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Wild Edible Fungi: A Global Overview of Their Use and Importance to People
Abstract
Wild edible fungi are collected for food and to earn money in more than 80 countries. There is a huge diversity of different types, from truffles to milk-caps, chanterelles to termite mushrooms, with more than 1100 species recorded during the preparation of this book. A small group of species are of economic importance in terms of exports, but the wider significance of wild edible fungi lies with their extensive subsistence uses in developing countries. They provide a notable contribution to diet in central and southern Africa during the months of the year when the supply of food is often perilously low. Elsewhere they are a valued and valuable addition to diets of rural people.
Commercial harvesting is an important business in countries such as Zimbabwe, Turkey, Poland, the USA, North Korea and Bhutan. The export trade is driven by a strong and expanding demand from Europe and Japan and is predominantly from poor to rich countries. This is good for local businesses and collectors, providing important cash income that pays for children to go to school and helps to reduce poverty in areas where the options for earning money are limited. Local markets around the world reveal a widespread though smaller individual trade in an extensive range of species. Though difficult to measure compared to the more visible export of wild edible fungi, local trade is of considerable value to collectors and increases the supply of food to many areas of weak food security.
Collection and consumption within countries varies from the extensive and intensive patterns of China to more restricted use by indigenous people in South America. Substantial quantities are eaten through personal collections that may go unrecorded and their contribution to diet is substantially higher than previously indicated. The nutritional value of wild edible fungi should not be under-estimated: they are of comparable value to many vegetables and in notable cases have a higher food value.
Wild edible fungi play an important ecological role. Many of the leading species live symbiotically with trees and this mycorrhizal association sustains the growth of native forests and commercial plantations in temperate and tropical zones. The saprobic wild edible fungi, though less important in terms of volumes collected and money earned from local sales, are important in nutrient recycling. The saprobic species are the basis for the hugely valuable global business in cultivated mushrooms, currently valued at around US$23 billion each year. This is an increasing source of income for small-scale enterprises in developing countries.
Wild edible fungi are one of a number of non-wood forest products (NWFP) that have increased in importance as logging bans and a reduction in wood-based forestry activities have declined. They are one of the most valuable NWFP with much potential for expansion of trade, but there are also challenges in the integration of their management and sustainable production as part of multiple use forests. There are concerns about the impact of excessive harvesting which require better data on yields and productivity and a closer examination of collectors and local practices. Closer cooperation between forest managers and those using wild edible fungi is needed and suggestions are made on how this might be achieved.
There is a strong emphasis on subsistence uses of wild edible fungi and their importance to rural people in developing countries though this is an area where there are still significant gaps in information. There is also significant commercial harvesting in developed countries, such as the USA and Canada and in the emerging economies of eastern Europe, for example Poland and Serbia. However, countries in the North are of greater significance to wild edible fungi as a destination for exports and as a source of scientific expertise, especially in mycology (the study of fungi).
This scientific expertise is increasingly being applied to help achieve the major development goals which include poverty alleviation and sustainable use of natural resources. Real progress has been and continues to be made in the roles that wild edible fungi contribute towards these goals.
... Commonly consumed wild-collected species include Russula spp., Lactarius spp., Cantharellus spp., Amanita spp., and Boletus spp. [21] , while the major cultivated mushrooms are Lentinula, Pleurotus, Auricularia, Agaricus ...
... Bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass by the mushroom industry into food for humankind and other useful products represents a significant contribution to the management of agricultural and industrial wastes at regional and national levels. Predictions are that this contribution will continue to increase and will generate a non-green revolution [21] . Saprophytic mushrooms are often quite specific in their nutritional and ecological requirements. ...
1 上海市农业科学院食用菌研究所， 上海 201403 ； 2 香港中文大学， 香港 新界 999077) 摘 要 ： 人类目前正面临着巨大的挑战， 其中最大的挑战包括向全球 80 多亿人口提供充足的粮食， 日益频 繁的像新冠感染 (COVID-19) 这样的的病毒大流行， 以及全球变暖和污染造成的不可挽回的地球环境恶化。 而应用蘑菇生物学可部分解决这些挑战。蘑菇生物学是真菌学的一个分支， 专门研究蘑菇真菌， 由三个分支 组成 ： 蘑菇科学， 描述与蘑菇栽培相关的活动 ； 蘑菇生物技术， 侧重于使用蘑菇和蘑菇衍生产品增进健康和 福祉， 预防和治疗疾病 ； 蘑菇生物修复， 涉及改善环境质量的特性。蘑菇既可以在大型工业规模的生产设施 中培养， 也可以在资本密集型操作不合适的情况下培养。在后一种情况下， 作为 " 家庭手工业 " 的蘑菇生产可 以丰富当地人口的饮食， 特别是在蛋白质缺乏的地区， 解决可耕地短缺的问题， 特别是为妇女提供就业机会 (从而提高她们的社会经济地位) ， 还可作为经济作物为农民创造额外收入。蘑菇栽培过程中的持续技术改进 和创新不断增加生产能力， 提高产品质量， 并在商业规模上扩大人工 / 半人工栽培的物种数量。蘑菇和蘑菇衍 生产品 (蘑菇营养药物) 具有广泛的药用价值， 包括抗肿瘤、 抗癌、 抗氧化、 保肝、 抗糖尿病、 抗微生物、 降低 胆固醇、 保护基因， 以及预防动脉粥样硬化、 心血管疾病、 慢性炎症、 自身免疫性疾病以及与神经退行性疾病 相关的认知功能障碍。 研究最广泛的蘑菇药理活性成分包括多糖 (特别是β-葡聚糖) 、 多糖-蛋白复合物、 三萜、 凝集素和真菌免疫调节蛋白。蘑菇在农业也可用于天然生物控制剂、 食品产业中的调味化合物和化妆品中的 特性成分 (药妆) 。蘑菇转化栽培基质中木质素成分的生化系统也可用于降解污染我们环境的各种顽固的合 成化合物 (如合成染料、 多环芳烃、 多氯联苯、 多溴联苯醚、 杀虫剂和弹药) 。 在自然和人为管理的生态系统中， 菌根菌对恢复和增强森林健康和多样性起着核心作用。菌根的共生通常在最极端的条件下达到最大， 如在贫 瘠的土壤、 干旱或金属污染环境中。据报道， 树木根部菌根真菌可保护树根免受几种根部病原真菌带来的有 害影响。除了生态重要性外， 黑块菌 (黑松露) 和松茸等菌根物种因其烹饪特性而备受重视。 关键词 ： 蘑菇科学 ； 蘑菇生物技术 ； 蘑菇生物修复 ； 菌根菌 Abstract: Humankind is currently facing immense challenges, none more so than those undermining adequate food supplies for a global population in excess of eight billion, the increasing frequency of virus pandemics such as COVID-19, and irreparable deterioration of the planet's environment resulting from global warming and pollution. One approach to the partial resolution of these challenges is through the application of Mushroom Biology, that branch of mycology which is specifically concerned with mushroom fungi and which is made up 002 ·30 周年庆特约综述· 12 第 31 卷 食 用 菌 学 报 of three sub-branches. Mushroom Science, which describes activities specifically associated with mushroom cultivation: Mushroom Biotechnology, which is focused on the use of mushrooms and mushroom-derived products in enhancing general health and well-being, and in the prevention and treatment of human disease, and Mushroom Biorestoration which is concerned with those features that can be used to improve the quality of the environment. Mushrooms can be cultivated in large, industrial-scale production facilities as well as in situations where capital-intensive operations are inappropriate. In the latter case, mushroom production as a "cottage industry" can enrich the diet of the local population, especially in areas of protein deficiency, address shortages of arable land, provide employment particularly for women (thereby raising their socioeconomic status), and generate additional income for farmers in the form of a cash crop. Technical improvements and innovations in mushroom cultivation continue to increase production capacities, improve product quality, and extend the number of species under artificial/semi-artificial cultivation on a commercial-scale. Mushrooms and mushroom-derived products (mushroom nutriceuticals) have also been credited with a wide range of therapeutic properties. These include antitumor, anti-cancer, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-microbial, cholesterol-lowering and genoprotective activities. Other species are reported to protect against atherosclerosis, cardiovascular, chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, and cognitive dysfunctions associated with neurodegenerative conditions. Among the most extensively studied pharmacologically-active components of mushrooms are polysaccharides (in particular beta-glucans), polysaccharide-protein complexes, triterpenes, lectins, and fungal immunomodulatory proteins. Mushrooms are also a source of natural bio-control agents for agricultural use, flavour compounds used in the food service industry, and components with cosmetic properties (cosmeceuticals). Biochemical systems used by mushrooms to convert the lignin component of cultivation systems can also degrade a wide range of recalcitrant anthropogenic compounds (e.g., synthetic dyes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, pesticides and munitions) that pollute our environment. Mycorrhizal mushroom species play a central role in the restoration and enhancement of forest health and diversity in natural and managed ecosystems. Mycorrhizal symbioses are often greatest under the most extreme conditions such as those involving exposure to infertile soils, drought or metal contamination. The presence of ECM fungi on the roots of trees is reported to confer protection against the harmful effects of several root pathogenic fungi. Mycorrhizal species that are highly valued for their culinary properties, such as Tuber melanosporum (black truffle) and Tricholoma matsutake (matsutake) adds to their ecological importance.
... (Ivanova et al., 2020). The leading producer, consumer and exporter of wild and cultivated edible mushrooms in the world is China (Boa, 2004). In Poland in 2020, 182 900 tons of mushrooms were reported, worth over 80 million euros (FAOSTAT, 2023;UNECE, 2023). ...
... According to FAO, Bulgaria is one of the leading exporters of mushrooms in the EU -1260 tons for 2020 (Boa, 2004;Kalač, 2010). Fresh mushroom consumption in the country exceeds 6 kg per person per year (Ivanova et al., 2020). ...
This article attempts to summarize the available data on wild edible macromycetes in the regions Strandzha and the Black Sea coast in connection with the clarification of ethnomycology. The total number of registered species of edible mushrooms for both areas is 105. The species Boletus caucasicus Singer ex Alessio; Boletus luridiformis Rostk. var. luridiformis and Laccaria bicolor (Maire) P.D. were noted only for the region of the Black Sea coast. The species composition, ecological-trophic structure and seasonality of edible mushrooms are briefly discussed. A list of 14 macroscopic edible fungi with conservation significance for the mycota of the two territories, assessed with the latest IUCN criteria, is given. Critically Endangered (CR) according to the Red List of fungi in Bulgaria and the Red Data Book of the Republic of Bulgaria was Boletus caucasicus Singer ex Alessio.
... Of the thousands of recognised fungi species, at least 2327 are reported to be used for food or medicinal purposes. 11 At the same time, the number of highly toxic species, approximately 100, which may pose a danger to human health, is relatively low. However, there are many species whose toxicity does not result in permanent or life-threatening damage and are therefore not widely reported in the literature. ...
... However, there are many species whose toxicity does not result in permanent or life-threatening damage and are therefore not widely reported in the literature. 11 However, 2 Benvenuti et al. ...
Fungi are often considered a delicacy and are primarily cultivated and harvested, although numerous species are responsible for intoxication due to toxin content. Foodborne diseases are a significant public health concern, causing approximately 420 000 deaths and 600 million morbidities yearly, of which mushroom poisoning is one of the leading causes. Epidemiological data on non-cultivated mushroom poisoning in individual countries are often unrepresentative, as intoxication rarely requires emergency intervention. On the other hand, the lack of specialist knowledge among medical personnel about the toxicological manifestations of mushroom consumption may result in ineffective therapeutic interventions. This work aims to provide an easy-to-consult and wide-ranging tool useful for better understanding the variability of mushroom intoxications, the associated symptoms, and the main treatments for the most severe cases, given the absence of a complete species mapping tool toxic. Moreover, we establish an effective collection network that describes the incidence of mushroom poisonings by reporting the species and associated toxicological manifestations for each case. In conclusion, we highlight the need to establish appropriate primary prevention interventions, such as training the affected population and increasing consultancy relationships between mycological experts and specialised healthcare personnel.
https://academic.oup.com/mmy/article-abstract/doi/10.1093/mmy/myae033/7640032?utm_source=etoc&utm_campaign=mmy&utm_medium=email
... Various types of macrofungi have been used as a food source since ancient times, probably for their taste and appealing flavor (Das, 2010). There are around 1,069 species of macrofungi that have been reported to be used as food ingredients (Boa, 2004). They have high content of proteins, fiber, minerals, fibers, trace elements, and low fats (Bilal et al., 2010). ...
Communities living near forested areas play a crucial role in preserving forest biodiversity. Ethnomycological studies are an important first step in identifying the variety and potential of macrofungi used by people in a region. This study aims to document the use of macrofungi by the local community around Sesaot forest. The collection and identification of macrofungi samples were carried out using opportunistic sampling. Data on the use of macrofungi was obtained from semi-structured interviews with residents around Sesaot Forest. A total of 26 respondents from the Sesaot community participated in the survey. The people usually collected macrofungi for consumption and occasionally for medicinal purposes. The results identified 12 species of macrofungi from 10 families (Pezizaceae, Auriculariaceae, Sarcoscyphaceae, Gomphaaceaae, Pleurotaceae, Ganodermataceae, Psathyrellaceae, Polyporaceae, Agaricaceae, and Nidulariaceae) in Sesaot forest. Auricularia sp. and Pleurotus sp. were used as food, while Lignosus sp. was used as medicine by the local people in Sesaot.
... Mycophilic civilizations exploit the WEM as a valuable non-timber forest resource, and their utilisation has been reported in numerous countries across the world (Roberto et al., 2005). Many African and Asian countries use wild edible mushrooms as food and medicine, and they are prized for their distinct flavour and nutritional contents (Boa, 2004;Tibuhwa, 2013). Apart from the flavor they impart, edible mushrooms are regarded as health food since they are high in proteins, minerals, vitamins, fibres, and cholesterol-lowering effects (Wani et al., 2010) apart from the flavor they impart. ...
... Mycophilic civilizations exploit the WEM as a valuable non-timber forest resource, and their utilisation has been reported in numerous countries across the world (Roberto et al., 2005). Many African and Asian countries use wild edible mushrooms as food and medicine, and they are prized for their distinct flavour and nutritional contents (Boa, 2004;Tibuhwa, 2013). Apart from the flavor they impart, edible mushrooms are regarded as health food since they are high in proteins, minerals, vitamins, fibres, and cholesterol-lowering effects (Wani et al., 2010) apart from the flavor they impart. ...
... However, it is believed that the actual number is around 2.2 to 3.8 million worldwide [5]. Out of this number, only about 14000 species have been identifed, 1400 of which are macrofungi [6], 1069 are considered edible [7], and 700 species were found to have therapeutic properties [8]. Tese therapeutic properties are attributed to the biologically active compounds in mushrooms [9], which could be used as a replacement for modern treatment methods, which have multiple side efects such as pain, high toxicity, emotional stress, and negative impact on physical and mental health [10]. ...
Mushrooms are a valuable source of food and medicine that have been used for centuries in various cultures. They contain a variety of phytochemicals, such as terpenoids and polysaccharides, that exhibit diverse biological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and antidiabetic effects. However, mushroom’s phytochemical composition and bioactivity vary depending on their species, cultivation conditions, processing methods, and extraction techniques. Therefore, using reliable analytical methods and standardized protocols is important for systematically evaluating the quality and quantity of mushroom phytochemicals and their therapeutic potential. This review provides a bibliometric analysis of the recent literature on biological activities, highlights trends in the field, and highlights the countries and journals with the highest contribution. It also discusses the nutritional value of the total content of phenolic and other phytochemicals in some species of mushrooms.
... In Japan, forest farming of mushrooms has been a traditional practice for centuries, and has evolved into a highly sophisticated and innovative industry [88]. Japan is one of the world's leading producers and consumers of mushrooms, with a wide variety of species and products, such as shiitake, matsutake, and reishi [89]. Forest farming of mushrooms in Japan involves the cultivation of mushroom logs or beds under the canopy of coniferous or broadleaf forests, using techniques such as inoculation, shading, and moisture control [90]. ...
Forest farming is an agroforestry practice that cultivates high-value specialty crops under the protection of a forest canopy. This chapter explores the principles, techniques, and benefits of forest farming systems. It covers the selection of suitable sites and species, establishment and management practices, and the ecological and economic advantages of this approach. The chapter also discusses the challenges and opportunities for scaling up forest farming and its potential to support sustainable livelihoods and conservation goals. Case studies from different regions illustrate the diversity and adaptability of forest farming systems. The chapter concludes with recommendations for future research and development to promote the adoption and optimization of forest farming.
... The presumed toxicity of T. terreum has had a strong resonance among mycologists in Europe, where the mushroom has a long history as being edible. In fact, it is still widely consumed and has the vernacular name "moretta" [11], mainly in the alpine regions of Italy and France, where it is also sold at local markets. Moreover, there are no documented cases of poisoning due to the ingestion of T. terreum in Europe or elsewhere, and the medical literature has never reported that consumption of this mushroom induces any symptom related to rhabdomyolysis [12]. ...
Two different collections of the gilled wild fungus Tricholoma terreum, collected in Italy, were subjected to phytochemical analysis. The fungal material was confidently identified by analysis of the ITS genomic sequences. Using both HR-LC-MS and NMR techniques, no evidence was found for the presence in the fruiting bodies of terreolides, terreumols or saponaceolides H-S, in striking contrast with the isolation of these terpenoids by Chinese authors from a mushroom collected in France and identified as T. terreum. The main cytotoxic terpenoid identified and isolated from the extracts of the specimens investigated in this work was the C30 derivative saponaceolide B, which had been previously isolated from T. saponaceum and other T. terreum collections. Although saponaceolide B is a rather labile molecule, easily degradable by heat or in acidic conditions, our study indicated that none of the extraction protocols used produced saponaceolide H-S or terreolide/terreumol derivatives, thus excluding the possibility that the latter compounds could be extraction artifacts. Considered together, these findings point to the need for the unambiguous identification of mushroom species belonging to the complex genus Tricholoma, characterized by high variability in the composition of metabolites. Moreover, based on our data, T. terreum must be considered an edible mushroom.
There is a need for innovative approaches that can accommodate the rural population and manage to keep the rural population in the settlement. At this point, it is important to carry out actions that will adequately meet the living conditions of rural areas and to increase the income levels of rural people. The protection of forests and the maintenance of biological diversity are important in terms of non-wood forest products collected from the forests by the villagers living in that region, and it is very important for the sustainability and economic future of life in the region. In this study, a questionnaire was collected from 130 households living in the region to determine the importance of mushrooms, which grew naturally in the mountains of Strandja and were used for consumption, in terms of family economy and development. The empirical analysis was based on a face-to-face survey of 130 respondents living in villages close to the Strandja Mountains and collecting mushrooms in 2019. The answers given to the questions, which determined the opinions of the participants about the mushrooms growing in nature, were taken with a 5-point Likert scale and factor analysis was performed. Villagers collecting mushrooms could not get the income they wanted from the products they obtained. It was determined that the income of mushroom collectors from mushrooms contributed to their daily needs, but did not make a significant contribution to increasing their welfare level. For this, villagers needed to establish cooperatives and create their own sales points. Since the mushroom collectors used the mushrooms in their diets, the villagers should be trained in mushroom drying and canning to ensure mushroom consumption throughout the year. In the research, it was observed that the local people were aware of the contribution of mushrooms to the economy and that a large part of their food consumption consisted of mushrooms grown in nature and therefore it was important in rural development.
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