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Effect of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae on metabolism of moong plants under NaCl salinity
... Inoculation of Glomus spp. in plants increased the concentration of K and decreased Na, compared to noninoculated plants (Giri & Mukerji, 2004). Also, tolerance to salinity resulting from mycorrhizal colonization has been observed in maize (Feng et al., 2002), mung bean (Jindal, Atwal, Selchon, & Rattan, 1993), squash (Harris, Esqueda, Valenzuela, & Castellanos, 2011) and sorghum (Cho et al., 2006), through effects on osmoregulation or proline accumulation. However, the functionality of ...
... The plants were maintained until the flag leaf phenological state. tolerancia a la salinidad mediante colonización micorrízica se ha observado en maíz (Feng et al., 2002), frijol mungo (Jindal, Atwal, Selchon, & Rattan, 1993), calabacita (Harris, Esqueda, Valenzuela, & Castellanos, 2011) y sorgo (Cho et al., 2006), a través de efectos en la osmoregulación o en la acumulación de prolina. Sin embargo, la funcionalidad de la simbiosis con HMA puede variar según la cepa y la susceptibilidad del cultivar. ...
... Inoculation with Mycorriza INIFAP was where the most promotion in plant height, stem diameter and shoot and root biomass was recorded, in relation to Burize ST and the control, despite the fact both inoculants are formed with R. intraradices. The contribution of AMF to increased plant biomass is linked to the mechanism that leads to the production of phytohormones (Jindal et al., 1993;Smith & Read, 2008), although its modulation is due to the genotype-AMF strain interaction Fernández et al., 2014). Tian et al. (2004) concluded that leaf biomass in cotton had a different effect when the symbiosis of two AMF strains of the same species was compared. ...
Los riegos de los cultivos con agua salina inducen detrimentos en la productividad, así como deterioro de los suelos agrícolas. El NaCl es la sal tóxica de mayor importancia que provoca estrés iónico y osmótico en las plantas, con un consecuente esfuerzo mayor para absorber el agua y que afecta su crecimiento. Se realizó un estudio en invernadero cuyo objetivo fue determinar los efectos simbióticos de los hongos micorrízicos arbusculares (HMA) Burize ST® y Micorriza INIFAP® (Rhizophagus intraradices) en los híbridos de sorgo ‘Norteño’ y ‘Gstar 7609’, sometidos a irrigación con tres niveles de agua salina (desalinizada, media y alta, CE = 0.03, 2.30 y 4.54 dS·m-1, respectivamente). Las variables medidas fueron clorofila (SPAD), altura de planta, diámetro de tallo, biomasa aérea y radical, y colonización micorrízica. Con excepción de la colonización que no fue inf luenciada por el nivel de salinidad del agua, los valores de las demás variables decrecieron conforme se incrementó la concentración de sales en el agua. En general los resultados indicaron que se registró mayor crecimiento y rendimiento de biomasa en plantas de sorgo mediante la asociación simbiótica entre el HMA Micorriza INIFAP y el sorgo ‘Norteño’, en los tres niveles de salinidad en el agua de riego.
... With increasing soil salinity consistent increase in proline content in both the test plants (mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal treated) was observed. Under salinity stress exposure, proline (the protective osmolyte) accumulates for adaptation of salt stress, maintains osmotic balance and also acts as energy and nitrogen reservoir to be used by plant (Ashraf and Foolad 2007;Jindal et al., 1993). It was observed that, mycorrhizal treatment significantly improved proline concentration and their accumulation as compared to non-mycorrhizal plant under increasing soil salinity stress gradient. ...
... But a maximum proline accumulation was observed in cocolonized plant. More proline accumulation after AM colonization has already been reported earlier (Jindal et al., 1993). Better proline accumulation in C. tetragonoloba may be correlated with fact that more proline accumulates in less salt tolerant plant as a symptom of stress for maintaining osmotic adjustment (Wang et al., 2004). ...
Symbiotic association between arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) species and host plant roots improves plant growth and protects them from several abiotic stress factors. In the present study, the effect of Glomus mosseae and Glomus fasciculatum as an individual inoculation and in combination was studied on two legumes (Glycine max and Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) under soil salinity stress gradient [1.04 (control) to 8.26 dS/m]. Individual and co-inoculation of both the AM fungi alleviated adverse salt effect, with improvement in plant dry weight matter and biochemical parameters. However, these two isolates worked better in combination with respect to higher accumulation of soluble carbohydrate, reducing sugar, protein, proline concentration etc. C. tetragonoloba showed better response as compared to G. max in relation to improvement in nutritional profile under salt stress after AM treatment. As compared to non-mycorrhizal counterparts, co-inoculation with G. mosseae and G. fasciculatum in C. tetragonoloba enhanced total chlorophyll (14.83% at soil salinity of 3.78 dS/m), soluble carbohydrate (17.26% at soil salinity of 5.94 dS/m), proline (8.79% at soil salinity of 3.78 dS/m) while exposed to different soil salinity levels. Also, co-colonization with both the isolates showed more root colonization (%) and may be responsible for the better effect in salt stress alleviation. Electrolyte leakage of mycorrhizal plants was lowered at soil salinity gradient of 2.10 to 8.26 dS/m and hence, maintained membrane stability. These two isolates can be utilized as bio-inoculant in alleviation of adverse salt effect in soil in association with the two test legume plants.
... To some extent, these fungi have been considered as bio-ameliorators of saline soils (Azcón-Aguilar et al. 1979;Singh et al. 1997;Rao 1998). Several researchers reported that inoculation with AMF improves growth of crops and plants under salt stress (Jindal et al. 1993;Yano-Melo et al. 2003;Giri and Mukerji 2004;Tian et al. 2004;Cho et al. 2006;Ghazi and Al-Karaki 2006;Sharifi et al. 2007;Beltrano et al. 2013). Higher plant growth rate was observed in AMFinoculated banana (Yano-Melo et al. 2003), cotton (Tian et al. 2004), soybean (Sharifi et al. 2007), lettuce (Aroca et al. 2013), strawberry (Sinclair et al. 2014) and tomato (Latef and Chaoxing 2011;Balliu et al. 2015) than that of controls under saline condition. ...
... So far, investigations carried out on osmoregulation in AMF symbiosis are scarce and somewhat contradictory. Several studies have reported a higher concentration of osmolytes in AMF plants than in non-AMF plants at different salinity levels (Jindal et al. 1993;Al-Garni 2006;Sharifi et al. 2007;Talaat and Shawky 2011), while, in contrast, other studies have reported that non-AMF plants accumulate more osmolytes than AMF plants under salt stress (Wang et al. 2004;Rabie and Almadini 2005;Jahromi et al. 2008;Sheng et al. 2011). These studies involve different plant species such as soybean, wheat, bean, lettuce and maize and different plant parts and also different AMF such as Glomus intraradices, Glomus mosseae or a mixture of Glomus spp. ...
Continuous utilization of quality land in civilization and industrialization has gained interest in the utilization of salt-affected soils for crop production. However, crop growth and productivity is severely affected in saline soil. Many strategies were proposed to overcome the salt detrimental effects like development of salt-tolerant cultivars through breeding and/or genetic engineering, removal of excessive salt accumulation in soil, desalinization of irrigation water etc. Though these strategies are efficient but costly. Hence, a cost-effective new alternative attempt has taken up to mitigate soil salinity which involves inoculation of salt-tolerant arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in agricultural crop. Mechanisms of amelioration of salt stress in AMF-plant symbiosis involve enhancing the uptake of less mobile phosphorus, increasing nutrient acquisition, maintaining osmotic balance, enhancing antioxidants and polyamines, altering hormonal status, reducing ion toxicity and enhancing photosynthetic efficiency. AMF colonization induces an increase in root hydraulic conductivity of the host plants under osmotic stress conditions. Furthermore, AMF symbiosis also alters expression of cation channels and transporters, late embryogenesis abundant protein and aquaporins. AMF symbiosis not only changes plant physiology but also changes nutritional and physical properties of the rhizosphere. In the mycorrhizosphere, AMF interact with natural and introduced microorganisms and affect soil properties and quality. The quality of soil largely depends on its physical and chemical properties as well as diversity and activity of soil biota. Thus, AMF have been considered as bio-ameliorators of saline soils.
... It appears that the presence of the AM fungi in the roots may modify the osmotic potential of the leaves as they have been shown to influence the composition of carbohydrates (Augé et al. 1987) and the level of proline (Ruíz-Lozano and Azcón 1995). Proline accumulation is thought an adaptive feature under salinity stress in AM (Jindal et al. 1993). Results show that the accumulation of proline in plant is increased by AM inoculation. ...
... Results show that the accumulation of proline in plant is increased by AM inoculation. Proline accumulation is thought to be an adaptive feature under salinity stress in AM (Jindal et al. 1993) and non-AM (Ashraf 1989;Sharma et al. 1990) legumes. The high level of proline enables the plants to maintain osmotic balance when growing under low water potentials (Stewart and Lee 1974). ...
In many arid and semiarid areas of the world which sustainability of agriculture is limited by salinity, AM fungi are a key component of sustainable plant production. AM fungi plant responses to salt stress include an array of changes at the molecular, biochemical, and physiological levels. This chapter reviews briefly the mechanism on which salt affects crop and responses of plant to salinity stress, with emphasis on the mechanism on which AM fungi ameliorate the deleterious effects of salinity.
... Proline accumulation is thought an adaptive feature under salinity stress in mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal fungi (Ashraf 1989;Sharma et al. 1990;Jindal et al. 1993). Results show that the accumulation of proline in plant is increased by AM inoculation. ...
... Increased irrigation efficiency is required to prevent the spread of deserts and to meet the greater demand for food of a growing world population, but at the same time, inappropriate irrigation management leads to the increased concentration of salt in the soils with unsuitable drainage (Hammer et al. 2010). (Jindal et al. 1993;Ben Khaled et al. 2003) [ Soluble sugars AM fungi (Feng et al. 2002;Sheng et al. 2011 P. indica (Baltruschat et al. 2008) [ The ratio of reduced to oxidized ascorbate P. indica (Waller et al. 2005) The use of mycorrhizal fungi in association with the host plant can be beneficial under drought and salinity stress (Zarea 2010;Zarea et al. 2013a, b). Mycorrhizal fungi widely exist in salt-affected soils (Juniper and Abbott 1993). ...
Salinity stress adversely affects plant growth and crop production worldwide. Microorganisms such as mycorrhizal fungi and endophytic fungi, Piriformospora indica, could play a significant role in this respect. In many arid and semi-Arid areas of the world, which are considered limiting to crop growth and production, mycorrhizal fungi are a key component of sustainable plant production. The responses of mycorrhizal plant to salt stress are at the molecular, biochemical, and physiological levels. This chapter briefly reviews the mechanisms by which salt affects plant morphology and physiology and how plants may respond when in association with mycorrhizal fungi and the endophytic fungus P. indica under salt stress. © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014. All rights are reserved.
... With increasing soil salinity consistent increase in proline content in both the test plants (mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal treated) was observed. Under salinity stress exposure, proline (the protective osmolyte) accumulates for adaptation of salt stress, maintains osmotic balance and also acts as energy and nitrogen reservoir to be used by plant (Ashraf and Foolad 2007;Jindal et al., 1993). It was observed that, mycorrhizal treatment significantly improved proline concentration and their accumulation as compared to non-mycorrhizal plant under increasing soil salinity stress gradient. ...
... But a maximum proline accumulation was observed in cocolonized plant. More proline accumulation after AM colonization has already been reported earlier (Jindal et al., 1993). Better proline accumulation in C. tetragonoloba may be correlated with fact that more proline accumulates in less salt tolerant plant as a symptom of stress for maintaining osmotic adjustment (Wang et al., 2004). ...
Symbiotic association between arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) species and host plant roots improves plant growth and protects them from several abiotic stress factors. In the present study, the effect of Glomus mosseae and Glomus fasciculatum as an individual inoculation and in combination was studied on two legumes (Glycine max and Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) under soil salinity stress gradient [1.04 (control) to 8.26 dS/m]. Individual and co-inoculation of both the AM fungi alleviated adverse salt effect, with improvement in plant dry weight matter and biochemical parameters. However, these two isolates worked better in combination with respect to higher accumulation of soluble carbohydrate, reducing sugar, protein, proline concentration etc. C. tetragonoloba showed better response as compared to G. max in relation to improvement in nutritional profile under salt stress after AM treatment. As compared to non-mycorrhizal counterparts, co-inoculation with G. mosseae and G. fasciculatum in C. tetragonoloba enhanced total chlorophyll (14.83% at soil salinity of 3.78 dS/m), soluble carbohydrate (17.26% at soil salinity of 5.94 dS/m), proline (8.79% at soil salinity of 3.78 dS/m) while exposed to different soil salinity levels. Also, co-colonization with both the isolates showed more root colonization (%) and may be responsible for the better effect in salt stress alleviation. Electrolyte leakage of mycorrhizal plants was lowered at soil salinity gradient of 2.10 to 8.26 dS/m and hence, maintained membrane stability. These two isolates can be utilized as bio-inoculant in alleviation of adverse salt effect in soil in association with the two test legume plants.
... This is improves nutrient uptake, which can also partially alleviate the subsequent yield reduction (Rejali 2007;Daei et al. 2009). According to Jindal and Atawal (1993), although under laboratory and field conditions, the rate of AM symbiosis decreases with increasing salinity; however, salt tolerance differs among different species and even among the isolates of AM species (Weissenhorn 2002;Daei et al. 2009). ...
... Under saline conditions AM symbiosis decreases due to the inhibiting effects of salinity on root growth, and also the ion balance and osmotic stress, thereby affecting hyphal growth (Daei et al. 2009). There are adequate data regarding the inhibiting effects of salinity on plant-AM symbiosis (Jindal and Atawal 1993;Al-Karaki 1998;2000;Feng and Zang 2002); however, most of them were collected under controlled greenhouse conditions (Daei et al. 2009). Typically, plants differ in their sensitivity to salinity stress. ...
Phosphorus (P) behavior and its efficiency in mycorrhizal plants are of great importance.
The objective was to evaluate the behavior of soil labeled P absorbed by different
mycorrhizal wheat genotypes subjected to saline water. Three wheat genotypes including
cultivar Kavir, the local cultivar Roshan, and the mutated line Tabasi T-65-7-1 were
inoculated with different species of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) including Glomus etunicatum,
G. mosseae, and G. intraradices. Plants were irrigated using saline water
(electrical conductivity of 13.87 dS m−1). The experiment was a factorial with 12 treatments
and three replications under greenhouse conditions. Wheat genotypes and AM
species significantly affected plant dry weight, specific activity, and total plant activity
(P = 0.01). A maximum of 1.49-fold increase in specific activity or P uptake per gram of
plant dry matter and 3.53-fold increase in plant activity or plant total P uptake resulted
by G. etunicatum as compared with control.
... There are many other studies reporting the role of symbiotic microbes in improving salt stress tolerance in agriculturally important crops such as maize, clover, mungbean, cucumber, and tomato (Chinnusamy et al. 2005). The underlying mechanisms behind all these studies were found to be phytohormone production, phosphorus acquisition, improved osmoregulation by reducing salt concentration and proline accumulation (Jindal et al. 1993;Feng et al. 2002;Grover et al. 2010;Ben Khaled et al. 2003;Velazquez-Hernandez et al. 2011). The above reports indicate that inoculating plants with halotolerant microbial strains may have large positive outcomes for plant growth under salt stress. ...
The frequency of extreme weather events is projected to increase due to climate change, which will lead to devastating outcomes at vulnerable locations around the world and will lead to decline in overall agricultural productivity. In this context, strategies have been developed to impart abiotic stress tolerance to agricultural plants in order to make global agriculture resilient to climate change. Adaptive symbiotic technology is one such technology that can be exploited to develop climate-resilient crops by incorporating beneficial plant microbiota into agricultural systems, particularly those involved in enhancing plant growth, nutrient efficiency, abiotic stress tolerance, and disease resistance. This integration requires collaborative effort among researchers, industries, and farmers to understand and effectively manage these interactions in the context of climate-resilient agricultural systems. The adaptive symbiotic technology is an emerging field that provides a well-designed solution to this problem by inoculating the microbial inoculant into crop plants that can sustainably improve production and abiotic resistance with the goal of achieving food security.KeywordsAbiotic stress toleranceAdaptive symbiotic technologyAgricultural productivityClimate changeInoculantMicrobiota
... Some authors have reported that proline concentration occurs more in plants inoculated with mycorrhiza than in noninoculated plants ( Jindal et al., 1993;Sharifi et al., 2007). However, noninoculated plants with mycorrhiza have more proline content than mycorrhizal plants under saline conditions, which may indicate that more proline accumulation is a response to salt stress but that mycorrhizal colonization is not required (Evelin and Kapoor, 2014;Latef and Chaoxing, 2014). ...
... The results of our work suggest that proline accumulation is more a stress tolerance strategy erected by tomato plants. The protection generated by the fungal partner resulted in better mineral assimilation and an accumulation of a proline-type osmotic regulator in greater quantity [94]. ...
... Similar observations were also reported for sugarcane (Leite et al. 2014). In addition to bacteria and archaea, AM fungi were also observed to impart salinity tolerance in Sesbania aegyptiaca and Sesbania grandiflora (Giri and Mukerji 2004), moong bean (Jindal et al. 1993), tomato (Al-Karaki et al. 2001) and maize (Feng et al. 2002) through enhanced Mg 2+ and suppressed levels of Na + in plant tissue. This signifies the paramount importance of recruiting plant growth-promoting microorganisms as they help the plant to alleviate the salinity stress at least to some extent. ...
Agriculture is the panacea of human’s very existence. Maintaining or increasing the agricultural productivity is needed to feed the ever-increasing global population, but we have limited resources like land and water, so effective management of available resources is need of the hour in ever-changing global environmental threats. Agriculture is exposed to vagaries of nature, and various abiotic stresses like drought, salinity, extremes of temperature and heavy metal toxicity are the major limiting factor for plant growth, threatening agricultural productivity and ecological sustainability. Microorganisms are the inhabitants of the most diverse environment and possess metabolic and physiological capabilities to tolerate various abiotic stresses. Such microorganisms naturally inhabiting plant rhizosphere can be exploited to ameliorate the effect of abiotic stresses in agriculture and enhancing growth and productivity. Having known the identity and characteristics of microbes involved in imparting tolerance to abiotic stress, provides us with the plethora of opportunities to modulate and restructure the microbial community composition at the roots of host plants through varied microbiome engineering techniques. Effect of abiotic stress on agriculture, microbes involved in stress mitigation and how to engineer plant microbiome to recruit ideal microbiome at host plants to alleviate effects of abiotic stress and to enhance overall agricultural productivity is reviewed here.
... Proline enhancement has been also found in plants colonized by AMF. For example, AMF-Vigna radiata plants were reported to have higher proline content than non-AMF-plants (Jindal et al. 1993). Sharifi et al. (2007) also reported a higher proline concentration in AMF soybean than the non-AMF-plants at different salinity levels. ...
... Proline enhancement has been also found in plants colonized by AMF. For example, AMF-Vigna radiata plants were reported to have higher proline content than non-AMF-plants (Jindal et al. 1993). Sharifi et al. (2007) also reported a higher proline concentration in AMF soybean than the non-AMF-plants at different salinity levels. ...
Degradation of land and deterioration of the environment are two major problems in agriculture. Scientists recently warned that 24 billion tons of fertile soils are being lost in every year, largely due to unsustainable agriculture practices. It is estimated that about 25% of the total global land area has been degraded resulting in substantial economic impacts on agricultural livelihoods and national economies, especially in the lower-income countries. If this trend continues, 95% of the Earth’s land area will be degraded by 2050. Soil salinity is considered as the most important abiotic stress, which is responsible for land degradation particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, leading to cause a major challenge to sustainable agriculture. To deal with saline soils and minimize crop loss, new salt-tolerant crop plants developed through classical breeding and genetic engineering have been considered. Besides, several lines of evidence indicate that arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) promote plant growth and enhance salinity tolerance by employing various mechanisms including enhanced nutrient acquisition by AMF-colonized plant roots. This chapter covers the occurrence of AMF in saline soils and effect of salinity on the AMF colonization, hyphal length and sporulation both in vivo and in vitro. It also covers literature relating to the alleviation of salt stress by AMF and its beneficial effects on growth and modulation of biochemical, physiological and molecular mechanisms in the host plants to tolerate salt stress. The chapter also overviewed areas where more investigations are required to gain a thorough understanding of the different mechanisms AMF symbiosis to protects plants from salt stress.
... showed higher proline concentrations at 10% and 15% NaCl than control plants. This result is consistent with that of research by [30], who showed that proline content increased when arbuscular fungi are backgrafted under NaCl stress. These increases in proline upon the infection of B. ramosa ssp. ...
Background: Saline soils severely affect plant growth. Associations between endophytes and plants are known to significantly alter plant metabolism. This study reports the effects of a fungal endophyte species (Botryosphaeria ramosa ssp.) on osmoregulation, antioxidant enzymes, and the regulation of endogenous plant hormones in Casuarina equisetifolia under NaCl stress. C. equisetifolia plants, with and without B. ramosa ssp. colonization, were subjected to different levels of NaCl stress (0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%) for different amounts of time (0 d, 20 d, 40 d, and 60 d).
Results: Antioxidant enzymes, phytohormones, and nutritive elements in the leaves and roots were determined. The results showed that colonization of the roots by B. ramosa ssp. improved the growth rate and dry weight of salt-stressed plants. Moreover, B. ramosa ssp. colonization increased the activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxide but decreased the hydrogen peroxide content in the branches of C. equisetifolia under salt stress. Meanwhile, compared with non-colonized plants, endophyte colonization reduced the abscisic acid and proline contents but increased the contents of auxin, zeatin, and gibberellins. Importantly, the nutrient elements in the roots and branches of colonized plants were significantly different from those in the roots and branches of non-colonized plants under saline conditions.
Conclusions: The results of this study showed that B. ramosa ssp. colonization can enhance the salt tolerance of C. equisetifolia. by improving the antioxidant enzyme content, regulating the phytohormones, and adjusting proline accumulation under NaCl stress.
... The higher proline concentrations suggested a better osmoregulation state which can be beneficial for water and nutrients uptake in AM plants (Liu et al. 2016); besides, proline is also considered an indicator of severe injury in plants caused by salt stress (Moftah and Michel 1987). Under salt stress, both decreases and increases in proline concentration with AMF inoculation have been reported (Jindal et al. 1993;Evelin et al. 2013). However, in the present study, Means topped by the same letter do not differ significantly (P < 0.05) by Tukey's honestly significant difference test we did not observe significant AM fungus effects on proline concentrations in leaves and roots, along with leaf RWC. ...
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi enhance plant salt tolerance. However, physiological mechanisms of enhanced salt tolerance in leaves and roots of trees rarely have been compared. To reveal the different mechanisms, our study utilized comprehensive analyses of leaves and roots to examine the effects of Funneliformis mosseae on the salinity tolerance of Zelkova serrata. Seedlings of Z. serrata were exposed to four salt levels in a greenhouse with and without F. mosseae inoculation. Treatment comparisons revealed that following F. mosseae inoculation, (1) nutrient deficiency caused by osmotic stress was mitigated by the fungus enhancing nutrient contents (K, Ca, and Mg) in roots and (N, P, K, Ca, and Mg) in leaves, with Ca and K contents being higher in both leaves and roots; (2) mycorrhizas alleviated ion toxicity by maintaining a favorable ion balance (e.g., K+/Na+), and this regulatory effect was higher in leaves than that in roots; and (3) oxidative damage was reduced by an increase in the activities of antioxidant enzymes and accumulation of antioxidant compounds in mycorrhizal plants although the increase differed in leaves and roots. In particular, AM fungus–enhanced catalase activity and reduced glutathione content only occurred in leaves, whereas an enhanced content of reduced ascorbic acid was only noted in roots. Growth, root vitality, leaf photosynthetic pigments, net photosynthetic rate, and dry weight were higher in seedlings with AM fungus inoculation. These results suggest that AM fungus inoculation improved salinity tolerance of Z. serrata, but the physiological mechanisms differed between leaves and roots.
... AM colonization by Glomus intraradices has been shown to contribute substantially to the flood tolerance of Pterocarpus officinalis seedlings by improving plant growth and phosphorus acquisition in leaves. Salt resistance was improved by AM colonization in maize (Feng et al., 2002), mung bean (Jindal et al., 1993) and clover (Ben Khaled et al., 2003) due to improved osmoregulation or proline accumulation. AM inoculation has also shown to improve NaCl resistance in tomato, with extent of improvement related to salt sensitivity of the cultivar (Al-Karaki et al., 2001). ...
Risk in agriculture has been extended manifolds due to climate change. Small and medium scale farming are much affected by unpredictable weather conditions arising from climate change. Various strategies are being developed to face this challenge such as developing varieties with flexible sowing time, short duration crops, anti-transpirants, new tolerant varieties, etc. Among these, microorganisms too have a significant role in mitigating stresses arising out of climatic change. Upon inoculation, these microbes confer benefits to the plants for with standing the adverse climatic conditions. The benefit can be easily extended to small and large scale farmers by inoculation. Microorganisms are known to confer protection against draught, heat, flood, frost, salinity, etc. Inoculation of effective micro organisms in sufficient quantity with good survival and rhizo competence maximizes the crop success in adverse climate. Several formulations of microorganisms are reported to confer protection against adverse conditions of storage and field. This review deals with such biofertilizer formulations which are having potential to contribute to climate smart agriculture along with various stress alleviation by microorganisms. Liquid and alginate based inoculant formulations have been discussed in detail with its ability to perform in adverse climate. This review also covers novel inoculant formulations which can perform under unpredictable weather conditions.
... Mycorrhizal fungal species Funneliformis mosseae and Rhizophagus irregularis improve plant's performance and prevent damage under salt stress by increasing proline production which is one of the well-known scavengers of free radicals and acts as buffer during stresses (Porcel et al. 2012;Pollastri et al. 2017) and is known as the best compatible solutes those balancing the salt accumulated in plants and being currently used by biotechnologists for salt tolerance in plants (Szabados and Savoure 2010;Deinlein et al. 2014). Other scientists have already mentioned high proline content in mycorrhizal plants (Jindal et al. 1993;Sharifi et al. 2007). Sharifi et al. (2007) demonstrated that a high concentration of proline in the root of mycorrhizal soybean plant compared to shoot under saline conditions might be due to the reason that roots play a key role in water absorption and maintain osmotic balance between internal and external environment. ...
The salt-tolerant microorganisms also referred to as halotolerant including bacteria and fungi have the ability to promote growth of plant in salty environment. Presence of certain particular traits like exopolysaccharide production ability, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, production of osmolytes, enhancing nutrient acquisition and activity of antioxidant enzymes as well as maintaining of K⁺:Na⁺ ratio make them suitable candidates for promoting plant growth under saline environment. Moreover, the capability of these microbes to fix nitrogen, produce siderophores, solubilize insoluble nutrients, and provision protection against harmful pathogens further accelerates the importance of beneficial microbes in agriculture system. To make use of these environment friendly species as biofertilizers in agricultural system is increasing nowaday to facilitate the plant growth under adverse conditions. The halotolerant bacteria and fungi could be a cost-effective approach to overcome the problem of salinity stress. These halotolerant microbes can be used as biopesticides and biofertilizers and could decrease our reliance on synthetic agrochemicals. These halotolerant microbes are also the most suitable candidates for bioremediation of contaminated environment. This review chapter highlights the significant role of halotolerant microbes for improving crop growth under saline conditions and bioremediation of contaminated environment. The mechanisms used by halotolerant microbes to tolerate salinity as well as promote plant growth under salinity stress have been discussed with selected examples. Also the role of these microbes in environmental sciences has been reviewed. The areas that need further research and future perspectives of this technology have also been discussed in detail.
... Even, the AM inoculation in tomato plants is reported to improve the tolerance of salt sensitive cultivars (Al-Karaki et al. 2001). Resistance to salt stress has also been observed by AM colonization in maize plants (Feng et al. 2002), mung bean (Jindal et al. 1993) and clover (Ben Khaled et al. 2003). The mycorrhiza association in plants also improves osmoregulation or proline accumulation. ...
Background
The accumulation of salts leads to assimilation of dissolved salts in the soil which results in soil salinity. Salinity affects the crop yield by reducing the levels of minerals availability, inducing ions mediated toxicity, osmotic stress, growth regulators level and reactive oxygen species production which ultimately lead to the inhibition of seed germination, seedling growth, onset of flowering, and fruit set.
Scope
The beneficial microorganisms are attractive candidate to increase the agricultural productivity in saline ecosystem. The plant beneficial microbiome offers significant prospective to magnify the plant resilience and crop yields in saline agriculture systems either by modulating the uptake of ions, regulation of plant growth regulators and by the production of exopolysaccharides and alleviate the salinity stress.
Conclusions
Salt tolerance is a complex manifestation of different physiological and biochemical events. The microbes mediated mechanisms underlying regulation of salinity responses involved in ion transport and homeostasis, osmolytes regulation, hormonal balance, antioxidant machinery and other stress signaling are critical in developing plant adaptation strategies to salinity stress. Therefore, plant beneficial microbes are attractive choice in alleviating plant stresses saline soil.
... On the other hand, the literature on associations between AM fungi and salt marsh halophytes is somewhat controversial. For example, AM fungi have been indicated to improve plant tolerance to salinity under stressful environments (Jindal et al. 1993;Ruiz-Lozano et al. 1996), whereas some other findings pointed out to suppression of mycorrhizal infection by high soil salinity (Pfeiffer and Bloss 1988;Juniper and Abbott 1993) and soil inundation (Harley and Smith 1983). In between these contrary views, Miller (1999) showed that waterlogging only partially inhibits AM colonization of wetland grasses. ...
Stress environments hinder the crop growth and development, and under ever-increasing food demand circumstances, concerns of food security have asked for exploring options to overcome such stress conditions. High soluble/exchangeable salt stress referred to as salinity stress resulting from environmental characteristics (i.e., climate and soil parent material) and human-induced factors such as fertilization and irrigation poses serious threats to crop production in saline areas on different extents ranging from low to very high, categorically. This stress affects the plant growth through osmotic stress, which ultimately leads to several physiological disruptions including oxidative stress, nutrient imbalance, and water uptake problems. Subsequently, halophytes gained importance for their accumulation capability leading toward the development of phytoremediation techniques when manipulated through anthropogenic activities. The diversity of halophytes in such conditions offered a huge genetic pool together with wide options for recultivating such saline areas. The variety of halophytic plants also put forward the promising microorganisms associated with such plants helping in ameliorating the stress through various mechanisms, viz., antioxidant and other stress-related exudates production, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase release, chelating agents production, and expression of stress-related genes along with widely understood enhancement of the plant growth through a multitude of processes. Such organisms including bacteria, fungi, and arbuscular mycorrhiza, epiphytic or endophytic, have been reported to enhance the phytoremediation potential of halophytes. Keeping in view the potential of halophytes and associated microbiome, this chapter will focus on genetic and agronomic potential of halophytes and role of allied microorganisms in enhancing the salinity tolerance and assisted phytoremediation of saline soils.
... AMF inoculation on plants shows altered efficacies in combating salinity stress among mycorrhizal plants and proline content act as a dynamic factor to assess salinity consequences (Sannazzaro et al., 2007;Echeverria et al., 2013). Alternatively, there are also reports which show that AMF inoculation considerably decreased proline accumulation Sheng et al., 2008;Borde et al., 2011;Echeverria et al., 2013) while sufficient data demonstrate the increase (Jindal et al., 1993;Jahromi et al., 2008;Elhindi et al., 2017). On the contrary, some studies also indicate a null effect on proline accumulation Estrada et al., 2013) (Table 1). ...
Salinity and drought are the major osmotic stress limitations that affect plant growth and crop yield in agriculture worldwide. The alternative response mediated by plants in response to salinity and drought are principally proline accumulation which regulates stress combat strategies owing to sustainable production in the realm of agricultural production even under severe stress. Symbiotic and soil associated arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are regarded as efficient biofertilizers in several crops under these stresses. Summarily AMF is renowned for effective scavengers of free radicals in soil thereby increasing soil parameters optimal for plant growth. AMF contribute to augment host plant tolerance to stress specifically salinity and drought. Mycorrhizal colonization positively regulates root uptake of available nutrients and enhance growth even when bestowed by water constraints which has contributory roles due to proline accumulation providing several intriguing researches on AMF symbiosis pertaining to plant productivity and yield. Mycorrhizal plants and their non-mycorrhizal counterparts show varied expression pattern regarding proline amass. Hence, the precise role of proline with respect to stress tolerance and equivocal mechanisms involved in evasion of osmotic stress has not been extensively reviewed earlier. Further molecular forecasting in this arena is still an underexploited research field. This review comprehensively addresses the observable facts pertaining to proline accumulation upon AMF association and adherence relevant to stress tolerance and host plant efficiency and efficacy.
... ـﻮﻟﻲ ﻣﻌﻤـ آب ـﺎ ﺑـ ـﺸﻮ ﺷﺴﺘـ از ـﺪ ﺑﻌـ ـﺎ ﻫـ آب آب از ﻣﺨﻠﻮﻃﻲ در ﻣﻘﻄﺮ ، ﻧـﺴﺒﺖ ﺑﻪ ﮔﻠﻴﺴﻴﺮﻳﻦ و اﻟﻜﻞ ﺷﺪﻧﺪ ﻧﮕﻬﺪاري ﻣﺴﺎوي .(Irigoyen et al., 1992) ﻏﻠﻈـﺖ ﻛﺮﺑﻮﻫﻴﺪرات از اﺳـﺘﻔﺎده ﺑـﺎ ﺑﺮگ ﺗﺎزه ﺑﺎﻓﺖ در ﻣﺤﻠﻮل ﻫﺎي اﺳﭙﻜﺘﺮوﻓﺘﻮﻣﺘﺮي روش و آﻧﺘﺮون ﻣﻌﺮف اﻧـﺪازه ﮔﻴـﺮي ﺷـﺪFales, 1951., Jindal et al., 1993 اﺳـﭙﻜﺘﺮوﻓﺘﻮﻣﺘﺮيروش و ﻫﻴـﺪرﻳﻦ ﻧـﻴﻦ ﻣﻌﺮف از اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﺷـﺪ ﺗﻌﻴـﻴﻦ ) ﻣﻌﻨـﻲ ﺗﻔﺎوت ﻣﺸﺎﻫﺪه ﺻﻮرت در و ﻃﺮﻓﻪ ﻳﻚ وارﻳﺎﻧﺲ دار ﻧـﺮم از ﺗﺤﻘﻴـﻖ اﻳـﻦ اﻃﻼﻋﺎت ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ و ﺗﺠﺰﻳﻪ ﺟﻬﺖ اﻓـﺰار ﻣﻐﺎﻥ( ﺁﺑﺎﺩ ﭘﺎﺭﺱ ﻫﻮﺍﺷﻨﺎﺳﻲ )ﺍﻳﺴﺘﮕﺎﻩ ﺍﻣﺒﺮﻭﺗﺮﻣﻴﻚ ﻣﻨﺤﻨﻲ Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec ...
... Induced Proline accumulation in AM plant is subjected to drought stress has been reported (Azco'n et al., 1996;Goicoechea et al., 1998). Similar studies were done in Vigna radiate and Vicia faba plant ( Jindal et al., 1993;Rabie and Almadina, 2005). ...
Potential of Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi in alleviating adverse salt effects on growth was tested in garlic (Allium sativum L.). Towards this objective we analyzed the AM root colonization and the activities of various antioxidant enzymes like peroxidase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase at 0, 100, 200 and 300 mM salinity levels. The activities of all the antioxidant enzymes studied were found to be increased in AM garlic plants. Antioxidant activity was maximum in 100 and 200 mM NaCl (sodium chloride) in AM and non-AM plants. Proline accumulation was induced by salt levels and it was more in leaves as well as roots of AM plants as compared to non-AM plants, this indicating that mycorrhiza reduced salt injury. Growth parameters of garlic plants like leaf area, plant fresh and dry weight and antioxidant enzyme activities were higher at moderate salinity level. This work suggests that the mycorrhiza helps garlic plants to perform better under moderate salinity level by enhancing the antioxidant activity and proline content as compared to non-AM plants.
... Co-inoculation of AMF plants with Glomus sp. has increased growth in saline soils possibly due to increased phosphate and decreased Na + concentration in shoots compared to uninoculated controls (Giri and Mukerji 2004). AMF treatment has improved salt tolerance in maize, mungbean, clover, tomato and cucumber due to P acquisition, improved osmoregulation by proline accumulation and reduced NaCl concentration (Jindal et al. 1993;Al-Karaki et al. 2001;Feng et al. 2002;Ben Khaled et al. 2003;Grover et al. 2010;Velazquez-Hernandez et al. 2011). However, research on the ability of bacterial and AM species to induce protective proteins and osmoprotectants is needed. ...
The benefits of the green revolution in agriculture are over because current agricultural productivity has touched its limits of effectiveness in increasing plant yield. This problem is complicated by shrinking farmland, high labour costs and biotic and abiotic stresses. In fact, global agriculture and increased production would depend on the application and utilisation of microorganisms of agricultural importance, which will serve as an alternative strategy for higher crop productivity in the future. Efficient microbes play a key role in integrated management practices such as biotic and abiotic stresses and nutrient management to reduce chemical use and improve cultivar performance. On the other hand, high food demand and ever-increasing population increase pressure and urgency of how to exploit the microbiome for high crop yields and reduced losses caused by environmental stresses. This chapter highlights the importance of the designer plant microbiome, a strategy that may provide an effective and sustainable increase in crop yield and ultimately leads to food security by efficiently tackling biotic and abiotic stresses.
... Higher proline contents were reported in mycorrhizal mungbean plants than non-mycorrhizal plants at NaCl concentrations of 12.5 and 25 mM (Jindal et al., 1993). Similarly, in soybean, AM plants had higher proline concentrations than non-AM plants at different NaCl levels (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mM) (Sharifi et al., 2007). ...
Salt stress is an ever-present threat to crop yields, especially in countries with irrigated agriculture. Efforts to improve salt tolerance in crop plants are vital for sustainable crop production on marginal lands to ensure future food supplies. Grain legumes are a fascinating group of plants due to their high grain protein contents and ability to fix biological nitrogen. However, the accumulation of excessive salts in soil and the use of saline groundwater are threatening legume production worldwide. Salt stress disturbs photosynthesis and hormonal regulation and causes nutritional imbalance, specific ion toxicity and osmotic effects in legumes to reduce grain yield and quality. Understanding the responses of grain legumes to salt stress and the associated tolerance mechanisms, as well as assessing management options, may help in the development of strategies to improve the performance of grain legumes under salt stress. In this manuscript, we discuss the effects, tolerance mechanisms and management of salt stress in grain legumes. The principal inferences of the review are: (i) salt stress reduces seed germination (by up to more than 50%) either by inhibiting water uptake and/or the toxic effect of ions in the embryo, (ii) salt stress reduces growth (by more than 70%), mineral uptake, and yield (by 12–100%) due to ion toxicity and reduced photosynthesis, (iii) apoplastic acidification is a good indicator of salt stress tolerance, (iv) tolerance to salt stress in grain legumes may develop through excretion and/or compartmentalization of toxic ions, increased antioxidant capacity, accumulation of compatible osmolytes, and/or hormonal regulation, (v) seed priming and nutrient management may improve salt tolerance in grain legumes, (vi) plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi may help to improve salt tolerance due to better plant nutrient availability, and (vii) the integration of screening, innovative breeding, and the development of transgenics and crop management strategies may enhance salt tolerance and yield in grain legumes on salt-affected soils.
... Higher proline contents were reported in mycorrhizal mungbean plants than non-mycorrhizal plants at NaCl concentrations of 12.5 and 25 mM (Jindal et al., 1993). Similarly, in soybean, AM plants had higher proline concentrations than non-AM plants at different NaCl levels (0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mM) (Sharifi et al., 2007). ...
Salt stress is an ever-present threat to crop yields, especially in countries with irrigated agriculture.
Efforts to improve salt tolerance in crop plants are vital for sustainable crop production on marginal
lands to ensure future food supplies. Grain legumes are a fascinating group of plants due to their high
grain protein contents and ability to fix biological nitrogen. However, the accumulation of excessive salts
in soil and the use of saline groundwater are threatening legume production worldwide. Salt stress
disturbs photosynthesis and hormonal regulation and causes nutritional imbalance, specific ion toxicity
and osmotic effects in legumes to reduce grain yield and quality. Understanding the responses of grain
legumes to salt stress and the associated tolerance mechanisms, as well as assessing management options,
may help in the development of strategies to improve the performance of grain legumes under salt
stress. In this manuscript, we discuss the effects, tolerance mechanisms and management of salt stress in
grain legumes. The principal inferences of the review are: (i) salt stress reduces seed germination (by up
to more than 50%) either by inhibiting water uptake and/or the toxic effect of ions in the embryo, (ii) salt
stress reduces growth (by more than 70%), mineral uptake, and yield (by 12e100%) due to ion toxicity
and reduced photosynthesis, (iii) apoplastic acidification is a good indicator of salt stress tolerance, (iv)
tolerance to salt stress in grain legumes may develop through excretion and/or compartmentalization of
toxic ions, increased antioxidant capacity, accumulation of compatible osmolytes, and/or hormonal
regulation, (v) seed priming and nutrient management may improve salt tolerance in grain legumes, (vi)
plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi may help to improve salt
tolerance due to better plant nutrient availability, and (vii) the integration of screening, innovative
breeding, and the development of transgenics and crop management strategies may enhance salt
tolerance and yield in grain legumes on salt-affected soils.
... In the present study increase in proline was due to AMF and PGPR .in similar findings of Shekoofeh et al. (2012) and Jindal et al. (1993) were reported for Ocimum basilicum and V. radiata. Symbiotic colonization of AMF in roots induces stress tolerance by creating osmotic balance. ...
Salinity stress adversely effects the plant growth and crop productivity. The present study examined
the effect of co inoculation of Bacillus sp and Glomus monosporum on tomato plant growth
parameters, chlorophyll, proline and antioxidant enzymes includes (ascorbate peroxidase,
superoxide dismutase, catalase) under salinity stress levels i.e 1.5 ds/m, 7.0ds/m and 12.5 ds/m in
tomato plants. The co inoculation of Bacillus sp and Glomus monosporum reduced the effect of salt
stress and enhanced the phenotypic parameters such as shoot and root length, fresh and dry
biomass of root and shoot under three salinity levels (1.5,7.0 & 12.5 ds/m) compared with control
and salinity treated plants (T3, T4 & T5). The fruit yield significantly increased in inoculated plants
compared with control and salinity treated plants. In case of antioxidant enzymes Bacillus sp
enhanced APX activity and Glomus monosporum increased CAT activity under three salinity levels
(1.5, 7.0 & 12.5 ds/m) compared with control and the three salinity treated plants. Association of
both Bacillus sp and Glomus monosporum enhanced SOD activity. In the present study both Bacillus
sp and Glomus monosporum triggered SOD activity and reduced the formation of Reactive oxygen
species (ROS) and protected plants from oxidative damage. Integrative use of Bacillus sp and
Glomus monosporum could be an encouraging, ecofriendly, enhanced the plant growth and yield
under salinity stress.
... Proline accumulation, in terms of amount, has been found to increase when the plant is colonized by AM fungi. Several authors have reported a higher proline concentration in AM plants than in non-AM plants at different salinity levels (Jindal et al. 1993, Sharifi et al. 2007). However, in contrast to the reports above, ot her authors reported that non-AM plants accumulated more proline that AM plants at various salinity levels (Wang et al. 2004, Rabie & Almadini 2005, Jahromi et al. 2008, suggesting that proline accumulation in plants may be a symptoms of stress in less salt-tolerant species or that this accumulation may be also due to salinity and not necessarily to mycorrhizal colonization. ...
Salt-affected soil is one of the most serious abiotic stress that causes reduced plant growth, development and productivity worldwide. Plants, in their natural environment, are colonized both by external and internal microorganisms. These microorganisms, particularly beneficial bacteria and fungi, can improve plant performance under stress environments and, consequently, enhance yield. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are associated with the roots of over 80% terrestrial plant species including halophytes, hydrophytes and xerophytes. In this respect, bioreclamation using mycorrhiza for alleviating salt stress would be a better option. AM fungi promote plant growth and salinity tolerance by different ways, such as enhancing nutrient acquisition, producing plant growth hormones, improving rhizospheric and soil conditions, altering the physiological and biochemical properties of the host and defending roots against soil-borne pathogens.
... plays an important role (Pfeiffer and Bloss, 1988;Giri and Mukerji, 2004). Besides, mycorrhizal plants are supposed to have some special mechanisms to alleviate salt stress such as improved osmoregulation or proline accumulation (Jindal et al., 1993;Feng et al., 2002), reduced electrolyte leakage with lower membrane permeability, the accumulation of some potential antioxidants to counteract reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Kaya et al., 2009) or dilution effects of Na in plant tissues (Al-Karaki, 2000). ...
Grafting could be a strategy against salinity stress however rootstock genotype has a key role on the tolerance. Bio-control agents also enhance plant growth and increase salinity tolerance. The aim of this research was to combine the effects of grafting and mycorrhiza under salinity stress. The experiment was conducted in a PE covered greenhouse during the autumn and spring seasons of 2008 and 2009. 'Maxifort' and 'Beaufort' hybrid tomato rootstocks grafted with commercial cultivar 'Gökçe F1'. Self grafted plants were used as control treatment. Half of the plants were put into solution with mycorrhiza (2.5 kg ha-1 EndoRoots® contained the spores of Endomycorrhizal (VAM) fungi (Glomus spp.)) for one day before transplanting while the rest planted as control without any treatment. Plants were grown in plastic containers filled with perlite. The experimental design was randomized blocks with 3 replicates. The EC level of the solution was increased up to 6 dS m-1 via NaCl. Irrigation timing was based on indoor integrated solar radiation level of 1.0 MJ m-2. Parameters related to plant growth, yield and fruit quality were determined. The use of rootstocks inoculated with mycorrhiza increased the total and marketable yield and plant growth. It was concluded that salinity tolerance could be improved if grafting is combined with mycorrhiza inoculation.
... Increased accumulation of compatible organic solutes is one of the important traits determining the tolerance potential of plant. Our findings of increase in proline due to AMF are in support of the finding ofJindal et al. (1993) for Vigna radiataand Shekoofeh et al. (2012) for Ocimum basilicum. Colonization of AMF induces stress tolerance by inducing different degree of osmotic adjustment.Phenolics encompass several groups of secondary metabolites which are implemented in several important functioning like defence. ...
Present experiments were conducted to assess the response of Panicum turgidum to salinity and possible role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in enhancing the salt tolerance. The activities of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), glutathione reductase (GR) and compatible solutes were increased by salt stress and were further enhanced by AMF inoculation. Hydrogen peroxide and malonaldehyde content increased in salt-stressed plants while a reduction was observed due to AMF inoculation. Salt-stressed plants showed higher activities of pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase (PPDK), phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) and malate dehydrogenase as compared to control and AMF-inoculated plants. Salt stress caused significant decrease in phosphorous, potassium and calcium uptake but an increase in sodium uptake was observed. AMF alleviate salinity-induced negative impact on the plant growth and nutrient uptake by reducing the oxidative damage through strengthening of the antioxidant system.
... The finding that mycorrhizal colonization by Glomus intraradices improved growth, yield, water status, nutrient content, and quality of zucchini fruits when exposed to salinity stress supports our first hypothesis that AM plants grow better than non-AM plants under saline conditions. Many studies have indicated that AM fungi mitigate growth reduction caused by salinity (Pfeiffer and Bloss 1988;Jindal et al. 1993;Gupta and Krishnamurthy 1996;Tsang and Maum 1999), but the mechanism involved remains unresolved. Poss et al. (1985) concluded that the salt tolerance mechanism in onion is primarily related to P nutrition. ...
... However, while considerable research has documented the role of AM fungi in promoting plant resilience to salt stress, AM effects on these physiological processes are not always predictable. For instance, the symbiosis has resulted in increased proline in host tissues (e.g., Jindal et al., 1993;Zeng et al., 2011;Campanelli et al., 2013), decreased proline (Aboul-Nasr, 1999;He et al., 2010;Evelin et al., 2013) and no effect on proline (Diouf et al., 2005;Borde et al., 2010). The same is true for concentrations of other organic solutes and inorganic cations. ...
Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis can enhance plant resistance to NaCl stress in several ways. Two fundamental roles involve osmotic and ionic adjustment. By stimulating accumulation of solutes, the symbiosis can help plants sustain optimal water balance and diminish Na⁺ toxicity. The size of the AM effect on osmolytes has varied widely and is unpredictable. We conducted a meta-analysis to determine the size of the AM effect on 22 plant solute characteristics after exposure to NaCl and to examine how experimental conditions have influenced the AM effect. Viewed across studies, AM symbioses have had marked effects on plant K⁺, increasing root and shoot K⁺ concentrations by an average of 47 and 42%, respectively, and root and shoot K⁺/Na⁺ ratios by 47 and 58%, respectively. Among organic solutes, soluble carbohydrates have been most impacted, with AM-induced increases of 28 and 19% in shoots and roots. The symbiosis has had no consistent effect on several characteristics, including root glycine betaine concentration, root or shoot Cl⁻ concentrations, leaf Ψπ, or shoot proline or polyamine concentrations. The AM effect has been very small for shoot Ca⁺⁺ concentration and root concentrations of Na⁺, Mg⁺⁺ and proline. Interpretations about AM-conferred benefits regarding these compounds may be best gauged within the context of the individual studies. Shoot and root K⁺/Na⁺ ratios and root proline concentration showed significant between-study heterogeneity, and we examined nine moderator variables to explore what might explain the differences in mycorrhizal effects on these parameters. Moderators with significant impacts included AM taxa, host type, presence or absence of AM growth promotion, stress severity, and whether NaCl constituted part or all of the experimental saline stress treatment. Meta-regression of shoot K⁺/Na⁺ ratio showed a positive response to root colonization, and root K⁺/Na⁺ ratio a negative response to time of exposure to NaCl.
... However, Hassanein et al. (2009) found that proline was the surviving response of the plant to tolerate the adverse effects of salinity stress. Several authors have reported that proline concentration increased in mycorrhizal plants than in nonmycorrhizal plants at different levels of salinity (Jindal et al. 1993;Sharifi et al. 2007). ...
Salinity is one of the abiotic stresses adversely affecting plant growth and productivity. Salt tolerance of plants requires knowledge of the physiological mechanisms and recognition of genes, which affect plant tolerance at different plant growth stages. Recently, the researchers try to improve plant tolerance to salt stress via biofertilizers treatments such as arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. AM fungi colonize plant root system and improve plant growth by various ways. This chapter focuses on the mechanisms of the AM fungi, which improve salt tolerance of host plants. These mechanisms include the improved nutrient uptake (N, P, Ca, and Mg), maintenance of the K+/Na+ ratio, biochemical changes (accumulation of sugar, proline, betaines, and antioxidant enzymes) and physiological changes (water status, relative permeability, chlorophyll concentration, and abscisic acid accumulation). © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014. All rights are reserved.
... This is consistent with other studies (Kaya et al. 2003;Khalvati et al. 2005;Mobasser et al. 2012;Wu and Xia 2006). The positive effect of AMF can be attributed to increased water and nutrient-uptake by the external hyphae (Jindal et al. 1993) that can penetrate soil pores inaccessible to root hairs (Khalvati et al. 2005). ...
Drought is a major abiotic factor limiting agri- cultural crop production. One of the effective ways to increase drought resistance in plants could be to optimize the exploitation of symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Hypothesizing that alleviation of water deficits by AMF in wheat will help maintain photosynthetic carbon-use, we studied the role of AMF on gas-exchange, light-use efficiencies, carbon/nitrogen ratios and growth and yield parameters in the contrasting wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars ‘Vinjett’ and ‘1110’ grown with/without AMF symbiosis. Water deficits applied at the floret initiation stage significantly decreased rates of photosynthetic carbon gain, transpiration and stomatal conductance in the two wheat cultivars. AMF increased the rates of photosynthesis, tran- spiration and stomatal conductance under drought condi- tions. Water deficits decreased electron transport rate and increased non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) in ‘1110’ but not in ‘Vinjett’. With AMF, nitrogen concentrations increased in roots of both cultivars, but decreased in grains of ‘Vinjett’ and in side-tiller grains of ‘1110’ regardless of water status. With water deficits, AMF colonization increased plant height in both cultivars. AMF also increased biomass and grain yield in ‘1110’ but not in ‘Vinjett’. The results showed that the improvements in growth and yield were the results of AMF-mediated increases in photosyn- thesis during drought stress and that the alleviating effect of AMF depended on the wheat cultivar.
... Although VAM fungi mitigate growth reduction caused by soil salinity (Gupta and Krishnamurthy, 1996;Hirrel and Gerdemann, 1980;Jindal et al., 1993;Ojala et al., 1983;Pfeiffer and Bloss, 1988;Pond et al., 1984;Poss et al., 1985;Tsang and Maun, 1999), the mechanism involved remains unresolved. Poss et al. (1985) concluded that the salt-tolerance mechanism in onion is primarily related to P nutrition. ...
The hypothesis that inoculation of transplants with vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi before planting into saline soils alleviates salt effects on growth and yield was tested on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and onion ( Allium cepa L.). A second hypothesis was that fungi isolated from saline soil are more effective in counteracting salt effects than those from nonsaline soil. VAM fungi from high- and low-salt soils were trap-cultured, their propagules quantified and adjusted to a like number, and added to a pasteurized soil mix in which seedlings were grown for 3–4 weeks. Once the seedlings were colonized by VAM fungi, they were transplanted into salinized (NaCl) soil. Preinoculated lettuce transplants grown for 11 weeks in the saline soils had greater shoot mass compared with nonVAM plants at all salt levels [2 (control), 4, 8 and 12 dS m^−1] tested. Leaves of VAM lettuce at the highest salt level were significantly greener (more chlorophyll) than those of the nonVAM lettuce. NonVAM onions were stunted due to P deficiency in the soil, but inoculation with VAM fungi alleviated P deficiency and salinity effects; VAM onions were significantly larger at all salt levels than nonVAM onions. In a separate experiment, addition of P to salinized soil reduced the salt stress effect on nonVAM onions but to a lesser extent than by VAM inoculation. VAM fungi from the saline soil were not more effective in reducing growth inhibition by salt than those from the nonsaline site. Colonization of roots and length of soil hyphae produced by the VAM fungi decreased with increasing soil salt concentration. Results indicate that preinoculation of transplants with VAM fungi can help alleviate deleterious effects of saline soils on crop yield.
Use of microorganisms in stressed soils can alleviate stresses in plants. In order to assessing the effect of phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms (PSB: Pseudomonasfluorescens, PSF: Aspergillus niger) and mycorrhizal fungi (M: Funneliformis mosseae (G. mosseae), Rhizophagus irregularis (G. intraradices),
Rhizophagus fasciculatus (G. fasciculatum)) and their interactions on improving nutrient uptake under salinity condition, an experiment carried out in a randomized complete bolck design in greenhouse conditions. At the end of growing period, some plant growth indicators and nutrient concentrations in plant shoot were measured. The results showed that salinity levels had a significant impact on
phosphorous uptake and the amount of potassium, sodium, chlorine, shoot length. Proline accumulation in leaves (0.96 µmol g-1) was other impact of salinity. Among microbial treatments, mycorrhiza had the highest values of the measured parameters. So that, the highest amounts of growth indices including
shoot length (78.89 cm), shoot dry weight (15.77 g pot-1) and root dry weight (8.47 g pot-1) were observed in mycorrhiza treatment. Leaves nitrogen and potassium contents increased in microbial inoculation condition but shoot sodium and chlorine decreased dramatically in this condition. Fungi and mycorrhizal treatments increased leaf proline amount 15.46% and 15.85% compared to control,
respectively. It is inferred that inoculation of AMF drastically decreased salinity effects on corn plants compared to other phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms.
Keywords: Corn, Mycorrhiza, Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms, Phosphorous, Salinity
Today, soil salinity has increased significantly due to global warming, unconscious irrigation, and fertilization practices. Soil salinity has become a more important problem, especially in arid and semi-arid areas. As a result of excessive evaporation and decreased precipitation in these soils, the salts formed in the soil cannot be washed into the lower layers, so salt accumulation increases. Salty soils constitute 7% of the terrestrial areas in the world and it is predicted that 50% of the land will become unusable in the near future. The increase in soil salinity causes physiological drought by reducing the amount of usable water in the soil solution. In addition, excess sodium and chloride ions cause toxicity in the cell, which leads to the deterioration of the structure of enzymes and other macromolecules, deformation of cell organelles and plasma membrane, and disruption of photosynthesis, respiration and protein synthesis. Thus, ion deficiencies occur because the plant cannot take water and nutrients dissolved in water. In addition to these, salt stress causes the physiological functions of the plants to deteriorate, the fertilization to be disrupted, the fruits formed to remain small and thus the yield to decrease. For this reason, the number of studies on the use of techniques that allow plant cultivation in salty soils has increased in recent years. One of them is the use of mycorrhizae. In this review, studies on the use of mycorrhizae against salt stress were examined. In these studies, it has been shown that as a result of mycorrhiza and plant symbiosis, the plant's nutrient intake increases, osmo regulators such as proline and carbohydrates are accumulated, the rate of photosynthesis increases, sodium and chlorine intake decreases, and water use efficiency increases. Therefore, the use of mycorrhiza reduces salt stress as a result of a combination of nutritional, biochemical and physiological effects. In addition, mycorrhizal colonization increases the conductivity of the stoma and reduces oxidative damage in plants exposed to salinity.
Keywords: Salt stress, mycorrhizae, vegetables, proline, carbohydrate.
Agriculture is considered to be one of the most vulnerable sectors to climate change. Crop production, particularly in tropical regions is facing increasing stresses caused due to natural and anthropogenic factors. Stress in plants refers to external conditions that adversely affect growth, development, or productivity of plants. Stresses trigger a wide range of plant responses like altered gene expression, cellular metabolism, changes in growth rates, crop yields, etc. A plant stress usually reflects some sudden changes in environmental condition. Plant stress can be divided into two primary categories namely abiotic stress and biotic stress. Abiotic stress imposed on plants by environment may be either physical or chemical, while biotic stress exposed to the crop plants is a biological unit like diseases and insects. Plants in natural systems and crop lands are simultaneously exposed to both biotic and abiotic stresses. Abiotic stresses such as drought (water stress), excessive watering (water logging), extreme temperatures (cold, frost, and heat), salinity, and mineral toxicity negatively impact growth, development, yield, and seed quality of crops and other plants. Abiotic stress tolerance plays a vital role in determining crop productivity and distribution of plant species across the environment. These factors are likely to cause serious negative impacts on crop growth and yields and impose severe pressure on our land and water resources. The plant provides nutrition to the endophytes, while in return endophytes help in adaption to abiotic conditions like nutrients limitation, salination, and extreme pH, drought, temperature variation, and protection from pathogens, insects, and nematodes.
Grain legumes are the key component in improving nutritional security, as a rich source in protein, minerals, and vitamins. They play an important role in sustaining soil health through symbiotic nitrogen fixation, a signature feature of legumes. Grain legumes are cultivated in marginal lands with limited input supply, and risk of abiotic and biotic stresses leads to yield reduction up to 30%–100% based on severity. The United Nations declared 2016 as the International Year of Pulses (IYP) to position pulses as a primary protein source and to accelerate research cooperation at the global level to improve pulse production. The demand for agriculture yield has been increased rapidly due to an increase in the world’s population. Increased use of agrochemicals leads to degradation of soil quality and fertility in the agricultural fields. Hence, the attention should be made for sustainable agricultural productivity with safe practices. Stress-tolerant varieties along with better management strategies can improve the productivity and climate resilience of grain legumes. Microbes have devised a sophisticated signaling system for eliciting an adaptive response to stresses. Such microbes can be exploited as a successful strategy to protect against deleterious effects caused by soilborne and seedborne deleterious plant pathogens. Decades
of research have shown that development and utilization of microbial bioinoculants are a low-input, sustainable, and environmentally friendly technology to mitigate abiotic and biotic stresses of plants. Little information is available concerning the management of abiotic and biotic stresses in grain legumes including pulse crops. The present book will guide researchers by providing reviewed research findings from renowned laboratories related to microbe-mediated plant stress management under one roof. This book is composed of five sections with 20 chapters. Sections I through III represent in-depth insights into crop responses and microbial-mediated mitigation in legume, soybean, and groundnut plants. Section IV deals with crop responses to microbial-mediated abiotic stress management, and
Section V provides deep insight into crop responses to microbial-mediated abiotic stress management including the role of cry genes in pest management. It also discusses the current and future status of microbial formulations, commercialization, and product regulation for making the strategy a successful technology. This book will be useful to graduate students, research scholars, scientists, and teachers of different disciplines (plant microbiology, plant pathology, agronomy, botany, and biotechnology) and other professionals for understanding and updating their knowledge on microbe-mediated management
of abiotic and biotic stresses in grain legumes.
Food production and food security for the globally growing population need to increase in sustainable agricultural system because the world population will reach nine billion by 2050. Over half of the population growth will occur in the developing world especially in the densely populated African and Asian countries. Additionally, several factors such as small land holding, agricultural labour costs and environmental stresses are further significantly contributing towards chronic global hunger problem. Exploitation of plant microbiome has a huge potential in alleviating negative impact of global changes on plant productivity by promoting plant health, tackling abiotic stresses, enhancing nutrient acquisition and developing an integrated, low-input sustainable agriculture system. As a matter of fact, agriculture with enhanced productivity would depend on understanding the plant-microbe interaction mechanisms and utilization of microbes to completely exploit the biotechnological potential of natural partnership in most of the crop plants. However, synthesis and development of microbe consortia for sustainable crop productivity under stresses would represent one of the promising areas of research in the future because high competition with native soil often renders single microbial strains ineffective in promoting plant growth and stress tolerance. The future challenge in plant-associated microbiome research is tackled by designing novel microbiome-driven approaches like assemblage and engineering of microbiome with specific, sustained beneficial effects for exploiting the microbiome in sustainable agriculture. Successful deployment of microbiome engineering efforts will open up new horizons for investing on improving microbiome for reducing negative impact of climate deterioration on plant productivity. This article provides an overview of effective designing and utilization of the plant-based microbiome, an integrated approach in future agriculture to address food security by effectively handling environmental challenges.
Abstract
To study the effects of mycorrhizal inoculation and salinity stress on the growth, yield and nutrient concentrations of cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), an experiment was carried out as split plot in a completely randomized block design at Zabol University Research Farm in 2013. Treatments consisted of three salinity stresses: 1 (control), 5 and 10 dSm-1 , was considered as the main treatments, and four levels of mycorrhizal inoculation (Glomus intraradices, G. etanicatum, G. hoi and non-inoculation as control) as the sub-treatments. The effects of salinity on all traits under study, except umbers per plant, were significant, and severe stress (10 dSm-1 ) reduced 100 seed weight, number of seeds per umbel, concentrations of phosphorus, calcium and magnesium in seeds by 17.71, 11.4, 14.95, 46.08, 13.60 %, respectively, as compared to the control. The numbers of seeds per umbel and phosphorus concentration in seed were highest in G. intraradices with 28.4 and 54.4%, respectively as compared to control and umbels per plant was also maximum (9.7) by using G. etanicatum. Mycorrhizal inoculation did not have significant effect on calcium and magnesium concentrations in seeds and 1000 seed weight. However mycorrhiza × salinity stress interaction was significant about concentration of sodium, potassium and sodium to potassium ratio (Na/K) in seeds, as well as seed yield and seed number per plant. Among the species of mycorrhiza, applied G. intraradices had better performance in severe salinity (10 dS-1 ) and increased seed yield and seed number per plant by 28.5 and 47.6%, respectively in comparision control. The results suggested that mycorrhizal inoculation improves water absorption by plant. Yield increases of plants under different salinity regimes dependent on their mycorrhizal inoculation.
Key words: Medicinal plant, Stress, Symbiosis, Yield.
To study the effects of mycorrhizal inoculation and salinity stress on the growth, yield and nutrient concentrations of cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.), an experiment was carried out as split plot in a completely randomized block design at Zabol University Research Farm in 2013. Treatments consisted of three salinity stresses: 1 (control), 5 and 10 dSm-1, was considered as the main treatments, and four levels of mycorrhizal inoculation (Glomus intraradices, G. etanicatum, G. hoiand non-inoculation as control) as the sub-treatments. The effects of salinity on all traits under study, except umbers per plant, were significant, and severe stress (10 dSm-1) reduced 100 seed weight, number of seeds per umbel, concentrations of phosphorus, calcium and magnesium in seeds by 17.71, 11.4, 14.95, 46.08, 13.60 %, respectively, as compared to the control. The numbers of seeds per umbel and phosphorus concentration in seed were highest in G. intraradices with 28.4 and 54.4%, respectively as compared to control and umbels per plant was also maximum (9.7) by using G. etanicatum. Mycorrhizal inoculation did not have significant effect on calcium and magnesium concentrations in seeds and 1000 seed weight. However mycorrhiza × salinity stress interaction was significant about concentration of sodium, potassium and sodium to potassium ratio (Na/K) in seeds, as well as seed yield and seed number per plant. Among the species of mycorrhiza, applied G. intraradices had better performance in severe salinity (10 dS-1) and increased seed yield and seed number per plant by 28.5 and 47.6%, respectively in comparision control. The results suggested that mycorrhizal inoculationimproves water absorption by plant. Yield increases of plants under different salinity regimes dependent on their mycorrhizal inoculation.
The endophytic Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) fungi is mutually associated with root systems of higher plants. This fungus colonizes both inter- and intracellularly in the roots of plants. Curcuma longa is a herbaceous perennial plant commonly called turmeric, belonging to the Zingiberaceae family and native to southern Asia, particularly India. Our country is a leading producer and exporter of turmeric in the world. It is used as a condiment, dye, cosmetic, and medicine, and is also used in religious ceremonies. The present study focuses on the influence of AM fungal effect and salinity on Curcuma longa plants grown under greenhouse conditions. This investigation reported that lower concentrations of sodium chloride do not show drastic effects on plant growth when they are treated with AM fungi compared to non-AM fungi-inoculated control plants. Thus AM fungi improved the salt tolerance in Curcuma longa plants at lower concentrations of sodium chloride.
Although the salt resistance mechanisms in plants have received much consideration for many years, varieties’ differences affecting salt resistance are still unsettled. Within the Ocimum genus there occur about 200 species in different varieties and forms. A pot experiment was performed to better understand salt stress responses in crop plants; we compared the impacts of salinity stress on growth and physio-biochemical characteristics in three varieties of basil (Ocimum basilicum) var. odoratus, O. b. var. alba and O. b. var. purpurascens) grown under four levels of salinity stress (0, 50, 100, and 150 mM NaCl) with mycorrhiza (Glomus clarum Nicol. & Schenck) or without. Results showed significant differences within salinity treatments in all cultivars studied. In this study, the biomass production and physio-biochemical parameters of all cultivars reduced with raised salinity levels except concentration of reducing sugars, sodium, and proline at 150 mM of NaCl, only the variety ‘purpurascens’ didn't show reduction and observed resistant against severe salinity. The colonization of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi enhanced the biomass production and accumulation of nutrients, reducing sugars, total soluble carbohydrates, photosynthetic pigments, proline, and protein by reducing Na. This study should help understand the function of AMF fungi in basil cultivars’ tolerance to salinity stress.
The effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi on the tolerance of Paeonia suffruticosa to salt stress (0%, 8%, 16% and 24%) were studied. Potted 'Feng Dan' seedlings were inoculated with AM fungus Glomus mosseae, and the non-inoculated was used as control. The results showed that AM fungal inoculation promoted the accumulation of soluble sugar and soluble protein in leaves, increased the ratios of K +/Na +, but reduced the accumulation of proline. These results suggest that AM fungi may play an important role in the enhanced salt tolerance and growth of treepeony seedlings.
Present study deals with the individual and combined effect of Glomus fasciculatum and indigenous Glomus mosseae isolate on growth and nutrient contents of Arachis hypogaea under soil salinity stress (EC: 1.04, 2.10, 3.78, 5.94 and 8.26dS/ m). After growth period of sixty days, a significant improvement in plant height, dry biomass, total chlorophyll, proline content was observed in mycorrhizal plants over non mycorrhizal plants. Mycorrhizal plants inoculated with both the isolates in combination showed a maximum increment in the parameters like dry biomass (29.46%), total chlorophyll (28.45%), proline (16.66%), soluble protein (23.35%), soluble sugar content (30.63%) and mycorrhizal dependency (22.76%) at provided salinity stress levels. Reduction in electrolyte leakage in mycorrhizal plants may help to overcome adverse salt effects on plant growth. G. mosseae and G. fasciculatum isolates in combination can be used as bio-inoculant to alleviate negative salinity effect on A. hypogaea plant growth and nutrient accumulation.
Plants are continuously confronted by a variety of environmental stresses at various stages in their development. Extremely harse environmental conditions lead to oxidative stress because of the toxicities of certain ions and the overproduction of reactive oxygen species. Various stress-tolerance strategies are triggered that help plants to overcome/mitigate the stress-induced deleterious effects. These include morphological adaptations, osmoregulation, and enhanced activities of enzymatic as well as nonenzymatic antioxidants. To some extent, these strategies do help plants withstand unfavorable environmental conditions; however, in order to meet the food needs of the increasing world population, we have to develop/implement strategies to induce enhanced stress tolerance potential in crop plants. In connection with this, exploiting the biological means to induce enhanced stress tolerance for sustainable crop productivity is one of the promising means. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) form symbiotic associations with the majority of the plants, altering root morphology and physiology as well. AMF-infected plants show efficient nutrient uptake and have higher enzymatic activities. The review in this chapter encompasses the general information about AMF and their possible role in stress mitigation.
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an important ornamental plant and good source of vegetable oil, widely accepted as potential promising plant for phytoremediation. A pot experiment was conducted to evaluate the impact of cadmium on the growth and some biochemical attributes of sunflower and role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in assuaging the cadmium stress induced changes. Cadmium treatment reduced growth, chlorophyll contents and cell membrane stability. AMF inoculated plants showed increased growth, chlorophyll contents and cell membrane stability and also mitigated changes caused due to cadmium. Cadmium caused increase in lipid peroxidation, and hydrogen peroxide production. An increase in antioxidant enzyme activity was observed due to cadmium treatment which was further enhanced by inoculation of AMF. Increase in proline and total phenols due to cadmium stress was obvious. Cadmium stressed plants showed enhanced fatty acid content. AMF inoculated plants showed higher activities of acid and alkaline phosphatases which were reduced by cadmium stress. However palmitoleic acid (C16:1), oleic (C18:1), linoleic (C18:2) and linolenic acid (C18:3) reduced in cadmium treated plants and the negative impact of cadmium was mitigated by AMF.
Eight representative plant species growing in the Nethravathi mangrove forest stand of the southwest coast of India were assessed to understand the assemblage and diversity of AM fungi in relation to rhizosphere edaphic factors. The maximum arbuscular colonization was 61% in Derris triflorum followed by 60% in Canavalia cathartica, while it was least in Cyperus malaccensis (7.8%). The mean spore and species richness were also highest in D. triflorum. The rhizosphere of D. triflorum consists of the highest number of spores (430/100 g), while it was lowest in Sonneratia alba (67/100 g). Altogether, 47 species of AM fungi were recovered with highest in D. triflorum (34 sp.) and lowest S. alba (7 sp.). Species of Glomus were maximum (15 sp.), followed by Scutellospora (13 sp.) and Acaulospora (9 sp.). Sctullospora nigra was most frequent (35%) and found in all plant species except for S. alba followed by Glomus dimorphicum (30%) and unknown sp. 3 (30%). Acaulospora taiwania and Scutellospora sp. were common to all plant species. Sixteen species were restricted to any one of the host species with a maximum of 11 species in D. triflorum. The Shannon's diversity was highest in D. triflorum (5.09) and it was least in S. alba (2.81). Except for S. alba and S. littoreus, in rest of the species, the core-group fungi (>20 spores/100 g soil) contributed between 49% (D. triflorum) and 71% (Acanthus ilicifolius and Achrostichum aureum) spores in rhizosphere indicates their importance in mangrove habitats. In 110 isolations, the expected number of spores were highest in the genus Glomus (34) followed by Scutellospora (31), Acaulospora (22), Gigaspora (16) and unknown morphotypes (14). The species similarity was highest between Rhizophora mucronata and Acrostichum aureum (55%), while it was least between D. triflorum and S. alba (12.1%). The AM colonization in C. malaccensis was significantly correlated with pH (r = 0.918), while in C. cathartica with salinity (r = 0.922). The AM spore density was significantly correlated with moisture in C. malaccensis (r = 0.903) and R. mucronata (r = 0.974). The spore density of C. malaccensis was also significantly correlated with temperature (r = 0.929), while in Spinifex littoreus with salinity (r = 0.932). The AM species richness of C. cathartica was significantly correlated with pH (r = 0.940), while in A. ilicifolius with conductivity (r = 0.911). The reports on AM fungal association with plant species of various salt-prone ecosystems (estuaries, mangroves and coastal sand dunes) are compared with the present study to discuss the intricacies.
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