-
mum size cell available in standard alumi-
num mesh fabrication. The next step in the
process will be to scale up the honeycomb
mesh 10 times, in order to obtain a 190 mm
cell. This part of the research will be carried
out in collaboration with industry. Different
materials, besides aluminum, will be tested
and the implications of the mesh produc-
tion at this scale will be analyzed. On the
other hand, the research will be focused on
the manufacture of customized ceramic
cells. The main goal will be to find alterna-
tives to the standard extrusion process in the
production of the bricks. This research will
be developed using digital fabrication tools
in combination with traditional industrial
processes. The aim is to introduce variation
in the fabrication process (Fig. 17) and,
therefore, explore all the architectural po-
tential of cellular ceramics.
References
[1] This solution is proposed as a contemporary inter-
pretation of the concept of reinforced ceramics
developed by the Uruguayan engineer Eladio Di-
este.
[2] Ochsendorf, J.: The Guastavinos and tile vaults in
North America. Informes de la Construccion 56
(2005) [496]
[3] Guastavino, R.: Essay on the theory and history of
cohesive construction. Ed. Ticknor. (1893)
[4] Mroszczyk, L.J.: Rafael Guastavino and the Boston
Public Library. Massachusetts Institute of Technol-
ogy. June (2004)
[5] Ochsendorf, J.: Eladio Dieste as structural artist.
Eladio Dieste, Innovation in Structural Art. Prince-
ton Architectural Press (2004) 95
[6] Allen, E.: Guastavino, Dieste and the two revolu-
tions in masonry vaulting. Eladio Dieste, Innovation
in Structural Art. Princeton Architectural Press
(2004) 66–69
[7] Huerta, S.: La construcción tabicada y la teoría co-
hesiva de Rafael Guastavino. Cedex. (2006)
[8] Anderson, S.: Eladio Dieste, Innovation in Struc-
tural Art. Princeton Architectural Press (2004)
[9] Shenk, M.: On the shape of cables, arches, vaults
and thin shells. (2009)
[10] Lundgren, H.: Cylindrical shells. Cylindrical roofs.
Danish Technical Press 1 (1949)
[11] Theodossopoulos, D., Sinha, B.P.: A study on the
free-standing masonry vaults of Eladio Dieste
(2007)
[12] Sarrablo, V.: Innovación en el uso de la cerámica en
arquitectura. El tejido cerámico estructural. Semi-
nario sobre Paredes de Alvenaria, P.B. Lourenço et
al. (eds.) (2007)
Fig. 14 • Diagrams and examples of configurations of loops
14
Fig. 15 • Configuration of loops with catenary sections
15
Fig. 16 • Architectural application of cellular ceramics
16
Fig. 17 • Cellular ceramics. Performative arrange-
ment according to light and structural requirement
17
[13] Alqassim, G.: Mechanical properties of hierarchical
honeycomb structures. Mechanical Engineering
Master’s Thesis. Paper 42. http://hdl.handle.
net/2047/d20001227. (2011)
[14] Sauer, Ch.: M ade of new materials sourcebook for
architecture and design. Ed. Gestalten (2010)
[15] Standard panels were provided for the experiments
by Alucoat: 6-mm cell size and 10-mm thickness.
Received: 20.07.2012
Permissions
Fig. 1 © Image from article: The Guastavinos
and tile vaults in North America. John
Ochsendorf
Fig. 2 © Image from article: Ceramica
Armada. Baldassari/Cueto
Fig. 3 © Image from book: Innovation in
structural art. Stanford Anderson
Fig. 4 © Image from article: Innovación
en el uso de la cerámica en arquitectura.
Vicente Sarrablo
Fig. 5 © Diagram from catalogue: Alucoat-
conversion
277-282_TB_Castellon.indd 282 31.08.12 08:49
