Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
7
Brief introduction to the geology of the Ilímaussaq alkaline
complex, South Greenland, and its exploration history
Henning Sørensen
The Ilímaussaq alkaline complex, the type locality of agpaitic nepheline syenites, is made up
of three intrusive phases, (1) augite syenite, (2) alkali acid rocks and (3) agpaitic nepheline
syenites which occupy the major part of the complex. The agpaitic phase comprises a roof
series, a floor series and an intermediate sequence of rocks. The roof series crystallised from
the roof downwards beginning with non-agpaitic pulaskite and ending with distinctly agpaitic
naujaite. The exposed part of the floor series is made up of the layered agpaitic nepheline
syenite kakortokite. The intermediate sequence consists of several types of distinctly agpaitic
lujavrites which are accompanied by occurrences of uranium and other rare elements.
The complex was first visited by K.L. Giesecke in 1806 and 1809. The first detailed mapping
of the complex was carried out by N.V. Ussing in 1900 and 1908. He presented a precise
description of the major rock types and an illuminating discussion of the petrology of the
complex in his 1912 memoir. In the period 1912–1955 there was very limited activity in the
complex. Exploration for radioactive minerals in Ilímaussaq was initiated in 1955 and in sub-
sequent years followed by geological mapping carried out by the Geological Survey of Green-
land. This led to a series of detailed studies of the occurrences of not only U, but also Be, Nb,
REE and Zr, and to mineralogical, geochemical and petrological studies as well as commercial
evaluation and drilling.
Geological Institute, University of Copenhagen, Øster Voldgade 10, DK-1350 Copenhagen K,
Denmark. E-mail: hennings@geo.geol.ku.dk
Keywords: agpaite, alkaline complex, Ilímaussaq, nepheline syenites, South Greenland, ura-
nium deposit
The Ilímaussaq alkaline complex (Fig. 1) is one of a
number of intrusive complexes in the Gardar igneous
province, a mid-Proterozoic rift zone in South Green-
land (Allaart 1973; Upton & Emeleus 1987; Kalsbeek
et al. 1990; Macdonald & Upton 1993). The first de-
tailed description, with a geological map and a dis-
cussion of the petrogenesis of the complex, was pre-
sented by Ussing (1912), who introduced the term
agpaitic nepheline syenite. According to the recom-
mendations of the IUGS Subcommission on the No-
menclature and Classification of Igneous Rocks (Le
Maitre 1989), the term agpaitic should be restricted to
peralkaline nepheline syenites having complex Zr-Ti
silicate minerals such as eudialyte and rinkite instead
of the more common minerals zircon, titanite and
ilmenite. Since the appearance of Ussing’s memoir
numerous papers on the geology, mineralogy, petrol-
ogy, geochemistry and economic geology of the com-
plex have been published as is apparent from the bib-
liography presented in a companion report
(Rose-Hansen et al. 2001). The most recent presenta-
tions of the general geology and petrology of the com-
plex are those of Larsen & Sørensen (1987) and Sø-
rensen & Larsen (1987).
The complex has been dated at 1143 ± 21 Ma (re-
calculated from Blaxland et al. 1976), 1130 ± 50 Ma
(Paslick et al. 1993), 1160 ± 5 Ma (U–Pb, G. Markl,
Tübingen University, personal communication 2000),
1160.7 ± 3.4 Ma and 1161.8 ± 3.4 Ma (Rb–Sr, T. Waight,
Danish Lithosphere Centre, personal communication
2000).
The complex measures 17 × 8 km, and the exposed
Geology of Greenland Survey Bulletin 190, 7–23 (2001) © GEUS 2001
8
Illunnguaq
Tu n u l l i a r f ik
T
a
seq
Nakkaalaaq
Ilimmaasaq
N
a
r
s
a
q
E
l
v
L
i
l
l
e
e
l
v
Kangerluarsuk
Agpaitic nepheline syenites
0 3 km
Kvanefjeld
Tupersuatsiaat
Appat
Superficial
deposits
Narssaq intrusion
Gardar supracrustals
Basement granite
Fault
61
O
60
O
57´
46
O
M-C lujavrite
Arfvedsonite lujavrite
Lujavrite transition zone
Aegirine lujavrite
Naujaite
Sodalite foyaite
Pulaskite, foyaite
Kakortokite and
marginal pegmatite
Alkali granite,
quartz syenite
Augite syenite
Narsaq
Tugtutoq
Igaliko
Na
Narssarssuk
Na
Nu
Gardar intrusions
Gardar supracrustals
Basement
48
O
47
O
0 10 20 30 km
Inland Ice
61
O
61
O
Nunarsuatsiaq
Nu
Laksefjeld
L
Nunasarnaq
L
L
a
k
s
e
e
l
v
L
a
k
s
e
-
t
v
r
e
l
v
Ilimaussaq
Ivigtut
Naajakasik
Søndre
Siorarsuit
Talut
Tuttup
Attakoorfia
Nunasarnaasaq
Kringlerne
´
æ
9
vertical thickness is about 1700 m. It is estimated that
the complex was emplaced 3–4 km below the con-
temporary surface at the discontinuity between the
Ketilidian crystalline basement (c.1800 Ma, e.g. Chad-
wick & Garde 1996) and the overlying Eriksfjord For-
mation made up of continental sandstones and lavas
of mainly basaltic composition. The basement and the
overlying sandstones and lavas are intruded by nu-
merous mainly basaltic dykes. The Eriksfjord Forma-
tion is the surface expression of Gardar activity and is
preserved only in down-faulted blocks. Gardar activi-
ties embrace the period 1350 to c. 1120 Ma (Paslick et
al. 1993); the Ilímaussaq complex is thus an expres-
sion of young Gardar activity.
Three intrusive phases may be distinguished in the
formation of the Ilímaussaq complex (Fig. 1). The first
phase is made up of augite syenite which is preserv-
ed only as a partial marginal shell and in the roof (Fig.
2). The second phase consists of alkali granite and
quartz syenite which are found in the roof and as
blocks engulfed by rocks of the third intrusive phase
(Steenfelt 1981). The third intrusive phase occupies the
major part of the complex. It is made up of a roof series,
a floor series, and an intermediate sequence (Fig. 3).
The major rock types of the complex are presented
in Table 1.
The roof series crystallised from the top downwards,
forming the succession pulaskite, foyaite, sodalite
foyaite and naujaite (Figs 3, 4). The contacts of these
rocks grade into each other, but blocks of the upper-
most rocks were loosened from the temporary roof of
the magma chamber and engulfed by the underlying
crystallising rocks. Larsen (1976) demonstrated that
there is a gradual evolution in mineralogy from pu-
laskite to naujaite. The primary mineral association
alkali feldspar, nepheline, fayalite, hedenbergite, apa-
tite and titanomagnetite is substituted downwards by
sodalite, nepheline, alkali feldspar, aegirine, arfved-
sonite, eudialyte and aenigmatite. Sodalite is an inter-
stitial mineral in the early stages of formation of the
sodalite foyaite, but gradually becomes a liquidus
phase and is a flotation cumulus phase in the naujaite.
This rock is poikilitic and made up of crystals of
sodalite, up to 1 cm across, enclosed in grains of al-
kali feldspar, aegirine, arfvedsonite and eudialyte,
which may measure 10 cm or more. The sodalite foyaite
and naujaite are agpaitic nepheline syenites.
The floor series is made up of a layered and lami-
nated series of kakortokite, that is an agpaitic nephe-
line syenite with the major minerals alkali feldspar,
nepheline, aegirine, arfvedsonite and eudialyte. The
bottom of the series is unknown. The lowermost vis-
ible part is made up of centimetre-thick layers with
varying contents of mafic minerals, feldspar and eudi-
alyte. It displays trough structures and cross-bedding
and is overlain by a series made up of 29 three-layer
units, each about 10 m thick and made up of a lower
black layer rich in arfvedsonite and an upper much
thicker white layer rich in alkali feldspar (Fig. 5). Be-
tween these layers, there is often a thin red layer rich
in eudialyte (Bohse et al. 1971). The black, red and
white layers pass gradually into each other, whereas
the black layers are separated from the underlying
Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Ilímaussaq alkaline com-
plex. The area to the north of Tunulliarfik is based on Ferguson
(1964), the area to the south of this fjord on Andersen et al.
(1988), with minor modifications. Index map with names of
Gardar complexes mentioned in the text. M-C lujavrite: me-
dium- to coarse-grained. For further explanation see Table 1.
Fig. 2. The contact between the agpaitic
rocks (on the right) and the augite syenite
(on the left). The augite syenite is pen-
etrated by fractures parallel to the con-
tact, and rafts of augite syenite are en-
closed in the agpaitic rock. Lakse-tværelv
in the southernmost part of the complex.
10
white layers by sharp contacts. Bohse et al. (1971)
have numbered the layered units, the lower part from
unit no. –11 to unit 0, the upper part from units 0 to
+17. The most recent discussions of the origin of the
layering are given by Larsen & Sørensen (1987) and
Bailey (1995); see also Upton et al. (1996).
The lowermost part of the naujaite and the lower-
most sodalite-bearing part of the kakortokite may be
contemporaneous (Sørensen & Larsen 1987), but the
floor sequence which formed simultaneously with the
greater part of the roof zone is unexposed.
The kakortokite and in places the naujaite are sepa-
rated from the augite syenite rim by a marginal pegmatite
zone (cf. Bohse et al. 1971; Bohse & Andersen 1981).
The layered series of kakortokite passes gradually
upwards into a thin unit of transitional layered kako-
rtokite which again passes gradually into the interme-
diate sequence of lujavrites. These are agpaitic meso-
to melanocratic nepheline syenites which are gener-
ally fine-grained, laminated and occasionally layered
(Sørensen & Larsen 1987).
The lowermost part of the lujavrite sequence is made
up of green rocks rich in aegirine and in places also
in eudialyte. Bohse & Andersen (1981) distinguish a
* Analcime and natrolite are secondary minerals in most rocks.
† There are several types of lujavrites. Three major groups may be distinguished:
aegirine or green lujavrite
with aegirine being
the dominant mafic mineral;
arfvedsonite or black lujavrite,
fine-grained, often laminated with arfvedsonite as the dominant
mafic mineral;
medium- to coarse-grained lujavrite (M-C lujavrite)
with arfvedsonite as the dominant mafic mineral and
generally showing foyaitic textures.
Naujakasite lujavrite
is a variety of arfvedsonite lujavrite containing naujakasite instead of
nepheline and with steenstrupine instead of eudialyte.
11
Volcanic roof
Augite syenite
Foyaite, sodalite foyaite
Naujaite
Kakortokite
Lujavrite
Contact pegmatite
Hydrothermal veins
Contact-metasomatised
volcanic rocks
Agpaitic
nepheline
syenites
lower aegirine lujavrite I zone which gradually passes
into the overlying aegirine lujavrite II. The upper part
of the intermediate sequence is made up of black ar-
fvedsonite-rich, fine-grained laminated rocks. Dykes
and sheets of lujavrite intersect the rocks of the roof
zone; in places the naujaite in the immediately over-
lying roof is brecciated and strongly altered by the
lujavrite. On the Kvanefjeld plateau in the northern-
most part of the complex (Fig. 6), lujavrites are in
contact with the volcanic roof of the complex, which
is strongly fenitised adjacent to the lujavrites (Sørensen
et al. 1969, 1974). There are several generations of
lujavrite. One of the latest phases consists of naujakasite
lujavrite rich in steenstrupine (Sørensen et al. 1974;
Sørensen 1997a). It is an important feature that
steenstrupine substitutes for eudialyte in the most
evolved lujavrites. This represents the hyper-agpaitic
stage of development characterised by naujakasite,
steenstrupine, ussingite, vitusite and other minerals
(Sørensen & Larsen 2001, this volume). The youngest
lujavrites are the so-called medium- to coarse-grained
lujavrites (M-C lujavrites); they are accompanied by
pegmatites and hydrothermal veins containing
steenstrupine, pyrochlore, Be and Cu minerals, and
by fenitisation of the volcanic roof. The Kvanefjeld
uranium deposit is made up of steenstrupine lujavrites
and fenitised roof rocks rich in steenstrupine.
Fig. 3. A section through the complex
viewed from Kringlerne plateau towards
the north. Foreground layered kakortokites
(K), the dark rocks in the middle ground
belong to the intermediate sequence of lu-
javrites (L). The light grey rocks in the wall
facing south towards the fjord Kangerluar-
suk (Kang) are made up of the roof series
with pulaskite-foyaite (P) and sodalite
foyaite (SF) in the upper part, naujaite (N)
in the lower part bordering the augite sy-
enite shell (A). The contact between the
roof zone and the basement granite and
its overlying sandstone (S) with intercalated
basalt (B) on the mountain Nunasarnaasaq
(1442 m, on the left) is very sharp. The
high mountains in the far distance (to the
north of Tunulliarfik, see Fig. 1) have rem-
nants of the volcanic roof (B) on top of
the roof series (cf. Fig. 4). The distance to
Kangerluarsuk is about 2 km.
Fig. 4. Schematic section through the c. 1700 m of exposed
stratigraphy of the Ilímaussaq alkaline complex.
12
The arfvedsonite lujavrites and the M-C lujavrites
have the highest contents of Li, Rb, Be, REE, Zn, U,
Th, etc. of all the rocks of the complex, whereas the
kakortokites have the highest contents of Nb, Ta, Zr,
Hf and Y (Gerasimovsky 1969; Kunzendorf et al. 1982;
Sørensen 1992; Bailey et al. 2001, this volume).
Fluid inclusions in the minerals of the agpaitic rocks
of the complex are rich in methane and other hydro-
carbons (cf. Konnerup-Madsen 2001, this volume).
The basalts in the part of the Gardar rift zone which
contains the Ilímaussaq and Tugtutôq igneous com-
plexes (Fig. 1) are richer in alkalis, P, Ba, Sr, Nb and
LREE than the basic rocks in other parts of the Gardar
province. This indicates an origin in a mantle source
enriched in incompatible elements, perhaps because
of metasomatism (Macdonald & Upton 1993, Upton
1996). The agpaitic nepheline syenites of the Ilímaus-
saq complex are considered to be products of extended
fractionation of transitional to alkali basaltic melts in
deep magma chambers combined with some crustal
contamination (Larsen & Sørensen 1987; Stevenson et
al. 1997; Bailey et al. 2001, this volume). The Tugtutôq–
Ilímaussaq zone is underlain by a gravity high which
may represent cumulates of olivine and other mafic
minerals accumulated during the fractionation proces-
ses (Blundell 1978). In this connection it is of interest
to note that the Ilímaussaq complex is marked as a
magnetic low on the aeromagnetic map of the region
(Thorning & Stemp 1997).
The eudialyte-rich parts of the naujaites, kakor-
Fig. 5. The lowermost exposed part of the
complex, made up of thin layers of kako-
rtokite with trough layering displaced by
a minor fault (arrow, lower left). In the
background the main series of kakortokite
made up of a repetition of three-layer
units, in which the black and white layers
can be distinguished. The faulted white
trough band is approximately 5 m wide
and 15 cm thick.
Fig. 6. The Narsaq Elv valley. The moun-
tain on the left is Kvanefjeld (685 m) made
up of volcanic rocks in the upper part and
lujavrites, naujaites, etc. in the lower part.
The Ilimmaasaq mountain (1390 m, cen-
tre) is made up of basaltic rocks under-
lain by lujavrites. The mountain on the
right is Nakkaalaaq 1334 m) made up of
the roof series; the slope below, the Taseq
slope, is made up of naujaite. The distance
between Kvanefjeld and Ilimmaasaq is
approximately 4 km.
13
tokites and lujavrites represent an enormous resource
of Zr, Nb and REE, especially HREE (Bohse et al. 1971;
Sørensen 1992). These rock types are accompanied
by pegmatites and hydrothermal mineralisations. Ex-
amples are ussingite veins rich in chkalovite and other
Be minerals (Semenov 1969; Engell et al. 1971), oc-
currences of pyrochlore and other Nb minerals
(Hansen 1968), and the above-mentioned Kvanefjeld
uranium deposit (Sørensen et al. 1974).
History of exploration
Various aspects of the history of exploration of the
Ilímaussaq complex have been presented by Søren-
sen (1967) who considered the history up to 1966, by
Nielsen (1981) who described the exploration history
of the Kvanefjeld uranium deposit, and by Bondam
(1995) who compiled an overview of exploratory ac-
tivities and environmental studies based on the ar-
chives of the Geological Survey of Greenland. In the
following a survey of the history of exploration will
be presented with emphasis on the period after 1964.
The period 1806–1912
The first scientific study of the complex was carried
out by K.L. Giesecke (1761–1833) who made exten-
sive collections of minerals in 1806 and 1809 resulting
in the discovery of the minerals arfvedsonite, eudi-
alyte and sodalite.
K.J.V. Steenstrup (1842–1913) visited the complex
several times on behalf of the Commission for the
Direction of Geological and Geographical Investiga-
tions in Greenland and Kryolith-Mine- og Handels-
Selskabet (hereafter referred to as the Cryolite
Company) and collected numerous mineral and rock
samples (Fig. 7). The minerals were examined by J.
Lorenzen (1855–1884) who described the new miner-
als polylithionite, rinkite and steenstrupine.
G. Flink (1849–1932) visited the complex in 1883.
His mineral collections from Ilímaussaq were studied
by O.B. Bøggild (1872–1956) and C. Winther (1873–
1968), who established the new minerals britholite,
epistolite and naujakasite, the last-named mineral as
late as 1933.
The first thorough geological mapping and petro-
logical investigation of the complex was by N.V. Ussing
(1864–1911) in 1900 and 1908 (Fig. 8). His memoir on
the geology and petrology of the complex and neigh-
bouring areas was published in 1912 after his untimely
death. The memoir gives a detailed interpretation of
the petrology of the complex, which by and large still
stands today. It introduced the term agpaitic and dis-
cussed processes such as overhead stoping, magmatic
differentiation, igneous layering, assimilation and feld-
spar solid solution series. The memoir is one of the
corner stones of igneous petrology. Bøggild (1913),
who assisted Ussing in the field work, discovered and
named the mineral ussingite.
The period 1912–1955
Research activities in the Ilímaussaq complex were
very limited from the time of Ussing’s memoir in 1912
Fig. 7. Layered pegmatite, 0.8 m thick, in
naujaite located on the small island in the
inner part of Kangerluarsuk. The cave was
made by Steenstrup when he collected
large samples of eudialyte for the Cryolite
Company in 1888. The cave, about 1 m
high at the time of photographing in 1964,
has since been considerably enlarged by
mineral collectors. An attempt is being
made to protect the island.
14
until mineral exploration commenced in 1955. The
main events are mentioned below:
S.M. Gordon visited the complex in 1923 and pub-
lished three papers about his examination of mineral
localities in South Greenland (Gordon 1924).
C.E. Wegmann (1938) studied the geological chro-
nology of South Greenland and introduced the term
Gardar period. He interpreted the rocks of the Ilímaus-
saq complex as the results of metasomatic processes.
The Cryolite Company (Kryolitselskabet Øresund
A/S) undertook investigation of eudialyte-rich naujaite
and kakortokite in 1939 and 1946 (Bøgvad 1950a, b),
but concluded that exploitation of the eudialyte was
not feasible at that time.
The Geological Survey of Greenland (GGU), which
was established in 1946, made reconnaissance visits
to the complex in 1946 and 1951.
The period 1955–1964
In 1955 the Danish government, on the recommenda-
tions of Professor Niels Bohr, the President of the Dan-
ish Atomic Energy Commission (AEK), initiated
prospecting for uranium deposits in Greenland (Fig.
Fig. 8. N.V. Ussing (left) and O.B. Bøggild
(right) and their Greenlandic assistants at
the cryolite mine at Ivittuut (Ivigtut),
Greenland 1900. Photo: Geological Mu-
seum archive, Copenhagen.
Fig. 9. Professor Niels Bohr expressing his
thanks for the honorary citizenship of Nar-
saq in 1957.
15
9). GGU recommended that prospecting for uranium
should begin in the Ilímaussaq complex, the only
known occurrence of radioactive minerals in Green-
land at that time, apart from allanite in pegmatites. A
primitive Geiger counter survey was carried out by
military personnel. The southern half of the complex
was covered in 1955, the northern half in 1956, in
which year the Kvanefjeld deposit was discovered
(Nielsen 1981; Sørensen 1981; Bondam 1995). In 1957
additional detailed studies of the Kvanefjeld deposit
were made with chemical assays of the uranium ore
and the first attempts at developing a method of ex-
tracting the uranium from the ore. The ore was found
to be refractory and impossible to treat with conven-
tional acid or carbonate leaching methods.
The first drilling programme was carried out in 1958
resulting in 36 holes and a total core length of 3728
m. The extraction experiments were continued in the
following years and a method of sulphatising roast-
ing of the ore was designed. In 1962 180 t of ore were
taken out in a 20 m long adit in the most radioactive
part of the deposit for testing the method of
sulphatising roasting. In the same year two of the
Kvanefjeld drill holes were deepened with an addi-
tional core length of 270 m and seven holes with a
total core length of 1400 m were drilled in lujavrites
in other parts of the complex.
AEK constructed a base camp at Dyrnæs in con-
nection with the drilling operations in 1958. Dyrnæs
is the site of a former Norse settlement located about
5 km to the north of the town Narsaq. This camp was
transferred to GGU and served as the base for the
geological mapping of the whole complex and for
the regional geological mapping of South Greenland.
The regional mapping programme was concluded in
1963 after which most of the camp was moved to the
site for the next regional mapping programme further
to the north. Some of the houses, however, remained
in Dyrnæs to serve as the base camp for the follow-up
geological investigations of the Ilímaussaq complex,
which were entrusted to staff and students from the
Geological Institute and Museum of the University of
Copenhagen, in co-operation with and with logistic
and economic support from GGU and AEK.
A geological map of the Ilímaussaq complex at 1:20
000 was published in 1964 (Ferguson 1964). Hamil-
ton (1964) presented the first geochemical investiga-
tion of the northern part of the complex and Ferguson
(1970) presented a detailed examination of the geo-
chemistry of the kakortokites.
A number of mineralogical papers were published
in the period 1955–1964. Examples are: notes about
several minerals (Danø & Sørensen 1959), the discov-
ery of the beryllium minerals chkalovite and tugtupite
(Sørensen 1960, 1963), the first description of
villiaumite from the complex (Bondam & Ferguson
1962), a detailed examination of the occurrence of
steenstrupine (Buchwald & Sørensen 1961; Sørensen
1962) and the discovery of a number of opaque min-
erals (Oen & Sørensen 1964).
Fig. 10. The team from the University of
Copenhagen which in 1964 initiated the
university-directed Ilímaussaq project, and
its Russian partners. From left to right: B.
Leth Nielsen, J. Rose-Hansen, O.V. Peter-
sen, H. Sørensen, E. Frantzen, V.I. Gerasi-
movsky, T. Østergaard, E.I. Semenov, K.
Hansen and behind her E. Bondesen and
S. Andersen. In the background from left
to right Kvanefjeld, Ilimmaasaq, Narsaq
Bræ, Nakkaalaaq with the Taseq plateau
and slope, and the mountain Talut.
16
The period 1964–1977
Staff and students from the University of Copenhagen
were, as mentioned above, entrusted with the detailed
follow-up investigations in the Ilímaussaq complex.
This activity was directed by H. Sørensen, J. Rose-
Hansen and in the last phase of the project by B.L.
Nielsen (Fig. 10). Field teams worked every summer
from 1964 to 1977. About 25 persons took part in the
field work and were supported by about 15 more in
the follow-up laboratory studies and publication of
results. A large number of field assistants and techni-
cians took part in this work. Hydrogeologists, ecolo-
gists and geochemists were involved in the
accompanying environmental studies.
From the early stages of this activity it was clear
that much could be gained if Russian scientists be-
came involved in the work. The Ilímaussaq complex
bears a close resemblance to the Khibina and Lovozero
complexes of the Kola Peninsula, two complexes
which have been examined in great detail by Russian
scientists resulting, among other things, in the dis-
covery of a number of new minerals. Two Russian
mineralogists, Professors V.I. Gerasimovsky and E.I.
Semenov, who had made impressive contributions to
the study of the mineralogy and geochemistry of the
two Kola complexes, were therefore invited to take
part in the Greenland field work in 1964. This gave a
significant impetus to the new research programme.
Gerasimovsky (1969) produced chemical analyses for
major and trace elements of 23 rock samples repre-
senting the main rock types of the complex and
Semenov (1969) described 120 minerals from the com-
plex, among them five new minerals: chalcothallite,
cuprostibite, ilimaussite, tundrite-(Nd) and sorensenite.
Major activities in the research programme of the uni-
versity geologists were:
1. Geological mapping of the Kvanefjeld area (Sø-
rensen et al. 1969, 1974). In connection with this
work six exploratory holes totalling 1621 m were
drilled in 1969 (Fig. 11), two of these in the luja-
vrites in the northern part of the plateau which
had not been investigated in the earlier phases of
uranium exploration. The reasonably assured ura-
nium reserves were estimated to be 5800 metric t
U, average grade 310 ppm U; additional reason-
ably assured ore with a grade of 292 ppm U was
estimated to 8700 metric t U. In order to facilitate
the geological supervision of the drilling pro-
gramme and as a general support of the geologi-
cal investigations in the Kvanefjeld area, a hut was
set up in 1968.
2. Mapping of the kakortokites in the southern part
of the complex with unravelling of the layered
sequence. The resources of Zr and Nb were esti-
mated to 51.6 × 106 metric t ZrO2 and 5.4 × 106
metric t Nb2O5 in the examined part of the com-
plex (Bohse et al. 1971).
3. Geological mapping and detailed examination of
veins containing beryllium minerals in the north-
Fig. 11. Diamond drilling on the Kvane-
fjeld plateau in 1969. A fine view of the
upper part of Narsaq Elv valley with the
Narsaq Bræ in centre. The thin zone of
light-coloured rock above the glacier is
naujaite intruding the roof of volcanic
rocks in the upper part of Nakkaalaaq
mountain.
17
ern part of the complex (Semenov 1969; Engell et
al. 1971).
4. Examination of the occurrences of U, Zr, Nb and
Be minerals was carried out in close co-operation
with scientists from the Danish Atomic Energy
Commission Research Establishment Risø (now
Risø National Laboratory) and resulted in devel-
opment of apparatus to be used in the field and
in the laboratory. Examples are: portable beryl-
lium prospecting instruments (Løvborg et al. 1968a;
Engell et al. 1971), portable X-ray fluorescence
equipment for quantitative determination of Zr and
Nb in the field (Bohse et al. 1971; Kunzendorf
1971, 1973), and gamma-spectrometers for use in
the field, for assaying drill holes and drill cores
and for laboratory determination of contents of
U, Th and K in minerals and rocks (e.g. Løvborg
et al. 1968b, 1972, 1980).
5. From 1968 to 1976, the Danish company Superfos
A/S explored the eudialyte-rich kakortokites and
naujaites in the southern half of the complex and
developed methods to extract Zr, Nb, REE and Y
from eudialyte concentrates, but found no mar-
kets for the products. To support the bulk sam-
pling undertaken in 1968, a house was constructed
at the mouth of Lakseelv in Kangerluarsuk. In sub-
sequent years this house served as the base for
many field teams working in this part of the com-
plex.
6. A new geological map over the southern half of
the complex in the scale of 1:20 000 (Andersen et
al. 1988).
7. Collection of 120 samples for detailed geochemi-
cal analysis of contents of about 50 elements in
whole rocks and separated mineral fractions (work
still in progress, see Bailey et al. 2001, this vol-
ume).
8. Many studies of minerals and rocks collected in
the series Contributions to the mineralogy of Ilí-
maussaq (updated in Rose-Hansen et al. 2001).
The following new minerals were described in the
period 1964–1977: sorensenite, chalcothallite,
ilimaussite, tetranatrolite (described under the
name tetragonal natrolite), tundrite-(Nd),
semenovite, skinnerite, cuprostibite and rohaite
(see list of minerals in Petersen 2001, this volume).
9. A study of fluid inclusions in the minerals of the
complex initiated in co-operation with Russian col-
leagues (Petersilie & Sørensen 1970; Sobolev et
al. 1970) demonstrated that fluid inclusions of the
agpaitic rocks, like the rocks of the Khibina and
Lovozero complexes of the Kola Peninsula, are
rich in hydrocarbons. This discovery was followed
by detailed studies of the rocks of the complex,
e.g. Konnerup-Madsen et al. (1979, 1988),
Konnerup-Madsen & Rose-Hansen (1982),
Konnerup-Madsen (2001, this volume).
10. An investigation of the water balance in the Nar-
saq Elv valley, which intersects the northern part
of the complex, was carried out as one of the Dan-
ish contributions to the International Hydrologi-
cal Decade (Hansen & Pulawski 1966; Larsen 1972,
1973).
11. An ecological and environmental geochemical pro-
gramme, the Narsaq Project, supported by the Dan-
ish Natural Science Research Council was carried
out 1974–1977 (Larsen 1977; Rose-Hansen & Sø-
rensen 1977; Rose-Hansen et al. 1977; Nielsen
1979). The project was initiated at a time when
exploitation of the Kvanefjeld uranium deposit was
considered possible within a few years. The pur-
pose of the project was to describe the natural
state of the environment around the Ilímaussaq
complex before the opening of a uranium mine.
The project also had the aim to study the distribu-
tion of rare elements, including uranium, around the
complex, which may be considered a marked geo-
chemical anomaly (Rose-Hansen et al. 1986). As de-
scribed in a later paragraph, uranium mining in
the area was given up for political reasons, which
meant that the Narsaq Project was also discontin-
ued.
1977 to the present
The 1977 field season marked the termination of the
field activities in Ilímaussaq by staff and students from
the University of Copenhagen. The Dyrnæs base camp
was thereafter used to support other activities such as
the Kvanefjeld Uranium Project and the Syduran Project
(see below). The base was abandoned in 1983 with
the termination of the Kvanefjeld Uranium Project.
This reduced the logistic support of field work in the
complex, but minor operations have nevertheless con-
18
tinued. One example is mineralogical studies includ-
ing examination of material from the tunnelling and
drilling of the Kvanefjeld uranium deposit mentioned
below. This resulted in the discovery of the new min-
erals vitusite, kvanefjeldite and tuperssuatsiaite. A
progress report bringing results of field and labora-
tory studies up to 1980 was published in 1981 (Bailey
et al. 1981).
The Kvanefjeld Uranium Project was carried out
from 1978 to 1983 with the aim of examining the eco-
nomic potential of the Kvanefjeld uranium deposit. In
1977, this project was preceded by a drilling pro-
gramme comprising 27 holes with a total core length
of 5103 m in the lujavrites in the northern part of the
Kvanefjeld plateau and to the east of Kvanefjeld
(Nyegaard et al. 1977). It was found that the method
of sulphatising roasting applied to the steenstrupine-
bearing lujavrites in the northern part of the Kvanefjeld
plateau gave a low recovery of uranium, whereas pres-
surised carbonate leaching gave a satisfactory recov-
ery. In order to test this method in a pilot plant
established at Risø National Laboratory, 20 000 metric
t of ore were extracted from a 960 m long horizontal
adit driven through the deposit (Nyegaard 1980). The
opening of the adit was in the slope above the Narsaq
Elv valley 100–150 m below the surface of the plateau
(Nyegaard 1979). In total 4700 metric t of ore were
shipped to Risø and treated in the pilot plant. It was
found that the method gave a recovery of more than
80% of the uranium content of the different varieties
of ore (Forsøgsanlæg Risø 1984; Sørensen & Jensen
1985; Sørensen et al. 1990). The reasonably assured
resources were estimated to 20 440 metric t U in ore
with an average concentration of 365 ppm U
(Forsøgsanlæg Risø 1984). Detailed mineralogical stud-
ies of the uranium ore were carried out in connection
with this project (Makovicky et al. 1980).
The Kvanefjeld Uranium Project also presented pro-
posals for the planning of the mine and the ore dress-
ing facilities and energy supply, as well as studies of
radiation exposure and the environmental impact of
the mining activity, including the effects of leaching
of tailing products (Pilegaard 1990). Overviews of the
many internal reports of this project are found in the
report on the project (Forsøgsanlæg Risø 1984) and in
Bondam (1995).
In the years 1979–1982, the Syduran Project carried
out a regional exploration for uranium in South Green-
land by means of airborne radiometric surveying and
stream sediment geochemistry. This work confirmed
the anomalous character of the complex and its sur-
roundings (Armour-Brown et al. 1983, 1984; Thorning
et al. 1994; Schjøth et al. 2000).
Exploration of the zirconium-rich kakortokites con-
tinued in 1985, when the Danish company A/S Carl
Nielsen obtained an exclusive licence to carry out ex-
ploration centred around the exposed kakortokites
and the adjacent marginal pegmatite in the southern
part of the complex. The thickest layer of red
kakortokite, layer +16, was examined in two drill holes
in 1986. During 1987, potentially economic eudialyte-
rich parts of the marginal pegmatite, kakortokites and
naujaites within the concession area were mapped and
sampled, and samples of the marginal pegmatite were
metallurgically tested.
In 1987, the Canadian company Highwood Re-
sources Ltd. obtained permission to explore areas be-
tween the fjords Tunulliarfik and Kangerluarsuk and
carried out bulk sampling and drilling in order to test
the feasibility of exploitation of eudialyte-rich rocks.
This company was joined by Platinova Resources Ltd.
and Aber Resources Ltd. In 1988 this group and A/S
Carl Nielsen formed a joint venture, combining their
mineral licences. The main target was the exposed
kakortokites, minor targets were the marginal pegma-
tites in the southern part of the complex. The joint
venture co-operation was continued in 1990 with an
extensive drilling programme and metallurgical test-
ing of potential ores from the southern part of the
complex. At the end of this activity the Canadian part-
ners and the Danish participants went through a pe-
riod of restructuring resulting in Highwood Resources
taking over all interests in the prospect at the end of
1992.
In 1992 the Danish company Mineral Development
International A/S (MDI) obtained the exclusive right
to explore the sodalite-rich naujaites in the northern
part of the complex. The aim was to investigate the
possibilities of using sodalite as raw material for the
production of synthetic zeolites.
None of the above-mentioned activities have so far
been able to demonstrate with certainty that benefi-
ciation of eudialyte and sodalite can be economically
viable.
A number of research projects involving colleagues
from other countries have been supported by various
foundations. The Danish Natural Science Research
Council supported a Canadian–Danish project aiming
at a comparison of the mineralogy of Mont Saint-
Hilaire, Quebec, with the Narssârssuk mineral occur-
rence associated with the Igaliko Complex, South
Greenland, and the Ilímaussaq complex.
19
The Danish company First Development Interna-
tional A/S in 1993 supported a Danish–Russian project
consisting of an examination of the drill cores from
the 1977 drilling programme kept at the Risø National
Laboratory. The aim was to find some of the water
soluble minerals discovered in the Khibina and Lov-
ozero complexes (Khomyakov 1995). The drill cores
are rich in villiaumite, but holes in the samples indi-
cate that other water soluble minerals have been dis-
solved during and after drilling. Only one of the Kola
minerals was discovered, natrophosphate (Petersen
et al. 2001, this volume).
In 1994–1997 INTAS (International Association for
the Promotion of Co-operation with Scientists from
the Independent States of the Former Soviet Union)
supported a Danish–French–Russian–Spanish research
co-operation with the purpose of promoting compara-
tive studies of the mineralogy of agpaitic nepheline
syenites in Ilímaussaq, the Khibina and Lovozero com-
plexes of the Kola Peninsula, and the Tamazeght com-
plex, Morocco. Field work was carried out in
Ilímaussaq in 1994, in Khibina and Lovozero in 1997
and in Tamazeght in 1999. One of the outcomes of
this work is the paper on hiortdahlite in this volume
(Robles et al. 2001).
The Danish Natural Science Research Council in
1997 supported an Austrian–Danish research project
with the purpose of studying pegmatites and hydro-
thermal veins and the relations to their country rocks
in the Ilímaussaq complex and at the Narssârssuk min-
eral locality associated with the Igaliko Complex in
South Greenland.
A number of excursions, workshops and summer
schools have taken place in the Ilímaussaq complex
since 1981:
1981, excursion arranged for the directors of the Eu-
ropean geological surveys.
1982, excursion for Société Minéralogique de la
France.
1984, summer school on environmental geology spon-
sored by the Nordic Council of Ministers
(Nordisk Ministerråd 1984).
1986, NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Igne-
ous Layering (Parsons 1987).
1989, excursion for colleagues from Naturhistorisches
Museum and Österreichisches Mineralogische
Gesellschaft.
1990, Nordic summer school on igneous petrology.
1992, ABC Mines from École des Mines, Paris, an ex-
cursion to Iceland and the Igaliko and Ilímaus-
saq complexes.
A number of mineral collectors and societies of min-
eral collectors have visited the complex resulting in
the discovery of the minerals bavenite, dorfmannite,
fersmite, nacareniobsite-(Ce) and turkestanite. This
activity has put heavy pressure on many of the min-
eral localities in the complex resulting in transforma-
tion of many of them into heaps of boulders (Fig. 12).
A significant part of the research carried out in the
complex has resulted in the awarding of academic
degrees in mineralogy and geology by universities in
Denmark and abroad. The Danish awards comprise:
three degrees of dr.scient., six lic.scient. and Ph.D.
degrees, 18 cand.scient. degrees in geology, five cand.
Fig. 12. Destruction of one of the tugtupite
localities by mineral collectors’ excessive
use of blasting. The Kvanefjeld plateau July
1974. Scale: Professor Brian Mason, Wash-
ington DC, USA, one of the many scien-
tists who have visited the Ilímaussaq com-
plex. Since the photograph was taken this
site has been transformed into a veritable
crater, about 20 m in diameter and a few
metres deep, as a result of the hunt for
deeper-lying tugtupite veins.
20
scient. and four Ph.D. degrees in biology and ecol-
ogy as a spin-off of the Narsaq Project; three scientific
papers have been awarded the gold medal of the Uni-
versity of Copenhagen. The number of degrees
awarded in other countries is not known with cer-
tainty.
Concluding remarks
An impressive number of papers have been published
on the geology, mineralogy, petrology and geochem-
istry of the Ilímaussaq alkaline complex (Rose-Hansen
et al. 2001). Major exploration programmes have in-
vestigated the economic potential of rocks rich in ura-
nium, zirconium, niobium and beryllium and the
technical use of sodalite. Much remains, however, to
be investigated and published.
The southern half of the complex has been mapped
in the scale of 1:20 000; the northern half should be
mapped in the same detail.
In order to gain a fuller understanding of the petro-
genesis of the complex a number of drill holes are
required, first of all in the deepest part of the kakor-
tokites to explore the hidden layered floor series, and
through the roof series to give access to the sheets of
augite syenite, alkali granite, etc. occurring in a to-
pography which makes access difficult. Many aspects
of the geology of the complex have not yet been stud-
ied in detail, this applies for instance to the spectacu-
lar layering of some of the arfvedsonite lujavrites.
Future drilling programmes and quarrying activities
should take special measures to safeguard the water-
soluble minerals because these must be collected
immediately on exposure to the atmosphere.
The agpaitic nepheline syenites are among the most
evolved igneous rocks known. Petrological studies of
the rocks of the complex can therefore bring impor-
tant knowledge about many natural petrological pro-
cesses.
The Ilímaussaq complex contains a treasure of rare
elements and minerals. Future developments in mate-
rial sciences and the need for rare elements in new
applications should therefore be followed closely in
order to be ready when new opportunities become
apparent for use of elements abundant in the com-
plex.
The Ilímaussaq complex is vulnerable if exposed
to invasions of mineral collectors, local as well as for-
eign visitors (Fig. 12). Some mineral occurrences have
already been exhausted, others destroyed; an exam-
ple is the tugtupite occurrence in the south-western
part of the Kvanefjeld plateau (Sørensen 1997b). It
may be necessary to regulate the collection of miner-
als in the complex. On the other hand, the complex
elucidates many geological processes in a very clear
and informative way and should therefore be open
for excursions, summer schools, etc. and be a show
window for the geological sciences.
Acknowledgements
John C. Bailey, Henning Bohse, Jens Frederiksen, Lotte
Melchior Larsen, Ole V. Petersen, John Rose-Hansen,
Agnete Steenfelt, B.G.J. Upton and W. Stuart Watt
kindly read the manuscript and made valuable com-
ments.
References
Allaart, J.H. 1973: Geological map of Greenland, 1:100 000,
Julianehåb 60 V.2 Nord. Descriptive text, 41 pp. Copenha-
gen: Geological Survey of Greenland (also Meddelelser om
Grønland 192(4)).
Andersen, S., Bohse, H. & Steenfelt, A. 1988: The southern part
of the Ilímaussaq complex, South Greenland, 1:20 000. Co-
penhagen: Geological Survey of Greenland.
Armour-Brown, A., Steenfelt, A. & Kunzendorf, H. 1983: Ura-
nium districts defined by reconnaissance geochemistry in
South Greenland. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 19,
127–145.
Armour-Brown, A., Tukiainen, T., Nyegaard, P. & Wallin, B. 1984:
The South Greenland regional uranium exploration pro-
gramme. Final report of progress 1980–1983, 110 pp. + ap-
pendices. Unpublished report, Geological Survey of Green-
land, Copenhagen.
Bailey, J.C. 1995: Cryptorhythmic and macrorhythmic layering
in aegirine lujavrite, Ilímaussaq alkaline intrusion, South
Greenland. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Denmark
42, 1–16.
Bailey, J.C., Larsen, L.M. & Sørensen, H. (eds) 1981: The Ilí-
maussaq intrusion, South Greenland. A progress report on
geology, mineralogy, geochemistry and economic geology.
Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 103, 130 pp.
Bailey, J.C., Gwozdz, R., Rose-Hansen, J. & Sørensen, H. 2001:
Geochemical overview of the Ilímaussaq alkaline complex,
South Greenland. In: Sørensen, H. (ed.): The Ilímaussaq al-
kaline complex, South Greenland: status of mineralogical
research with new results. Geology of Greenland Survey
Bulletin 190, 35–53 (this volume).
Blaxland, A.B., van Breemen, O. & Steenfelt, A. 1976: Age and
origin of agpaitic magmatism at Ilímaussaq, south Green-
land: Rb-Sr study. Lithos 9, 31–38.
Blundell, D.J. 1978: A gravity survey across the Gardar Igneous
21
Province, SW Greenland. Journal of the Geological Society
(London) 135, 545–554.
Bøggild, O.B. 1913: Ussingit, et nyt Mineral fra Kangerdluarsuk.
Meddelelser om Grønland 51, 103–110.
Bøgvad, R. 1950a: Dansk interesse for en teknisk udnyttelse af
nefelinsyenit fra Grønland. Meddelelser fra Dansk Geolo-
gisk Forening 11 [for 1949], 503–506.
Bøgvad, R. 1950b: Nepheline syenite and iron ore deposits in
Greenland. Arctic 3(2), 86–94.
Bohse, H. & Andersen, S. 1981: Review of the stratigraphic divi-
sions of the kakortokite and lujavrite in southern Ilímaus-
saq. In: Bailey, J.C., Larsen, L.M. & Sørensen, H. (eds): The
Ilímaussaq intrusion, South Greenland. A progress report on
geology, mineralogy, geochemistry and economic geology.
Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 103, 53–62.
Bohse, H., Brooks, C.K. & Kunzendorf, H. 1971: Field observa-
tions on the kakortokites of the Ilímaussaq intrusion, South
Greenland, including mapping and analyses by portable X-
ray fluorescence equipment for zirconium and niobium.
Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 38, 43 pp.
Bondam, J. 1995: The Ilímaussaq nepheline syenite complex in
South Greenland. A general overview of exploratory activi-
ties and environmental studies. Open File Series Grønlands
Geologiske Undersøgelse 95/2, 121 pp.
Bondam, J. & Ferguson, J. 1962: An occurrence of villiaumite in
the Ilímaussaq intrusion, South Greenland. Meddelelser om
Grønland 172(2), 12 pp.
Buchwald, V. & Sørensen, H. 1961: An autoradiographic exami-
nation of rocks and minerals from the Ilímaussaq batholith,
South West Greenland. Bulletin Grønlands Geologiske Un-
dersøgelse 28, 35 pp. (also Meddelelser om Grønland 162(11)).
Chadwick, B. & Garde, A.A. 1996: Palaeoproterozoic oblique
plate convergence in South Greenland: A reappraisal of the
Ketilidian Orogen. In: Brewer, T.S. (ed.): Precambrian crustal
evolution in the North American region. Geological Society
Special Publication (London) 112, 179–196.
Danø, M. & Sørensen, H. 1959: An examination of some rare
minerals from the nepheline syenites of South West Green-
land. Bulletin Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 20, 35
pp. (also Meddelelser om Grønland 162(5)).
Engell, J., Hansen, J., Jensen, M., Kunzendorf, H. & Løvborg, L.
1971: Beryllium mineralization in the Ilímaussaq intrusion,
South Greenland, with description of a field beryllometer
and chemical methods. Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Un-
dersøgelse 33, 40 pp.
Ferguson, J. 1964: Geology of the Ilímaussaq alkaline intrusion,
South Greenland. Description of map and structure. Bulletin
Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 39, 82 pp. (also Med-
delelser om Grønland 172(4)).
Ferguson, J. 1970: The significance of the kakortokite in the
evolution of the Ilímaussaq intrusion, South Greenland. Bul-
letin Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 89, 193 pp. (also
Meddelelser om Grønland 190(1)).
Forsøgsanlæg Risø 1984: Uranprojekt Kvanefjeld. Hovedrapport,
85 pp. Unpublished report, Forsøgsanlæg Risø, Roskilde,
Danmark.
Gerasimovsky, V.I. 1969: Geochemistry of the Ilímaussaq alka-
line massif (South-West Greenland), 174 pp. Moscow: Nauka
(in Russian).
Gordon, S.G. 1924: Minerals obtained in Greenland on the Sec-
ond Academy-Vaux expedition, 1923. Proceedings of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 76, 249–268.
Hamilton, E.I. 1964: The geochemistry of the northern part of
the Ilímaussaq intrusion, S.W. Greenland. Bulletin Grønlands
Geologiske Undersøgelse 42, 104 pp. (also Meddelelser om
Grønland 162(10)).
Hansen, J. 1968: Niobium mineralization in the Ilímaussaq alka-
line complex, South-West Greenland. Report 23rd Interna-
tional Geological Congress Czechoslovakia 1968 7, 263–273.
Hansen, J. & Pulawski, B. 1966: Water balance in Narssaq river
valley. Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 11, 50–
51.
Kalsbeek, F., Larsen, L.M. & Bondam, J. 1990: Geological map
of Greenland, 1:500 000, Sydgrønland, sheet 1. Descriptive
text, 36 pp. Copenhagen: Geological Survey of Greenland.
Khomyakov, A.P. 1995: Mineralogy of hyperagpaitic alkaline
rocks, 223 pp. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Konnerup-Madsen, J. 2001: A review of the composition and
evolution of hydrocarbon gases during solidification of the
Ilímaussaq alkaline complex, South Greenland. In: Søren-
sen, H. (ed.): The Ilímaussaq alkaline complex, South Green-
land: status of mineralogical research with new results. Ge-
ology of Greenland Survey Bulletin 190, 159–166 (this vol-
ume).
Konnerup-Madsen, J. & Rose-Hansen, J. 1982: Volatiles associ-
ated with alkaline igneous rift activity: fluid inclusions in the
Ilímaussaq intrusion and the Gardar granitic complexes (South
Greenland). Chemical Geology 37, 79–93.
Konnerup-Madsen, J., Larsen, E. & Rose-Hansen, J. 1979: Hy-
drocarbon-rich fluid inclusions in minerals from the alkaline
Ilímaussaq intrusion, South Greenland. Bulletin de Minéralo-
gie 102, 642–653.
Konnerup-Madsen, J., Kreulen, R. & Rose-Hansen, J. 1988: Sta-
ble isotope characteristics of hydrocarbon gases in the alka-
line Ilímaussaq Complex, South Greenland. Bulletin de
Minéralogie 111, 567–576.
Kunzendorf, H. 1971: An instrumental procedure to determine
Fe, Rb, Sr, Y, Zr, Nb and Mo in rock powders by Si(Li) X-ray
spectrometry. Journal of Radioanalytical Chemistry 9, 311–
324.
Kunzendorf, H. 1973: Die Isotop-Röntgenfluoreszenz Analyse
und ihre Anwendung bei geochemischen Untersuchungen
in Grönland. Risø M-1610, 125 pp. Roskilde, Denmark: Risø
National Laboratory.
Kunzendorf, H., Nyegaard, P. & Nielsen, B.L. 1982: Distribution
of characteristic elements in the radioactive rocks of the
northern part of Kvanefjeld, Ilímaussaq intrusion, South
Greenland. Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 109,
32 pp.
Larsen, C.L. 1977: A reconnaissance study of the exogeneous
environment and the abundance of selected trace elements
in the soils of the Ilímaussaq region, South Greenland, 74
pp. Unpublished cand.scient. thesis, Institute of Petrology,
University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
22
Larsen, L.B. 1972: Hydrological project at Narssaq Bræ, South
Greenland, as part of the International Hydrological Decade
Programme. Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 45,
27–29.
Larsen, L.B. 1973: Water balance investigations in the Narssaq
River Basin, South Greenland, 157 pp. Unpublished cand.
scient. thesis, Institute of General Geology, University of
Copenhagen, Denmark.
Larsen, L.M. 1976: Clinopyroxenes and coexisting mafic miner-
als from the alkaline Ilímaussaq intrusion. Journal of Petrol-
ogy 17, 258–290.
Larsen, L.M. & Sørensen, H. 1987: The Ilímaussaq intrusion –
progressive crystallization and formation of layering in an
agpaitic magma. In: Fitton, J.G. & Upton, B.G.J. (eds): Alka-
line igneous rocks. Geological Society Special Publication
(London) 30, 473–488.
Le Maitre, R.W. (ed.) 1989: A classification of igneous rocks and
glossary of terms, 193 pp. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Pub-
lications.
Løvborg, L., Kunzendorf, H. & Hansen, J. 1968a: Portable beryl-
lium prospecting instrument with large sensitive area. In:
Nuclear techniques and mineral resources, 55–63. Vienna:
International Atomic Energy Agency.
Løvborg, L., Kunzendorf, H. & Hansen, J. 1968b: Use of field
gamma-spectrometry in the exploration of uranium and tho-
rium deposits in South Greenland. In: Nuclear techniques
and mineral resources, 197–211. Vienna: International Atomic
Energy Agency.
Løvborg, L., Wollenberg, H., Rose-Hansen, J. & Nielsen, B.L.
1972: Drill-core scanning for radioelements by gamma-ray
spectrometry. Geophysics 37(4), 675–693.
Løvborg, L., Nyegaard, P., Christiansen, E.M. & Nielsen, B.L.
1980: Borehole logging for uranium by gamma-ray spectrom-
etry. Geophysics 45(6), 1077–1090.
Macdonald, R. & Upton, B.G.J. 1993: The Proterozoic Gardar
rift zone, South Greenland: comparisons with the East Afri-
can Rift System. In: Prichard, H.M. et al. (eds): Magmatic
processes and plate tectonics. Geological Society Special
Publication (London) 76, 427–442.
Makovicky, M., Makovicky, E., Nielsen, B.L., Karup-Møller, S. &
Sørensen, E. 1980: Mineralogical, radiographic and uranium
leaching studies on the uranium ore from Kvanefjeld, Ilí-
maussaq complex, South Greenland. Risø R-416, 186 pp.
Roskilde, Denmark: Risø National Laboratory.
Nielsen, B.L. 1981: Exploration history of the Kvanefjeld ura-
nium deposit, Ilímaussaq intrusion, South Greenland. In:
Uranium exploration case histories, 353–388. Vienna: Inter-
national Atomic Energy Agency.
Nielsen, L. 1979: En geokemisk undersøgelse af udvalgte
grundstoffers fordeling i jord, sø-, elv- og havsedimenter i
Narssaq området, Sydgrønland, 1 (text) 70 pp., 2 (figs, tab-
les, appendices). Unpublished cand.scient. thesis, Institut for
Petrologi, Københavns Universitet, Danmark.
Nordisk Ministerråd 1984: Rapport om miljølære i geofagene,
August 1984, Narssarssuaq, Grønland, 229 pp. København:
Sekretariatet for Nordisk Kulturelt Samarbejde.
Nyegaard, P. 1979: Evaluation of the uranium deposit at Kvane-
fjeld, 39 pp. + 3 appendices. Unpublished report, Geologi-
cal Survey of Greenland, Copenhagen (in archives of Geo-
logical Survey of Denmark and Greenland, GEUS Report File
16977).
Nyegaard, P. 1980: Geologisk arbejde i Kvanefjeld tunnelen 1979/
1980. Uranudvindingsprojektet, 19 pp. + figs + tables.
Unpublished report, Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse,
København.
Nyegaard, P., Nielsen, B.L., Løvborg, L. & Sørensen, P. 1977:
Kvanefjeld Uranium Project. Drilling programme 1977, 46
pp. + appendices. Unpublished report, Geological Survey of
Greenland, Copenhagen.
Oen, I.S. & Sørensen, H. 1964: The occurrence of nickel-
arsenides and nickel-antimonide at Igdlúnguaq, in the
Ilímaussaq alkaline massif, South Greenland. Bulletin
Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 43, 50 pp. (also
Meddelelser om Grønland 172(1)).
Parsons, I. (ed.) 1987: Origins of igneous layering. NATO Ad-
vanced Science Institutes. Series C: Mathematical and Physi-
cal Sciences 196, 666 pp. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing
Company.
Paslick, C.R., Halliday, A.N., Davies, G.R., Mezger, K. & Upton,
B.G.J. 1993: Timing of Proterozoic magmatism in the Gardar
Province, southern Greenland. Geological Society of Ame-
rica Bulletin 105, 272–278.
Petersen, O.V., Khomyakov, A.P. & Sørensen, H. 2001: Natro-
phosphate from the Ilímaussaq alkaline complex, South
Greenland. In: Sørensen, H. (ed.): The Ilímaussaq alkaline
complex, South Greenland: status of mineralogical research
with new results. Geology of Greenland Survey Bulletin 190,
139–141 (this volume).
Petersilie, I.A. & Sörensen, H. 1970: Hydrocarbon gases and
bituminous substances in rocks from the Ilímaussaq alkaline
intrusion, south Greenland. Lithos 3, 59–76.
Pilegaard, K. 1990: Preliminary environmental impact statement
for the Kvanefjeld Uranium Mine. Risø-M-2875, 130 pp.
Roskilde, Denmark: Risø National Laboratory.
Robles, E.R., Fontan, F., Monchoux, P., Sørensen, H. & de
Parseval, P. 2001: Hiortdahlite II from the Ilímaussaq alka-
line complex, South Greenland, the Tamazeght complex,
Morocco, and the Iles de Los, Guinea. In: Sørensen, H. (ed.):
The Ilímaussaq alkaline complex, South Greenland: status
of mineralogical research with new results. Geology of Green-
land Survey Bulletin 190, 131–137 (this volume).
Rose-Hansen, J. & Sørensen, H. (compilers) 1977: Current re-
search in the Ilímaussaq region, South Greenland. Rapport
Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 85, 67–73.
Rose-Hansen, J., Nielsen, C.O. & Sørensen, H. (eds) 1977: The
Narsaq Project. A geochemical-ecological research project.
Progress Report No. 1 (vol. 1: 82 pp., vol. 2: 49 + 40 pp.).
The 1974 field season. Unpublished report, Institute of Pe-
trology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
Rose-Hansen, J., Sørensen, H. & Holm, P.M. 1986: The super-
gene distribution of uranium and accompanying elements
associated with alkaline intrusions in South Greenland in-
cluding the Ilímaussaq complex. Uranium 2, 185–214.
Rose-Hansen, J., Sørensen, H. & Watt, W.S. 2001: Inventory of
23
the literature on the Ilímaussaq alkaline complex, South
Greenland. Danmarks og Grønlands Geologiske Under-
søgelse Rapport 2001/102, 38 pp.+ CD-ROM.
Schjøth, F. et al. 2000: Mineral resource potential of South Green-
land: the CD-ROM. Danmarks og Grønlands Geologiske
Undersøgelse Rapport 2000/57, 36 pp. + CD-ROM.
Semenov, E.I. 1969: Mineralogy of the Ilímaussaq alkaline mas-
sif (South Greenland), 165 pp. Moscow: Nauka (in Russian).
Sobolev, V.S., Bazarova, T.Y., Shugurova, N.A., Bazarov, L.Sh.,
Dolgov, Yu.A. & Sørensen, H. 1970: A preliminary examina-
tion of fluid inclusions in nepheline, sorensenite, tugtupite
and chkalovite from the Ilímaussaq alkaline intrusion, South
Greenland. Bulletin Grønlands Geologiske Undersøgelse 81,
32 pp. (also Meddelelser om Grønland 181(11)).
Sørensen, E. & Jensen, J. 1985: Uranium extraction by continu-
ous carbonate leaching in a pipe autoclave. In: Advances in
uranium ore processing and recovery from non-conventional
resources, 41–52. Vienna: International Atomic Energy
Agency.
Sørensen, E., Koefod, S. & Lundgaard, T. 1990: Uranium recov-
ery by leaching with sodium carbonate at high temperature
and pressure. Risø-M-2876, 89 pp. Roskilde, Denmark: Risø
National Laboratory.
Sørensen, H. 1960: Beryllium minerals in a pegmatite in the
nepheline syenites of Ilímaussaq, South West Greenland.
Report 21st International Geological Congress, Norden 1960,
17, 31–35.
Sørensen, H. 1962: On the occurrence of steenstrupine in the
Ilímaussaq massif, Southwest Greenland. Bulletin Grønlands
Geologiske Undersøgelse 32, 251 pp. (also Meddelelser om
Grønland 167(1)).
Sørensen, H. 1963: Beryllium minerals in a pegmatite in the
nepheline syenites of Ilímaussaq, South West Greenland.
Report 21st International Geological Congress, Norden 1960,
27, 157 and 159 only.
Sørensen, H. 1967: On the history of exploration of the Ilímaus-
saq alkaline intrusion, South Greenland. Bulletin Grønlands
Geologiske Undersøgelse 681, 33 pp. (also Meddelelser om
Grønland 183(3)).
Sørensen, H. 1981: Uraneftersøgning i Grønland indtil 1970. In:
Uranefterforskning i Grønland, 15–30. Lyngby, Danmark:
Akademiet for de Tekniske Videnskaber.
Sørensen, H. 1992: Agpaitic nepheline syenites: a potential source
of rare elements. Applied Geochemistry 7, 417–427.
Sørensen, H. 1997a: The agpaitic rocks – an overview. Minera-
logical Magazine 61, 485–498.
Sørensen, H. 1997b: Tugtupit – en grønlandsk smykkesten. In:
Fra Egtvedpigen til Folketinget. Et Festskrift til Hendes Maje-
stæt Dronning Margrethe II ved regeringsjubilæet 1997, 225–
243. København: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes
Selskab.
Sørensen, H. & Larsen, L.M. 1987: Layering in the Ilímaussaq
alkaline intrusion, South Greenland. In: Parsons, I. (ed):
Origins of igneous layering. NATO Advanced Science Insti-
tutes, Series C. Mathematical and Physical Sciences 196, 1–
28. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company.
Sørensen, H. & Larsen, L.M. 2001: The hyper-agpaitic stage in
the evolution of the Ilímaussaq alkaline complex, South
Greenland. In: Sørensen, H. (ed.): The Ilímaussaq alkaline
complex, South Greenland: status of mineralogical research
with new results. Geology of Greenland Survey Bulletin 190,
83–94 (this volume).
Sørensen, H., Hansen, J. & Bondesen, E. 1969: Preliminary ac-
count of the geology of the Kvanefjeld area of the Ilímaus-
saq intrusion, South Greenland. Rapport Grønlands Geolo-
giske Undersøgelse 18, 40 pp.
Sørensen, H., Rose-Hansen, J., Nielsen, B.L., Løvborg, L., Sø-
rensen, E. & Lundgaard, T. 1974: The uranium deposit at
Kvanefjeld, the Ilímaussaq intrusion, South Greenland. Ge-
ology, reserves and beneficiation. Rapport Grønlands Geo-
logiske Undersøgelse 60, 54 pp.
Steenfelt, A. 1981: Field relations in the roof zone of the Ilí-
maussaq intrusion with special reference to the position of
the alkali acid rocks. In: Bailey, J.C., Larsen, L.M. & Søren-
sen, H. (eds): The Ilímaussaq intrusion, South Greenland. A
progress report on geology, mineralogy, geochemistry and
economic geology. Rapport Grønlands Geologiske Under-
søgelse 103, 43–52.
Stevenson, R., Upton, B.G.J. & Steenfelt, A. 1997: Crust–mantle
interaction in the evolution of the Ilímaussaq complex, South
Greenland: Nd isotopic studies. Lithos 40, 189–202.
Thorning, L. & Stemp, R.W. 1997: Projects Aeromag 1995 and
Aeromag 1996. Results from aeromagnetic surveys over South
Greenland (1995) and South-West and southern West Green-
land (1996). Danmarks og Grønlands Geologiske Undersø-
gelse Rapport 1997/11, 44 pp.
Thorning, L., Tukiainen, T. & Steenfelt, A. (eds) 1994: Regional
compilations of geoscience data from the Kap Farvel – Ivittuut
area, South Greenland. Thematic Map Series Grønlands Geo-
logiske Undersøgelse 94/1, 27 pp. + 57 maps.
Upton, B.G.J. 1996: Anorthosites and troctolites of the Gardar
magmatic province. In: Demaiffe, D. (ed.): Petrology and
geochemistry of magmatic suites of rocks in the continental
and oceanic crusts: a volume dedicated to Professor Jean
Michot, 19–34. Bruxelles: Université Libre de Bruxelles, Royal
Museum for Central Africa (Tevuren).
Upton, B.G.J. & Emeleus, C.H. 1987: Mid-Proterozoic alkaline
magmatism in southern Greenland: the Gardar province. In:
Fitton, J.G. & Upton, B.G.J. (eds): Alkaline igneous rocks.
Geological Society Special Publication (London) 30, 449–
471.
Upton, B.G.J., Parsons, I., Emeleus, C.H. & Hodson, M.E. 1996:
Layered alkaline igneous rocks of the Gardar Province, South
Greenland. In: Cawthorn, R.G. (ed.): Layered intrusions, 331–
363. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science B.V.
Ussing, N.V. 1912: Geology of the country around Julianehaab,
Greenland. Meddelelser om Grønland 38, 1–376.
Wegmann, C.E. 1938: Geological investigations in southern
Greenland. Part I. On the structural divisions of southern
Greenland. Meddelelser om Grønland 113(2), 148 pp.
