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Characterization of fig achenes’ oil of Ficus carica grown in Tunisia
... Other studies have focused on the optimization of ultrasound-microwave assisted extraction of pectin from figs and the optimization using response surface methodology to optimize recovery of total phenolic compounds and preservation of the antioxidant properties [6,7]. Recently, many studies of oil extraction and fatty acids composition of total lipids from fig fruits have been reported [8][9][10][11]. However, there is no information on the chemical composition of different lipids class (neutral lipids, glycolipids and phospholipids) of the fruits. ...
... The registered values are much higher than those reported previously [28] with the total tocopherols and sterols contents in Dacula GA is 0.05 mg α-TE/g lipids and 13 mg CE/g lipids, respectively. Other researchers studied only the achenes of fig from Tunisia and they found a total sterols concentration equals to 10.61 mg CE/g lipids [8]. Another research on the Portuguese fig cultivars found that the major form of tocopherol (α, β, δ and γ) in the peel of figs was α-tocopherol (2.75 mg/100 g fruit weight). ...
... The obtained result can be explained by the presence of phenolic compounds in figs oils that may interfere in the DPPH test. Furthermore, different researches suggested that oil from fig seeds contain a small quantity of phenolic compounds such as o-diphenols and flavonoids and they assumed the ability of these compounds to act as hydrogen donors [8]. From this outcome, and to better understand the antioxidant properties of lipids, it is necessary to quantify the phenol contents of any seeds. ...
Samples of oils from seven types of Ficus carica L. fruits from Algeria were investigated through determinations of their chemical characteristics, quantifying sterols and tocopherols, and analysis of the fatty acids profiles using gas chromatography, and evaluation of antioxidant activity by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method and total antioxidant activity (TAA) using phosphomolybdenum methods. The results show that acid values ranged from 3.14 to 6.95 mg KOH/g indicating on the high amount of free fatty acids in the figs oils. Neutral lipids occupy a very important proportion of the crude figs oils (NL: 60.30–98.40%) compared to glycolipids (GL: 0.58–28.00%) and phospholipids (PL: 0.40-11.70%). Linoleic (11.70–34.74%) and linolenic (1.15–35.27%) were the major unsaturated fatty acids found in lipid fractions, while the main fraction of saturated fatty acid was palmitic. The tocopherols and sterols contents in fig oils ranged from 14.27 to 108.55 mg α-TE/g lipids and from 0.36 to 2.80 mg CE/g lipids respectively. The best inhibition concentration (IC50) of DPPH antioxidant activity was marked by GL (0.23–1.06 g/L) and PL (0.67–1.23 g/L). The strongest TAA was also marked by GL (IC50: 2.84 to 10.08 g/L) and PL (IC50: 3.73–11.30 g/L). This finding demonstrated for the first time that the studied figs oils possessed good antioxidant activity which may be associated with their alleged health benefits.
... Other studies have focused on the optimization of ultrasound-microwave assisted extraction of pectin from figs and the optimization using response surface methodology to optimize recovery of total phenolic compounds and preservation of the antioxidant properties [6,7]. Recently, many studies of oil extraction and fatty acids composition of total lipids from fig fruits have been reported [8][9][10][11]. However, there is no information on the chemical composition of different lipids class (neutral lipids, glycolipids and phospholipids) of the fruits. ...
... The registered values are much higher than those reported previously [28] with the total tocopherols and sterols contents in Dacula GA is 0.05 mg α-TE/g lipids and 13 mg CE/g lipids, respectively. Other researchers studied only the achenes of fig from Tunisia and they found a total sterols concentration equals to 10.61 mg CE/g lipids [8]. Another research on the Portuguese fig cultivars found that the major form of tocopherol (α, β, δ and γ) in the peel of figs was α-tocopherol (2.75 mg/100 g fruit weight). ...
... The obtained result can be explained by the presence of phenolic compounds in figs oils that may interfere in the DPPH test. Furthermore, different researches suggested that oil from fig seeds contain a small quantity of phenolic compounds such as o-diphenols and flavonoids and they assumed the ability of these compounds to act as hydrogen donors [8]. From this outcome, and to better understand the antioxidant properties of lipids, it is necessary to quantify the phenol contents of any seeds. ...
Samples of oils from seven types of Ficus carica L. fruits from Algeria were investigated through determinations of their chemical characteristics, quantifying sterols and tocopherols, and analysis of the fatty acids profiles using gas chromatography, and evaluation of antioxidant activity by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method and total antioxidant activity (TAA) using phosphomolybdenum methods. The results show that acid values ranged from 3.14 to 6.95 mg KOH/g indicating on the high amount of free fatty acids in the figs oils. Neutral lipids occupy a very important proportion of the crude figs oils (NL: 60.30–98.40%) compared to glycolipids (GL: 0.58–28.00%) and phospholipids (PL: 0.40-11.70%). Linoleic (11.70–34.74%) and linolenic (1.15–35.27%) were the major unsaturated fatty acids found in lipid fractions, while the main fraction of saturated fatty acid was palmitic. The tocopherols and sterols contents in fig oils ranged from 14.27 to 108.55 mg α-TE/g lipids and from 0.36 to 2.80 mg CE/g lipids respectively. The best inhibition concentration (IC50) of DPPH antioxidant activity was marked by GL (0.23–1.06 g/L) and PL (0.67–1.23 g/L). The strongest TAA was also marked by GL (IC50: 2.84 to 10.08 g/L) and PL (IC50: 3.73–11.30 g/L). This finding demonstrated for the first time that the studied figs oils possessed good antioxidant activity which may be associated with their alleged health benefits.
... coughs, bronchial issues, inflammatory, furuncles, cancer, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and inhibition of low-density lipoprotein oxidation in humans, as well as cardiovascular disorders (Soltana et al. 2016). Vitiligo, diabetes, asthma, constipation, and gingivitis have all been treated with leaves for years (Mohan et al. 2007). ...
... The role of phenolic compounds in preventing radical scavenging has been studied, and their potential to act as hydrogen donors is widely assumed (Soltana et al. 2016). Antioxidant activity is provided by flavonoids, carotenoids, and triterpenes, which scavenge reactive oxygen species and protect biological components like DNA, proteins, and lipids from harm (Ksouri et al. 2013). ...
Herbal products have become widely used in managing and treating a wide range of illnesses. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the total phenolic and flavonoid contents, antioxidant and protective effects of Cymbopogon citratus ethyl acetate and Ficus carica hexane leave extract (200 mg/kg b.w for both) on sodium benzoate (SB) (200 mg/kg b.w) toxicity in rats. For 6 weeks, four groups of five rats each (control, SB, F. carica + SB, and C. citrates + SB). Blood sample (liver, kidney) tissue and histological examination were used at the end of the experiment. According to the findings, the extracts have significant concentrations of total flavonoids, total phenolics, and antioxidant activity. Oxidative stress caused by SB exposure induced an increase in ALT, AST, ALP, glucose, urea, creatinine, uric acid, TG, TC, LDL, and MDA, while insulin and SOD were decreased. Furthermore, the biochemical alterations generated by SB in the blood serum, homogenate, liver, and kidney tissue were significantly reduced by C. citratus ethyl acetate and F. carica hexane leave extracts (P < 0.05). The leaf extracts of the examined plants had significant curative and preventive effects in SB-induced liver and kidney damage, resulting in diminished liver and kidney biomarker enzymes, an improved antioxidant defense system, and lipid peroxidation inhibition.
... Generally, they peel figs; eat the pulp and discard the peel (18). However, in some countries, people prefer to eat the whole fruit (19) and its by-products (leaves, latex, bark and roots). Several in vivo and in vitro studies showed that these by-products can be used as treatment in various disorders such as gastrointestinal, respiratory, inflammatory, cardiovascular disorders and cancers (20,21). ...
... Latex, fig fruits and leaves (Ficus carica) of variety Kholi were collected at full maturity from region Mahdia located at the Central East of Tunisia (Altitude 7m; Latitude: 35°30'16"N, Longitude: 11°03'43"E) (19). The Kholi variety used for this research is a cultivated variety. ...
In traditional medicine, Ficus carica (also known as fig) latex is recognized as a remedy with various therapeutic effects. In the present study we investigated the antitumor activity of Ficus carica extracts and latex. We evaluated the effects of increasing concentrations of Ficus carica extracts and latex on HCT-116 and HT-29 human colorectal cell proliferation using MTT assay and apoptosis induction by evaluating PARP cleavage by Western blot analysis. Peel, pulp, leaves, whole fruit and latex extracts of Ficus carica exerted significant antiproliferative effects on HCT-116 (IC 50 values 239, 343, 177, 299, 206 µg/ml) and HT-29 cells (IC 50 values 207, 249, 230, 261, 182 µg/ml) after 48h of treatment. Furthermore, treatment with different extracts of Ficus carica induced apoptosis in both HT-29 and HCT-116 cancer cells. Leaves and latex extracts of Ficus carica showed the strongest antiproliferative activities. Overall, our results showed that these natural products are strong apoptosis inducers which suggest their use of for therapeutic purposes.
... Aerial parts extract, and fractions showed a high phenolic content from (466.21 ± 2.40) to (132 ± 1.87) mg GAE/mg of extract in butanolic and water fraction respectively; however, levels of reducing compounds may react directly with the Folin-Ciocalteu method by overestimating the total phenolic content. The phenolic compounds are marked as radical scavengers linked to their hydrogen donating properties (Soltana et al., 2016;Obied et al., 2007). The DPPH free radical scavenging model evaluated the antioxidant activity relatively quickly, which receives either an electron or becomes a stable diamagnetic molecule. ...
... In previous studies on fig trees discrimination through their fruit biochemical quality assessment, several techniques were used, mainly spectrophotometric methods [6,37,54,55], high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) [2,4,56,57], gas chromatography (GC) particularly on the fruit achenes [58] and seeds [59,60], and atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) [61,62]. Satisfactory discrimination efficiency was reported in all aforementioned studies addressing the authenticity, chemotaxonomic diversity and geographical origins of studied cultivars. ...
Vibrational spectroscopy analysis of full-ripened fig fruits (Ficus carica L.) was acquired using Fourier-transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy by attenuated total reflectance (ATR). The objective of this study was to investigate accurate discrimination of 25 fig cultivars using chemometric analysis of both ATR–FTIR fingerprinting and in-vitro antioxidant activity along with chromatic coordinates color. In-vitro antioxidant activity was assessed through three methods and displayed statistically significant differences across cultivars and between the fruit parts, with promising antioxidant potency. Infrared spectra were measured separately on both peels and pulp to better know which fruit part provides high discrimination throughput between cultivars. The results showed vibration intensities of five fingerprint regions displaying statically significant differences. The highest vibration intensity occurred in the region of 1175–940 cm−1 including the phenols fingerprint. Principal components analysis based on integrated intensities corresponding to fingerprint regions, revealed two main groups in pulp samples, while five groups in peels samples. The pulp extracts of ‘Nabout’ showed a typical vibration in 3000–2800 cm−1 and 1775–1725 cm−1 regions and, therefore was classified as single subset in cultivars scatterplot. This cultivar had a light-colored fig and exhibited the highest antioxidant potency for all essays particularly in peel extracts. The biochemical assessment and FTIR fingerprinting data were involved in PCA analysis, and that displayed some dissimilarities in the classification patterns, given the fact that antioxidant activities and chromaticity together could not totally explain the classification based on FTIR fingerprinting between peel and pulp. Application of FTIR–ATR spectroscopy to discriminate fig cultivars seems to be a rapid, accurate and cost-effective alternative to laborious measurement techniques, in fig quality screening and preselection, such as chromatography analysis. This study suggests the use of fig peels for a high-level discrimination while using ATR–FTIR spectroscopy, since it provides high-throughput screening framework.
... Flaxseed oil (50-300mL) was reacted with the FC reagent (250mL) and incubated for 5-6min at RT. The reaction was neutralized by adding saturated sodium bicarbonate (1.5mL, 20%) to the mixture and permitting it to stand for 1 h[14,15]. At 765 nm, the absorbance of the resulting blue colour was measured. ...
Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent cancers globally and the second most responsible for cancer mortality. Flaxseed was one of the largest foods most researched with possible breast cancer interactions, but mainly in animal laboratory studies, but only in a few clinical trials. It is rich in omega 3, alpha-linolenic acid, lignan, and fiber fatty acids. One of the main components of flaxseed is lignans, of which 95 percent are made from secoisolariciresinol, a predominant diglucoside (SDG). SDG is converted into enterolactone and enterodiol, both with anti-estrogen. The structure of behaviour and estrogen-like; they can bind to cell receptors, reducing cell growth. In this study, plant sampling was performed with an anti-VEGF modulatory feature. Phytochemicals have been isolated from PubChem in these processes and docked into mutants of the PBD protein. There are no significant effects on the fatty acid content of flaxseed oil from mucilage and drying. However, these procedures increased the content of total phenols and total sterols while reducing the pigment content of carotenoids. More research, specifically clinical studies, is required that could demonstrate the potential benefits of flaxseed for breast cancer. In this study, on the basis of binding affinity of lignan with VEGF receptors further analysis of the Phytoconstituents has been done.
... All samples were proven to have antioxidant activities with significant differences (P < 0.05) between all extracts measured by different antiradical scavenging methods. Similar results were recorded by Soltana et al. (2016) under control condition. This strong potential was confirmed also by Harzallah et al. (2016), who found that fig possess a potent antioxidant activity through different methods, whereas the EC 50 values ranged from 7.04 to 14.6 mg/ml for total fruit and 10.59 mg/ml to 15.45 mg/ ml for pulp extracts through DPPH method. ...
The metabolic processes involved in fig production are influenced by macro-and micronutrients supply to the trees during the growing season. Potassium is an essential plant nutrient that influences growth and fruit quality. In this study, the effect of foliar potassium sulphate (K 2 SO 4) application on biochemical composition and an-tioxidant activity of fig was assessed in cv. Bouhouli, a commonly cultivated cultivar in Djebba (Northwest of Tunisia). Foliar potassium sulphate supply at 2% on Bouhouli trees were applied twice during the fruit growth. Results exhibited that potassium fertilization induces a significant change in total phenolic, flavonoid contents and radical scavenging activity in total fruit and achenes compared to the control. A strong correlation was observed between antioxidant activity and different phenolic compounds. The total fruit and achenes methanol extracts possess, respectively, the highest values of polyphenol by 29.3 and 25.1 mg GAE/g DW compared to the control. Similarly, the flavonoids content was increased in methanol extracts, respectively, by 36 and 48%. HPLC analyses revealed the influence of potassium on concentrations of phenolic compounds in fig sprayed with K 2 SO 4. Among the polyphenols, the chlorogenic acid, cyanidin 3-rutinoside and cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside contents increased from 0.87 to 1.70 mg/g DW under potassium spray, whereas those compounds were not detected in fig achenes. The present study provides clear evidence that potassium sulphate can be used to manipulate total phenolic concentrations in fig with strong antioxidant potential that could be benefits to human health. Thus, potassium sulphate application at 2% could improve nutritional and qualitative attributes of fig.
... With regards to chlorophyll, melon seed oil was found to contain 5.70 mg/kg. This value was higher than that of fig achenes oil (1.05 mg/kg) (Soltana et al., 2016). However, it was lower than that of virgin olive oil (9.32-12.67mg/kg) ...
This study aimed to evaluate the characteristic features, phenolic compounds and thermal analysis of melon seed oil (Maazoun variety), in order to determine its potential applications in food or pharmaceutical industries. The physicochemical properties of the seed oil revealed a high degree of unsaturation. The average contents of carotenoid and chlorophyll were 2.43 mg/kg and 5.70 mg/kg, respectively. The main fatty acids of melon seed oil were linoleic acid (68.98%) and oleic acid (15.84%), which makes this oil nutritionally valuable. Furthermore, trilinolein (LLL), accounted for 28.99% and constitutes the most abundant triacylglycerol. A chromatographic analysis showed that amentoflavone and luteolin-7-glycoside were the major phenolic compounds. A thermal analysis of melon seed oil was performed by differential scanning calorimetery (DSC). The results of sensorial properties indicated that melon seed oil is appreciated by tasters. The findings suggested that because of its composition, melon seed oil could be used successfully as an alternative source in the food and nutraceutical industries as a functional ingredient.
... The latest investigation deals with the antibacterial, antioxidant, hepatoprotective and hypoglycemic activity of figs and their extracts (Chawla et al. 2012;Badgujar et al. 2014). In addition, new studies demonstrate a sufficient potential of fig seed oil in phytochemical, pharmaceutical and food industries (Soltana et al. 2016;Icyer et al. 2017). Although fig is an important tree in many areas, it is typically neglected and underutilized, especially in the native Mediterranean region (IPGRI 2003). ...
A set of 23 local varieties from Slovenia and 218 fig accessions from Californian fig germplasm collection were compared to determine the identity of genotypes and their possible genetic relationships. Figs were genotyped using twelve microsatellite loci. One hundred alleles were identified over all microsatellite loci with an average of 8.33 alleles per locus and a polymorphic information content of 0.557 per locus. DNA genotyping demonstrated a relatively high level of genetic diversity between analysed figs. Comparison of fig genotypes from Slovenia and California demonstrated that only six Slovenian varieties shared identical DNA profiles with figs from the Californian collection, while the other 17 Slovenian varieties were unique and characteristic to the North Adriatic region. The information obtained will contribute to a better management of fig genetic resources.
... The total content of phenols in flaxseed oil was determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method reported in the literature. [21,22] In brief, 2.5 g of flaxseed oil dissolved in 5 mL n-hexane was extracted with 5 mL aqueous methanol. 0.2 mL of the top methanol phase was mixed with 10 mL of diluted Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. ...
Effects of different drying methods, i.e., oven drying, freeze drying, vacuum drying, and microwave drying, on the extraction rate and qualities of oil extracted from demucilaged flaxseed were investigated. The results show that microwave drying and freeze drying have higher extraction rate and yield (46.36 and 46.16% vs. 33.90%) of oil compared with native flaxseed. The oil extracted from dried flaxseed, especially the one freeze dried, had higher peroxide value (21.63 vs. 6.15 meq/kg) and specific ultraviolet extinction at 232 nm (4.56 vs. 3.67) and 268 nm (1.23 vs. 1.12), as well as a shorter induction time (1.8 vs. 3.3 h) than the one from native sample. Demucilaging and drying have no significant effect on fatty acid composition of flaxseed oil. However, these processes increased the content of total phenols and total sterols while reduced the content of chlorophyll and carotenoid pigment. In addition, the oil extracted from vacuum dried flaxseed contained more tocols when compared with native sample (447.29 vs. 370.99 mg/kg).
... Nunes et al. (2015) observed higher carotenoid contents (378 μg/g) in crude macauba oil extracted by mechanical pressing, and verified that this value was drastically reduced to 9 mg/g during refining. Soltana et al. (2016) extracted the oil from the achenes of Ficus carica and observed a β-carotene content of 81.08 mg/g. Ribeiro et al. (2012a) and Speranza et al. (2016) found much higher values of total carotenoids for commercial crude buriti oil (1800 and 782 mg/kg oil, respectively), which is extracted from an Amazonian fruit known as a good source of these pigments. ...
The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of mechanical pressing on jussara oil yield, oxidative stability and carotenoid profile with or without heat application. Firstly, jussara pulp was centrifuged for juice extraction, and the resulting cake was dried until reaching 10% moisture content. Then, oil extraction was performed in an expeller press at 25 ºC (cold pressing) and at 50 ºC (hot pressing). The process performance was evaluated by the oil yield, and the crude jussara oil was characterized for fatty acid composition, acid value, carotenoid profile and oxidative stability. Jussara oil contained 74% unsaturated fatty acids, mainly oleic and linoleic acids (48% and 24%, respectively). The oil yield was almost twice as high for the hot process as compared to the cold one. Additionally, hot pressing resulted in 25% higher total carotenoid content as compared to cold pressing, with β-carotene as the most abundant one. Hot and cold pressing showed no difference in oil oxidative stability and fatty acid composition.
... Generally, the biological activities and phytochemical investigation were revealed from fig fruits, but its leaves from Bidhi and Hemri have not been studied yet. In this context, Soltana et al. (2016) Weihrauch and Gardner (1978) reported the sterol content from a number of edible plants, but reported only 3 phytosterols in figs. This study was confirmed by our results and we found that the phytosterol was the major compounds with levels of 1158.85 and 373.31 μg/g DW for Bidhi and Hemri, respectively. ...
The fig tree (Ficus carica L.) is used as an advantageous rich source of bioactive compounds with high economic values for cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. The different biologically active compounds from this plant may be influenced by genotypes (varieties), environmental factors and their interaction. This study focused on the phytotoxic activity of two well-known Tunisian fig cultivars, Bidhi and Hemri, and its chemical profiles were compared. The phytotoxicity of leaf extracts from fig cultivars was evaluated on the germination and seedling growth of target species. Results indicated that the petroleum ether extract from both studied fig cultivars was the most toxic, showing drastic inhibition of 75.5% on lettuce root growth, which was more sensitive than radish. In fact, Bidhi leaf petroleum ether extract induced the highest phytotoxic effect on seedling growth of lettuce and radish with an average inhibition of 80.3% and 52.3%, respectively, at the highest concentration. The phy-totoxic potential was reflected by terpenes, sterols and fatty acids as major compounds that were detected by Gas Chromatography–Mass spectrometry (GC–MS). A similar phytochemical profile was detected from both cultivars with a significant disparity in terpenoids composition. The β-Sitosterol represented the highest values of 1158.84 and 373.31 μg/g DW for cultivars Bidhi and Hemri, respectively. These disparities of chemical profiles explain the phytotoxic effect of cultivar Bidhi more than Hemri. This work arises valuable bases that can be used in future studies for agricultural purposes.
... The effect of phenolic compounds on preventing radical scavenging was studied and it is generally assumed the ability of these compounds to act as hydrogen donors [12,38]. Antioxidant capacities of our studied varieties were lower than those of Oliveira et al. on "Branca Tradicional" and "Pingo de Mel" fig varieties [18]. ...
Objective: To determine the total phenolic and flavonoid contents, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of methanolic leaf extracts of ten Algerian fig (Ficus carica L.) varieties (uniferous, biferous and caprifig tree).
Methods: Phenolics were extracted by Soxhlet method and analyzed by the Folin–Ciocalteu colorimetric method. Flavonoids were determined by aluminum trichloride assay and the antioxidant capacity was determined by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging assay. The antimicrobial activity was studied with the disc diffusion method and a macrodilution broth method was used to determine the minimal inhibitory concentrations and minimal lethal concentrations.
Results: The mean extract yield was 14.10% ± 0.66% (n = 10). Leaf extract of biferous followed by uniferous varieties had the highest total phenolic contents [(52.296 ± 5.232) and (48.973 ± 2.015) mg gallic acid equivalent/g of dry plant extract respectively], flavonoids [(14.388 ± 0.333) and (14.136 ± 1.082) mg quercetin equivalent/g of dry plant extract] and antioxidant capacity [IC50 (798.754 ± 108.590) and (825.004 ± 110.835) μg/mL]. Antioxidant capacity of fig leaves was significantly correlated with phenolic contents (r = 0.748). These extracts showed bactericidal activity and moderate antifungal activity, and the minimal inhibitory concentrations and minimal lethal concentrations were determined on Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus.
Conclusions: All tested extracts contain phenolic compounds and exhibited an antioxidant activity and an antimicrobial effect against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Further researches on identification and purification of phenolic compounds are required.
These nutraceuticals and functional food had a rich culture regarding fruit and leaves for millennia, and the researcher further focuses on biological activities. Ficus carica leaves embarrassed diverse bioactive functional ingredients. Their therapeutic characteristic has been fixed in the British and Spanish pharmacopeias. Due to the high contents of bioactive compounds and antioxidants with numerous health benefits, fig consumption is getting immense attention. Apart from fruit, non-edible plant parts are also getting attention owing to their bioactive phytochemical composition. The purpose of the current chapter is to analyze and make a productive discussion on current knowledge on the extraction of the bioactive compounds along with the composition of natural product classes, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanin, anthocyanidins, coumarins, vitamins, carotenoids, fatty acids, volatile oils and phytosterols that are responsible for health-promoting effects and well-accepted sensory properties of fig.
The common fig (Ficus carica L.) is one of the most remarkable fruit species of the Mediterranean area. Its adaptive potentialities to various ecological areas have contributed to its expansion to other continents and areas with similar climate conditions, resulting in numerous genetically distinct varieties and ecotypes. Since ancient times, the highly nutritious fruits have represented an important energy source for humans and animals and have been used for different purposes in traditional medicine. The functional properties and various chemical compounds with biological activities and diverse applications in food, medicines, and cosmetics have increased interest in F. carica research at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Research approaches have become increasingly interdisciplinary, reflecting attempts to link fig genotype, nutritional properties, pharmacology compounds, and agronomic traits. In this context, the knowledge of fig genetic resources and the extent of genetic diversity of both cultivated and wild figs is essential for identifying and selecting the most promising genotypes for future breeding programs. This chapter is dedicated to the review of past and current efforts and achievements in the fields of common fig diversity, fig genome and transcriptome investigation, development of DNA markers for F. carica and their applications in variety identification procedures and genetic resources management, including characterization and conservation of germplasm at the national and international level.
Fig (Ficus carica) is commonly known as Anjeer in Pakistan. Fig is a very important fruit and is said to be the fruit of heaven. Fig is cultivated in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Punjab, and Sindh Provinces of Pakistan, producing 487 tons of fruit. The fig is eaten fresh fleshy raw and dried. It is also processed in many products. Figs are highly perishable with limited storability for more extended periods, and to expand the potential markets, most of the production is used for drying. Dried figs are a rich source of calcium, copper, manganese, magnesium, potassium, calcium, vitamin K and fiber. Mainly, figs possess health benefits due to flavonoids, polyphenol, and antioxidants. In Pakistan, figs are used as a traditional medicine to treat anemia, cancer, diabetes, liver disease, skin diseases, ulcers, and gastrointestinal and urinary tract infections. The use of fig in various products could also increase fiber and potassium intake to build up the digestive system. The increase in demand for fig consumption and marketing worldwide is gaining efforts to increase its production in Pakistan. Technological practices could minimize the post-harvest loss of figs during processing and preservation with improved drying techniques and the preparation of value-added by-products. At present, Pakistan is also gaining attention to increase the cultivation of figs in different country areas.
The problem of environmental plastic contamination is one of the most serious issues facing our world today. The majority of the packaging materials used to preserve food are made of plastic which is considered an environmental issue. Natural kaolinite clay (KC) and Ficus leaf extract (FLE) were combined with chitosan in this work to create a novel antioxidant and biodegradable food packaging film. Chitosan/KC/FLE film was compared to chitosan film, Chitosan/KC, and Chitosan/FLE films in terms of structural, physical, and functional aspects. The addition of FLE and/or KC significantly improved the light and moisture barrier characteristics, mechanical properties, and antioxidant capabilities of chitosan film. Moreover, KC addition had a remarkable impact on the water vapor permeability and the biodegradability of the chitosan film. Because of the synergistic action of FLE and KC, the Chitosan/KC/FLE film delivered strong barrier and antioxidant capabilities. Furthermore, Chitosan/KC/FLE film was tested as packaging material on fresh-cut apple slices and demonstrated good food preservation regarding the weight loss, browning index, and total phenolic content of the fruit. According to our findings, Chitosan/KC/FLE film might be employed as a possible food packaging material in the food industry.
The aim of this review was to compile the main reports over the last 5 years concerning the Ficus spp. fruits (Moraceae family) based on chemistry, properties, and applications as products. About 30 Ficus spp. fruits were reported focusing on their chemical composition rich in phenolic acids such as gallic, caffeic and chlorogenic acids, as well as quercetin and cyanidin derivatives. The fruits from Moraceae family presented mainly antioxidant and antimicrobial properties in addition to other functional properties to consumers health. Therefore, these fruits can be successfully considered by the food industry for the development of new products with high added value and also be considered a source of bioactive compounds.
Vitamin E is the most potent lipid‐soluble antioxidant in human plasma. The richest sources of vitamin E are plant oils. This study aims to determine the concentrations of alpha, beta + gamma and delta‐tocopherols (α‐T, β + γ‐T and δ‐T) in various plant or seed oils commonly used in food, pharmaceutics or cosmetics. Forty‐one different plant or seed oil samples were purchased and kept at +4°C in the dark until the chromatographic analysis. Analyses were performed using high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) following the dilution of the oil samples with 2‐propanol in a 1:3 ratio, without further processing. Total tocopherol levels in the oils analysed ranged from 11 to 3468 mg/kg. When the highest total tocopherol levels were taken into consideration, the first five plant oils were pomegranate seeds, wheat germ, fig seed, hippophae rhamnoides and corn oils. Moreover, the wheat germ, fig seed, safflower, sunflower and hazelnut oils had highest α‐tocopherol concentration in the oils analysed. These plant or seed oils have a high potential for using in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries due to their high tocopherol contents. Alpha, beta + gamma and delta‐tocopherol concentrations in forty‐one different plant or seed oils were investigated. Highest total tocopherol levels were detected in pomegranate seed, wheat germ, fig seed, hippophae rhamnoides, and corn oils. Moreover, the wheat germ, fig seed, safflower, sunflower, and hazelnut oils have highest α‐tocopherol concentration in the oils analysed.
Fig fruit (Ficus carica L.) is one of the most important agricultural products of the tropic and subtropics areas. In the Middle East and the Mediterranean region, the fig is included in diet since the ancient years and it is considered as the symbol of longevity. This review presents the main phytochemical compounds found in fresh and dried figs of different varieties, describes the analytical methods used for their determination and discuss the antioxidant capacity and the potential effects of figs in human health. Phenolic acids and flavonoids are the major types of phytochemical compounds that have been found in fresh and dried figs. Their levels are strongly influenced by various factors such as the color, the part of fruit, the maturity and the drying process. Gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, rutin, quercetin-3-O-rutinoside and epicatechin are the most predominant phenolic acids and flavonoids in dried and fresh fig varieties. Extracts of dark-colored varieties contain higher amount of phenolic compounds than the light-colored varieties. Fruit skin contributes most to the amount of phenolic compounds compared to the fruit pulp. The ripening stage affects the concentrations of phenolic compounds in figs, the maximum have been found in ripe fruit. On the other hand, contradictory results have been reported in the literature regarding the effect of air- and sun- drying on the total content of phytochemical compounds, as well as on the concentrations of individual phenolic compounds and carotenoids in figs. The antioxidant capacity of figs is highly correlated with their amount of phenolic compounds. The leaves, roots, fruit and latex of the plant are known for their health properties including acetyl cholinesterase inhibition, antifungal, anti-helminthic and anticarcinogenic activities. Future efforts should be focused on the application of fig extracts as functional ingredients of food products, on clinical trials in order to confirm the beneficial effect of plant extracts in human health and, on the valorization of the waste material produced during figs’ processing.
In Tunisia, fig tree (Ficus carica L.) is facing several threats such as mosaic disease (FMD), a viral disease that spread all over the production areas. The incidence of FMD was evaluated in five regions of Central East of Tunisia by repeated surveys in fig plantations at different periods (after bud break, full vegetation and fruit ripening). Results showed that the FMD incidence, the disease index and the severity of attacks are related to varieties and prospecting year and period. FMD incidence was higher on young leaves than on older ones and on shaded leaves as compared to sunny ones. FMD symptoms on fruits increased following their development stages and at maturation. Detection of FMD associated viruses, using RT-PCR technique on leaf and fruit samples, showed the prevalence of Fig mosaic virus (FMV), Fig budnavirus-1 (FBV-1) and Fig mild mottle-associated virus (FMMaV). A micropropagation protocol of fig varieties was developed using in vitro culture of shoot-tips. Initiation, multiplication, rooting and acclimatization steps were optimized. Shoot-tip development rates reached 100%. During multiplication, regenerated shoots were less necrotic and with little calli at their basis. The best shoot multiplication rate was 16.9. In vitro rooting rates reached more than 80%. Similarly, ex vitro rooting of vigorous plantlets was achieved with 100% success. A peat substrate, used for vitroplant acclimatization, allowed a success rate of over 90%. This protocol was applied for the sanitation of varieties Soltani, Zidi, Bither Abiadh and Assafri. Regenerated plants were tested by RT-PCR for the presence of FMD associated viruses. Effectiveness of shoot-tip culture for FCV and FMMaV viruses’ elimination was related to shoot-tip size; 0.5 mm provided the highest sanitation rates ranging from 70 to 90%.
High-pressure assisted extraction was employed to obtain fig by-product derived extracts and its impact was evaluated on antioxidant activity and total phenolic, tannin, and flavonoid. A Box-Behnken design was applied to evaluate the effects of pressure, extraction time and ethanol concentration on extractions and optimal conditions were estimated by response surface methodology. The correlation analysis of the mathematical-regression model indicated that a quadratic polynomial model could be employed to optimize the high pressure extraction of compounds. Only the models developed for total antioxidant activity by DPPH
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and for total flavonoids presented coefficient determinations lower than 0.95. From response surface plots, pressure, extraction time and ethanol concentration showed independent and interactive effects. The optimal conditions included 600 MPa, an extraction time between 18 and 29 min, depending on the parameter analyzed and a low ethanol concentration (<15%) except for flavonoids (48%). High pressure led to an increase of 8-13% of antioxidant activity and an increase of 8-11% of total phenolics, flavonoids and tannins content when compared to extracts performed at 0.1 MPa. Analysis of variance indicated a high goodness of fit of the models used and the adequacy of response surface methodology for optimizing high pressure extraction.
Rhazya stricta (R. stricta) known as Harmal is widely distributed in Saudi Arabia and throughout the Middle East. It is used as a medicinal plant in traditional cultures and the seeds are a source of unsaturated oil. In the present study, tocol (tocopherol and tocotrienol), triacylglycerol, and fatty acids compositions, pigment content, thermal behavior, and various physicochemical properties of R. stricta oil were characterized to determine the potential uses of this seed oil. Our results indicate that the oil is a rich source of bioactive molecules, including δ -tocopherol (896 mg/100 g), γ-tocopherol (148 mg/100 g) and carotenoids (15.67 mg/kg). The oil content of the seeds was 13.68% and the triacylglycerols were mainly consisted of linoleic acid (59.03%), and oleic acid (27.01%). The major triacylglycerols were trilinoleate, dilinoleate and monolinoleate. The ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids (UFA/SFA) in the oil was high (9.20). Additionally, the oil showed a high degree of thermal stability and a low melting point of approximately - 25 °C. These data indicate that R. stricta seed oil, which is low in saturated fats and rich in bioactive compounds, is potentially useful in food and pharmaceutical applications.
Numerous studies have focused on trans fatty acids (TFA) technologically produced by partial hydrogenation of oils. However, TFA can also be present in fresh oils. For this reason, cis fatty acid (CFA), TFA and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) of fresh and heated Aleppo pine seed oil (APSO) at frying temperature (180 °C) were evaluated and correlated with the antioxidant characteristics. Results showed that fresh APSO had a low oleic/linoleic ratio O/L (0.4). Total TFA in fresh APSO reached 1%. The predominant TFA was 18:2 n-6 (t9, t12) in both fresh and heated APSO. Individual TFA increased with significant differences (p < 0.05) with heating time. CLA occurred after 4 h and significantly increased (p < 0.05) accounting 10% of total TFA after 10 h. Total TFA are negatively correlated with α-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol (p < 0.05) and carotenoïds (p < 0.01) and positively correlated with remaining DPPH. Oil stability index (OSI) showed significant negative correlation with TFA (r = −0.925; p = 0.008). A principal component analysis (PCA) showed a clear discrimination between fresh and heated oils. Temperature, heating time, unsaturation degree and antioxidants are combined factors which significantly affect the isomerization rate and nutritional quality of APSO.
Oxidative stability (OS) of virgin olive oil is affected by different antioxidants whose levels may be influenced by nutrients availability. Changes in OS of virgin olive oil and antioxidants levels were evaluated according to foliar application of six nutrient-based treatments: T1 (rich in nitrogen), T2 (rich in boron, magnesium, sulfur and manganese), T3 (rich in phosphorus and potassium), T4 (rich in phosphorus and calcium), T5 (application of T1 and T2) and T6 (application of T1, T2, T3 and T4). The foliar applications were carried out during two successive growing seasons and oils were extracted and analyzed at the end of the experiment (after 2 years). T3 and T6 treatments improved oil stability by increasing the content of antioxidants, while T2 and T4 affected negatively the antioxidant profile of oils. Measured correlations between OS and compositional variables showed that total phenols had the highest value (R = 0.937, p < 0.001), followed by α-tocopherol (R = 0.775, p < 0.001) and oleic/linoleic ratio (R = 0.625, p < 0.05). These findings suggest that the changing levels of antioxidant compounds, due to fertilization, may be used to obtain oils with the highest quality.
The aim of the study was to evaluate the antioxidant and antidiabetic potential of five Malaysian Uncaria species namely U. lucida, U. acida, U. cordata, U. callophylla and U. longiflora var. pteropoda, find any correlation between these two activities and relate them to their phytochemical content. Measurement of antioxidant activities employed ferric thiocyanate (FTC), thiobarbituric (TBA) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays while evaluation of total phenolic contents employed Folin Ciocalteau methods. Antidiabetic potential was evaluated by a-glucosidase inhibitory assays. All tested extracts exhibited very strong antioxidant potential in the FTC and TBA assays. U. longiflora v.p. (stems and leaves) and U. calophylla (stems) exhibited strong DPPH free radical scavenging activity with IC 50 values of 8-20 μg mL -1 compared to 8 μg mL -1 for vitamin C and 7 jig mL -1 BHT. In the a-glucosidase inhibitory assay, the stem extracts of the two plants showed strong a-glucosidase inhibition (>99%). The anti-diabetic activity exhibited by the two plants correlated well with its radical scavenging activities and its phytochemical content. This study has found Malaysian Uncaria to be potentially important sources of antioxidants and anti-diabetic agents, which may be used in prevention and control of type II diabetes.
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Topical therapy to enhance skin barrier function may be a simple, low-cost, effective strategy to improve outcome of preterm infants with a developmentally compromised epidermal barrier, as lipid constituents of topical products may act as a mechanical barrier and augment synthesis of barrier lipids. Natural oils are applied topically as part of a traditional oil massage to neonates in many developing countries. We sought to identify inexpensive, safe, vegetable oils available in developing countries that improved epidermal barrier function. The impact of oils on mouse epidermal barrier function (rate of transepidermal water loss over time following acute barrier disruption by tape-stripping) and ultrastructure was determined. A single application of sunflower seed oil significantly accelerated skin barrier recovery within 1 h; the effect was sustained 5 h after application. In contrast, the other vegetable oils tested (mustard, olive and soybean oils) all significantly delayed recovery of barrier function compared with control- or Aquaphor-treated skin. Twice-daily applications of mustard oil for 7 d resulted in sustained delay of barrier recovery. Moreover, adverse ultrastructural changes were seen under transmission electron microscopy in keratin intermediate filament, mitochondrial, nuclear, and nuclear envelope structure following a single application of mustard oil.
Conclusion:
Our data suggest that topical application of linoleate-enriched oil such as sunflower seed oil might enhance skin barrier function and improve outcome in neonates with compromised barrier function. Mustard oil, used routinely in newborn care throughout South Asia, has toxic effects on the epidermal barrier that warrant further investigation.
Epidemiological and clinical studies have established that the n-6 fatty acid, linoleic acid (LA), and the n-3 fatty acids, linolenic acid (LNA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) collectively protect against coronary heart disease (CHD). LA is the major dietary fatty acid regulating low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-C metabolism by downregulating LDL-C production and enhancing its clearance. Further, the available mass of LA is a critical factor determining the hyperlipemic effects of other dietary fat components, such as saturated and trans fatty acids, as well as cholesterol. By contrast, n-3 fatty acids, especially EPA and DHA, are potent antiarryhthmic agents. EPA and DHA also improve vascular endothelial function and help lower blood pressure, platelet sensitivity, and the serum triglyceride level. The distinct functions of these two families make the balance between dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acids an important consideration influencing cardiovascular health. Based on published literature describing practical dietary intakes, we suggest that consumption of ~6% en LA, 0.75% en LNA, and 0.25% en EPA + DHA represents adequate and achievable intakes for most healthy adults. This corresponds to an n-6/n-3 ratio of ~6:1. However, the absolute mass of essential fatty acids consumed, rather than their n-6/n-3 ratio, should be the first consideration when contemplating lifelong dietary habits affecting cardiovascular benefit from their intake.
The goal of this work is to determine the amount and quality of phenol antioxidants in dried fruits and compare them with the corresponding fresh fruits; to compare the nutrients in fresh and dried fruits; to determine if figs are a source of in vivo antioxidants when eaten.
Commercial samples of dried fruits and fresh fruits were compared in the in vitro studies using a colorimetric method to measure phenolic antioxidants. The quality of the antioxidants was measured by inhibition of lower density lipoprotein oxidation. Ten normal free-living subjects were tested in the human study. Fasting subjects were given 40 g of figs with or without a carbonated beverage and the plasma antioxidant capacity was measured for six hours using the trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity assay.
Dates have the highest concentration of polyphenols among the dried fruits. Figs and dried plums have the best nutrient score among the dried fruits, and dates among the fresh fruits. Processing to produce the dried fruit significantly decreases the phenols in the fruits on a dry weight basis. Compared with vitamins C and E, dried fruits have superior quality antioxidants with figs and dried plums being the best. Fig antioxidants can enrich lipoproteins in plasma and protect them from subsequent oxidation. Figs produced a significant increase in plasma antioxidant capacity for 4 hours after consumption, and overcome the oxidative stress of consuming high fructose corn syrup in a carbonated soft drink.
Dried fruits and especially figs, are a convenient and superior source of some nutrients, but in the American diet amount to less than 1% of total fruit consumed. Figs are in vivo antioxidants after human consumption. The findings suggest that dried fruits should be a greater part of the diet as they are dense in phenol antioxidants and nutrients, most notably fiber.
The principal biological role of alpha-linolenic acid (alphaLNA; 18:3n-3) appears to be as a precursor for the synthesis of longer chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Increasing alphaLNA intake for a period of weeks to months results in an increase in the proportion of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) in plasma lipids, in erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets and in breast milk but there is no increase in docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3), which may even decline in some pools at high alphaLNA intakes. Stable isotope tracer studies indicate that conversion of alphaLNA to EPA occurs but is limited in men and that further transformation to DHA is very low. The fractional conversion of alphaLNA to the longer chain n-3 PUFA is greater in women which may be due to a regulatory effect of oestrogen. A lower proportion of alphaLNA is used for beta-oxidation in women compared with men. Overall, alphaLNA appears to be a limited source of longer chain n-3 PUFA in humans. Thus, adequate intakes of preformed long chain n-3 PUFA, in particular DHA, may be important for maintaining optimal tissue function. Capacity to up-regulate alphaLNA conversion in women may be important for meeting the demands of the fetus and neonate for DHA.
Aqueous methanol extracts of Chemlali olive stones were analyzed by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with diode array detection and mass spectrometry [LC-MS/MS]. Oleoside, oleoside 11-methyl ester, nuezhenide, oleoside 11-methyloleoside, nuezhenide 11-methyloleoside, oleuropein and glycosides of tryosol and hydroxytyrosol glycosides were identified in stones of Chemali olives. The antioxidant activity observed for the extract of the olive stones (IC50= 13.84 µg/ml, TEAC= 0.436 mM) may be due to the high content of phenolic compounds of which the main compounds are nuezhenide (325.78 mg/100g), methoxy derivative of nuezhenide (132.46 mg/100g) and nuzhenide-11-methyloleoside (82.91 mg/100g). These results suggest the use of olive stones as sources of natural antioxidants.
A method for the screening of antioxidant activity is reported as a decolorization assay applicable to both lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidants, including flavonoids, hydroxycinnamates, carotenoids, and plasma antioxidants. The pre-formed radical monocation of 2,2′-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS•+) is generated by oxidation of ABTS with potassium persulfate and is reduced in the presence of such hydrogen-donating antioxidants. The influences of both the concentration of antioxidant and duration of reaction on the inhibition of the radical cation absorption are taken into account when determining the antioxidant activity. This assay clearly improves the original TEAC assay (the ferryl myoglobin/ABTS assay) for the determination of antioxidant activity in a number of ways. First, the chemistry involves the direct generation of the ABTS radical monocation with no involvement of an intermediary radical. Second, it is a decolorization assay; thus the radical cation is pre-formed prior to addition of antioxidant test systems, rather than the generation of the radical taking place continually in the presence of the antioxidant. Hence the results obtained with the improved system may not always be directly comparable with those obtained using the original TEAC assay. Third, it is applicable to both aqueous and lipophilic systems.
Some historical facts on and botanical descriptions of sesame are given. Some flavor studies of raw and roasted sesame seeds and oils are described. Composition and some usages are also briefly reported. Sesame has long been regarded in the Orient as a health food which increases energy and prevents aging. Sesame oil has been known empirically as a cooking oil which is highly resistant to oxidative deterioration in comparison with other edible oils. Until recently there were no scientific studies to elucidate these interesting aspects of sesame seed and oil, but the author and members of his group initiated studies on the chemical elucidation of antioxidative principles of sesame seed and oil, and extensively investigated the antiaging effect of sesame. Presence of various new antioxidative lignan phenol compounds in sesame seed and oil is described. Sesaminol has been identified as a new antioxidative principle in raw sesame salad oil. The mechanism of the superior antioxidative activity of roasted sesame oil is being elucidated and is consistent with the synergistic effect of the browning products with tocopherol, sesamol, and sesamin. Noticeable results concerning the antiaging effect of sesame have been shown in a series of animal experiments. The suppressive effect on senescence in mice by long‐term feeding of sesame was demonstrated. Sesame lignans had a synergistic effect on vitamin E activities when added to tocopherols. The addition of sesame lignans, especially that of antioxidative lignan sesaminol in the diets of rats, markedly enhanced vitamin E activity of γ‐tocopherol to the same level of α‐tocopherol, and also significantly enhanced the vitamin E activity of α‐tocopherol. These effects were accompanied by a marked increase in the concentrations of these tocopherols in blood and liver. The enhancement of vitamin E activity by lignans is very important from the viewpoint of evaluating vitamin E activity as well as the antiaging effect of various foods. Various interesting physiological activities of sesame lignans in animal and human tests were shown, such as hypocholesterolemic activity, suppressive activity of chemically induced cancer, and enhancing effect on various liver activities involving detoxification of carbon tetrachloride and ethanol. These recent developments in chemical and physiological studies on sesame seed and oil seem to partially unveil the mystery surrounding sesame though there remain many interesting physiological activities in various aspects of advanced nutritional and phsyiological sciences which need to be clarified. These recent studies demonstrate that sesame, though a minor constituent of daily diets, plays an important role in developing the potential powers of other food constituents as well as markedly raising food quality, not just in the aroma and taste, but also in nutritional and physiological aspects. Because much attention has been focused on the effect of the daily diet on health, especially on circulatory disorders, carcinogenesis, and senility, it seems that sesame seed and oil should be considered as one of the more valuable foods for good health and for good quality of life in general.
: The phytosterol compositions in unsaponifiables of fig (Ficus carica, var. Mission) fruit and 3 structural components of the branches; and the fatty acid composition of fig fruits were studied using gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The phytosterols were determined from the trimethylsilyl ether (TMS) derivatives of the unsaponifiable samples. Fourteen compounds were separated from fig fruit; 13, 10, and 6 in bark, stem, and pith, respectively. Sitosterol was the most predominant sterol in all parts. Also detected were campesterol, stigmasterol, and fucosterol. Fatty acids in fig fruit, determined as their methyl esters, were myristic (14:0), palmitic (16:0), stearic (18:0), oleic (18:1), linoleic (18:2), and linolenic (18:3) acids.
Abstract
Interest in Canola, Cannabis, Sunflower, Cardoon and Safflower, was focused on the composition of the fat because of their growing importance for nutritional and pharmaceutical purposes. We have therefore begun the analysis and characterization of their fatty acids (FAs) in different oils extracted from those crops to obtain reliable data on their suitability for both human nutrition and industrial or pharmaceutical purposes. The oil content fluctuated from 243 g/kg for Cardoon, 327 g/kg for Cannabis, 358 g/kg for Safflower, 411 g/kg for Sunflower to 488 g/kg for Canola. The ratio of n-6 to n-3 and total unsaturated to total saturated fatty acids ranged from 1.8 to 78.6 and 4.0 to 12.9, respectively. All five crop oils contained a high concentration of unsaturated fatty acids, namely linoleic acid (LA) and linolenic acid (LNA), which are two of the main representative compounds, known as dietary essential fatty acids (EFA) because they prevent deficiency symptoms and cannot be synthesized by humans. They could be considered, per si, functional foods without any biochemical extra additions. Thus, we conclude that whole crop oils do not differ significantly in their FAs composition; consequently, all seem to be suitable for human nutrition after refined procedure.
Keywords
Canola; Cannabis; Sunflower; Cardoon; Safflower; Fatty acids
Phenolic compounds have a fundamental importance in the nutritional and sensory characteristics of virgin olive oil. Problems regarding their qualitative and quantitative evaluation have not been completely solved; hence, in this paper the extractive and HPLC methods of analysis are examined and some modifications are presented. By means of these techniques, elenolic acid and four unknown compounds having phenolic behavior were separated from virgin olive oil. Four of them were correlated with total phenols evaluated by means of the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, and two of them were correlated with olive oil autoxidation stability.
Sterols and triterpene diols in olive oil as indicators of variety and degree of ripening derived from three olive varieties and produced at three different harvesting periods were studied. In order to test the stability of the proposed indicators, oils obtained were stored for 12months at three different temperatures. Thirty-six samples in total were subjected to GC analysis and results were processed by multivariate chemometric methods (MANOVA, PCA, and SLDA). Campesterol, β-sitosterol, Δ(7)-campesterol/Δ(5,24)-stigmastadienol, clerosterol, uvaol, and campestanol/Δ(7)-avenasterol were established as the indicators of variety of fresh oils, while when stored oils were included in the model, the final three compounds were substituted by 24-methylene-cholesterol/stigmasterol. The most important variables for differentiating fresh oils according to degree of ripening were Δ(7)-campesterol/β-sitosterol, uvaol/stigmasterol, clerosterol/Δ(5)-avenasterol and sitostanol/uvaol, while stored oils were differentiated by campestanol/stigmasterol, erythrodiol, stigmasterol/Δ(7)-campesterol, Δ(5)-avenasterol, 24-methylene-cholesterol/β-sitosterol and 24-methylene-cholesterol. Results demonstrated that sterols and triterpene diols can be used as indicators of variety and degree of ripening among virgin olive oils.
Fifty‐two samples of virgin olive oil from various regions of Greece were examined for the presence and levels of chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments using normal phase liquid chromatography and spectrometry. Pheophytin α (Pheo α) was the main pigment in all the oils examined (>10 mg kg ⁻¹ in more than 70% of samples). Two pheophytin α derivatives (peaks A and B), eluted close to Pheo α, may potentially be used to examine handling conditions and length of storage of oil until analysis. Analysis of 25 Greek commercial oils obtained from retail stores verified the above observations. Chlorophyll α may be present in a virgin olive oil just after production. Its absence should not be exclusively attributed to cultivar characteristics or extraction conditions, since pheophytinisation occurs rapidly. Lutein content varied between 0.2 and 3.9 mg kg ⁻¹ and β‐carotene content from 0.4 to 5.1 mg kg ⁻¹ . The lutein/β‐carotene ratio was characteristic (<1) for samples from Koroneiki, the major Greek cultivar for oil production. The total Pheo α (Pheo α + peak A + peak B)/total carotenoid (lutein + β‐carotene) ratio ranged between 2 and 11 owing to prevailing green hues. This ratio may be used as an indicator of oil typicality along with other analytical parameters.
© 2001 Society of Chemical Industry
Four underutilized Georgia-grown fruit crops, namely loquat (Eriobotrya japonica), mayhaw (Crataegus sp.), fig (Ficus carica), and pawpaw (Asimina triloba), and their leaves were analysed for total polyphenols by Folin–Ciocalteau method, and antioxidant capacity by ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and Trolox-equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assays. Organic acids and phenolic compounds were identified by RP-HPLC. For lipid profile, fruits were separated into two fractions – seed and fruit (i.e., without seed); lipid was extracted using the Folch method and analysed for fatty acids, phytosterols, tocopherols, and phospholipids. The major organic acid identified in all samples was malic acid (177–1918 mg/100 g FW). The predominant phenolic acids in all the fruits were gallic (1.5–6.4 mg/100 g FW) and ellagic (0.2–33.8 mg/100 g FW), and the most abundant flavonoid was catechin (12.2–37.8 mg/100 g FW). Total lipid content varied from 0.1% in mayhaw fruit to 21.5% in pawpaw seed. Linoleic acid was the predominant fatty acid in all of the samples (28.2–55.7%).
Flavonoid content of mulberry leaves of 19 varieties of species, determined spectrophotometrically in terms of rutin equivalent, varied from 11.7 to 26.6 mg g−1 in spring leaves and 9.84 to 29.6 mg g−1 in autumn leaves. Fresh leaves gave more extract than air-dried or oven-dried ones. HPLC showed that mulberry leaves contain at least four flavonoids, two of which are rutin and quercetin. The percentage superoxide ion scavenged by extracts of mulberry leaves, mulberry tender leaves, mulberry branches and mulberry bark were 46.5, 55.5, 67.5 and 85·5%, respectively, at a concentration of 5 μg ml−1. The scavenging effects of most mulberry extracts were greater than those of rutin (52.0%).
Two samples of refined olive and husk oils have been analysed in order to evaluate the influence of storage time on their quality. The following parameters were determined: peroxide values, absorption coefficients K270 and K232, Rancimat induction time, sterols and fatty acid contents. Six months storage at 50 °C in the dark revealed a loss in oil stability. This finding was reflected by the greater increase in peroxide value and a decrease of Rancimat induction time and sterol content. The enrichment of refined olive and husk oils with olive leaves and its hydrolysate extract resulted in an appreciable resistance to oxidative deterioration due to its phenolic antioxidants content. Oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol were the major compounds in Chemlali olive leaves extract and hydrolysate solution, respectively. The antiradical activity of leaves extract as well as its hydrolysate solution was evaluated and compared to that of the BHT. The antioxidant activity of the enriched refined olive and husk oils with leaves and hydrolysate extracts at 400 ppm showed that the latter had the highest protective effect against oil oxidation. Oils with added hydrolysate extract had the lower peroxide value and the higher stability measured with a Rancimat method. After six months of storage the induction time increased from 23.3 to 83.5 h for refined olive oil and from 16.6 to 49 h for husk oil. Furthermore, during oil storage, there was no significant variation in fatty acid composition. However, the total sterol concentration of the oils treated with hydrolysate extract increased. The results suggested that hydrolysate and leaves extracts are excellent antioxidants and can serve as substitutes for synthetic antioxidants.
Twenty samples of two caper species were collected from various natural habitats of Calabria (South Italy). A sample program was designed in order to cover all taxa and morphotypes present in the studied area, trying to correlate ecological conditions, phytochemical content, and biological activities. These species were characterized through the detection, isolation, and capillary GC-GC/MS quantitative evaluation of chemical markers (phytosterols and vitamin E). The antioxidant activity of MeOH caper extracts was assayed using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and β-carotene bleaching tests. The chemical investigation showed a different composition according to the species and the populations. The best free radical (DPPH) scavenging activity was exerted by Capparis orientalis sample C4 (collected near Copanello village, granodiorite sea cliff) and Capparis sicula ssp. sicula sample C5 (collected near Tarsia village, clay soil). Sample C2 (Galatrella Valley, clay soil) showed the highest inhibition of linoleic acid oxidation with more efficacy than propyl gallate, the reference drug.
Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum L.), the second most important vegetable crop worldwide, are a key component in the so-called "Mediterranean diet", which is strongly associated with a reduced risk of chronic degenerative diseases. In this work, we evaluate the differences in the total and individual polyphenol content and hydrophilic antioxidant capacity of seven varieties of tomato cultivated in Vegas Bajas del Guadiana, Badajoz (Spain), which were collected from two consecutive harvests (2008-2009). Hydrophilic antioxidant capacity was evaluated using the TEAC assay, while the Folin-Ciocalteau assay with a previous cleanup was used to establish total polyphenol content. The method was optimized and validated. Individual polyphenols were quantified using liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) on a triple quadrupole. All compounds were found to be significantly different when analysis of variance was performed. Results from the principal component analysis show that phenolic compounds and hydrophilic antioxidant capacity were responsible for the differences among tomato samples according to variety.
Latex is a sticky emulsion that exudes upon damage from specialized canals from several plants. It contains several biologically active compounds, such as phytosterols, fatty acids, and amino acids. In plants, these compounds are involved in the interaction between plants, insects, and the environment. Despite its chemical, biological, and ecological importance, Ficus carica latex is still poorly studied. To improve the knowledge on the metabolite profile of this matrix, a targeted metabolite analysis was performed in a representative sample from F. carica latex. Seven phytosterols were determined by gas chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry (GC-ITMS) and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to diode array detection (HPLC-DAD), with β-sitosterol and lupeol being the compounds present in higher concentrations (ca. 54 and 14%, respectively). A total of 18 fatty acids were characterized by GC-ITMS, being essentially represented by saturated fatty acids (ca. 86.4% of total fatty acids). A total of 13 free amino acids were also identified by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (HPLC/UV-vis), and cysteine and tyrosine were the major ones (ca. 38.7 and 31.4%, respectively). In humans, phytosterols and some polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, are known for their anticarcinogenic properties. With regard to amino acids, some of them, such as glycine, are neurotransmitters. Our results reveal the presence of a wide diversity of compounds, from distinct classes, in F. carica latex, possessing various potential pharmacological activities; thus, its biological potential appears to be worth further exploring.
A large body of literature suggests that higher intakes of omega-6 (or n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) reduce risk for coronary heart disease (CHD). However, for the reasons outlined below, some individuals and groups have recommended substantial reductions in omega-6 PUFA intake.1–4 The purpose of this advisory is to review evidence on the relationship between omega-6 PUFAs and the risk of CHD and cardiovascular disease.
Omega-6 PUFAs are characterized by the presence of at least 2 carbon-carbon double bonds, with the first bond at the sixth carbon from the methyl terminus. Linoleic acid (LA), an 18-carbon fatty acid with 2 double bonds (18:2 omega-6), is the primary dietary omega-6 PUFA. LA cannot be synthesized by humans, and although firm minimum requirements have not been established for healthy adults, estimates derived from studies in infants and hospitalized patients receiving total parenteral nutrition suggest that an LA intake of ≈0.5% to 2% of energy is likely to suffice. After consumption, LA can be desaturated and elongated to form other omega-6 PUFAs such as γ-linolenic and dihomo-γ-linolenic acids. The latter is converted to the metabolically important omega-6 PUFA arachidonic acid (AA; 20:4 omega-6), the substrate for a wide array of reactive oxygenated metabolites. Because LA accounts for 85% to 90% of the dietary omega-6 PUFA, this advisory focuses primarily on this fatty acid, recognizing that dietary AA, which can affect tissue AA levels,5 may have physiological sequelae.6–8 LA comes primarily from vegetable oils (eg, corn, sunflower, safflower, soy). The average US intake of LA, according to National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001 to 2002 data for adults ≥19 years of age, is 14.8 g/d.9 On the basis of an average intake of 2000 kcal/d, LA intake is 6.7% of energy. AA (≈0.15 g/d) is consumed preformed in meat, …
Plant sterols and stanols (phytosterols/phytostanols) are known to reduce serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol level, and food products containing these plant compounds are widely used as a therapeutic dietary option to reduce plasma cholesterol and atherosclerotic risk. The cholesterol-lowering action of phytosterols/phytostanols is thought to occur, at least in part, through competition with dietary and biliary cholesterol for intestinal absorption in mixed micelles. However, recent evidence suggests that phytosterols/phytostanols may regulate proteins implicated in cholesterol metabolism both in enterocytes and hepatocytes. Important advances in the understanding of intestinal sterol absorption have provided potential molecular targets of phytosterols. An increased activity of ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) and ABCG5/G8 heterodimer has been proposed as a mechanism underlying the hypocholesterolaemic effect of phytosterols. Conclusive studies using ABCA1 and ABCG5/G8-deficient mice have demonstrated that the phytosterol-mediated inhibition of intestinal cholesterol absorption is independent of these ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters. Other reports have proposed a phytosterol/phytostanol action on cholesterol esterification and lipoprotein assembly, cholesterol synthesis and apolipoprotein (apo) B100-containing lipoprotein removal. The accumulation of phytosterols in ABCG5/G8-deficient mice, which develop features of human sitosterolaemia, disrupts cholesterol homeostasis by affecting sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-2 processing and liver X receptor (LXR) regulatory pathways. This article reviews the progress to date in studying these effects of phytosterols/phytostanols and the molecular mechanisms involved.
A major pathogenic factor of acne is the disturbed keratinization of the follicular infundibulum. It has been hypothesized that a relative decrease in linoleic acid in the sebum could be responsible, in part, for this. The aim of the present study was objectively to evaluate the effects of topically applied linoleic acid on the size of microcomedones in patients with mild acne. The design was a double-blind placebo-controlled randomized cross-over study. Evaluations were performed by digital image analysis of cyanoacrylate follicular biopsies. There was a significant effect of topically applied linoleic acid on the size of follicular casts and microcomedones, an almost 25% reduction in their overall size being achieved over a 1-month treatment period. In contrast, no change was found at placebo-treated sites. It is concluded that topical linoleic acid might play a role as a comedolytic agent in acne-prone patients.
A method for the screening of antioxidant activity is reported as a decolorization assay applicable to both lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidants, including flavonoids, hydroxycinnamates, carotenoids, and plasma antioxidants. The pre-formed radical monocation of 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS*+) is generated by oxidation of ABTS with potassium persulfate and is reduced in the presence of such hydrogen-donating antioxidants. The influences of both the concentration of antioxidant and duration of reaction on the inhibition of the radical cation absorption are taken into account when determining the antioxidant activity. This assay clearly improves the original TEAC assay (the ferryl myoglobin/ABTS assay) for the determination of antioxidant activity in a number of ways. First, the chemistry involves the direct generation of the ABTS radical monocation with no involvement of an intermediary radical. Second, it is a decolorization assay; thus the radical cation is pre-formed prior to addition of antioxidant test systems, rather than the generation of the radical taking place continually in the presence of the antioxidant. Hence the results obtained with the improved system may not always be directly comparable with those obtained using the original TEAC assay. Third, it is applicable to both aqueous and lipophilic systems.
This study was designed to examine the differential effects of alpha- and gamma-tocopherol on parameters of oxidation-antioxidation and thrombogenesis.
Experimental studies have shown that antioxidants, such as vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), improve atherosclerotic plaque stability and vasomotor function, and decrease platelet aggregation and tendency to thrombus formation.
Sprague Dawley rats were fed chow mixed with alpha- or gamma-tocopherol (100 mg/kg/day) for 10 days. A filter soaked in 29% FeCl3 was applied around the abdominal aorta to study the patterns of arterial thrombosis. The aortic blood flow was observed and continuously recorded using an ultrasonic Doppler flow probe. ADP-induced platelet aggregation, low-density lipoprotein oxidation induced by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-stimulated leukocytes, superoxide anion generation and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were also measured.
Both alpha- and gamma-tocopherol decreased platelet aggregation and delayed time to occlusive thrombus (all p < 0.05 vs. control). Both alpha- and gamma-tocopherol decreased arterial superoxide anion generation, lipid peroxidation and LDL oxidation (all p < 0.05 vs. control), and increased endogenous SOD activity (p < 0.05). The effects of gamma-tocopherol were more potent than those of alpha-tocopherol (p < 0.05).
This study indicates that both alpha- and gamma-tocopherol decrease platelet aggregation and delay intraarterial thrombus formation, perhaps by an increase in endogenous antioxidant activity. Gamma-tocopherol is significantly more potent than alpha-tocopherol in these effects.
The extraction procedures (solid/liquid SPE and liquid/liquid LLE) and HPLC separation and quantification methods of polyphenolic compounds have been checked in virgin olive oils in order to explain the differences in content reported in the literature. The work has been carried out on oils prepared from one cultivar and produced under the same protocol. The extraction methods are practically equivalent, but the SPE technique is more favorable because it is faster and simpler. It has been proved that the chromatographic features and the method of chemical expression of the concentrations may greatly affect the final values. Thus, under the same analytical method, the total concentration values of polyphenols of the same oil show variations from 18% to 80%, according to the formality of expression as gallic acid, caffeic acid, or tyrosol equivalents. The role of the nature and spectrophotometric features of the phenols and of the internal standard is also discussed, and it was found to be an important source of reported variation. A gradient separation with an eluent mixture acetonitrile-sulfuric acid (0.1 mol/L), detection at 225 nm, and quantitative calculation of polyphenolic compounds in oils (expressed as tyrosol equivalents, THY(eq)) is proposed.
A quick and direct method for measuring tocopherols (alpha, beta+gamma and delta) in vegetable oils has been developed using RP-HPLC with UV detection. Previous extraction of tocopherols is not required. The oil is diluted in hexane and an aliquot is mixed with ethanol containing an internal standard (alpha-tocopherol acetate). The chromatographic system consists of an ODS-2 column with a methanol-water mobile phase. Tocopherols are detected at 292 nm in less than 5 min after injection. The method is precise (RSD=2.69%) and has a high mean recovery (98.14%).
Although plant sterols (phytosterols) were chemically described in 1922, their biological role in human and animal health has been underestimated. Their ability to control cholesterol plasma levels in hypercholesterolimic patients was first described in 1983 when the structure of phytosterols implied that they could, by steric hindrance, inhibit the absorption of cholesterol from our diets. This has led to the development of functional foods containing high contents of these plant molecules or their esters as cholesterol controlling foods. Over the last 15 years, however, several reports have appeared in the literature indicating that phytosterols have some immunological activity as highlighted in animal models of inflammation or even in in-vitro and in-vivo models of cancer (colorectal and breast cancer). These findings were paralleled by epidemiological studies correlating the reduced risk of numerous diseases and the dietary intake of phytosterols. It is only in the last 10 years, however, that their direct immune modulatory activity on human lymphocytes has been proven and the mechanism of action in cancer cells has been elucidated. The use of phytosterols as supportive therapies in certain chronic conditions has been tested under clinical trial conditions. This review presents a summary of the in-vitro and in-vivo studies published to date.
The influence of the quality of dietary fat on some aspects of lipid metabolism-i.e. lipoprotein concentrations, post-prandial lipids and LDL size-is not completely understood, especially in healthy individuals.
Aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different types of dietary fat (monounsaturated vs. saturated fatty acids, and n-3 or placebo supplementation) on fasting lipoproteins, LDL size and post-prandial lipids in healthy people.
One hundred and sixty-two individuals were randomly assigned to follow two isoenergetic diets, one rich in saturated fatty acids (SFA diet) and the other in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA diet). Each group was further randomised to receive supplementation with fish oil (3.6 g/day) or placebo.
The type of diet significantly affected LDL cholesterol and triacylglycerol content, which was higher with the SFA diet and lower with the MUFA diet. The changes between the two diets were statistically significant for cholesterol (P<0.01) and triacylglycerol (P<0.03). VLDL cholesterol and triacylglycerol were significantly reduced and LDL cholesterol significantly increased by fish oil supplementation. Plasma triacylglycerol was significantly lower in those taking n-3 fatty acids, also 1 and 3 h after a test-meal. Neither type of diet nor n-3 supplementation affected LDL size.
A moderate substitution of saturated fatty acids with monounsaturated fatty acids has beneficial effects on lipid metabolism also in healthy individuals. A moderate supplementation of long-chain n-3 fatty acids in healthy individuals reduces both fasting and post-prandial triacylglycerol concentrations but increases LDL cholesterol, irrespective of the type of diet.
Increasing interest in phenolic compounds in olives is due to their antioxidant and health-enhancing properties. In this study the phenolics in fruits of the Tunisian olive cultivar Chemlali were extracted by methanol-water and fractionated using Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography. The identification of phenolic monomers and flavonoids was based on separation by high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with a diode array detector followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. Oleuropein, a secoiridoid glycoside esterified with a phenolic acid, was the major compound. Eight phenolic monomers and 12 flavonoids were also identified in Chemlali olives. Five flavonoids were isolated and purified using Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography and preparative paper chromatography. The antioxidant activity of the extract and the purified compounds was evaluated by measuring the radical scavenging effect on 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and by using the beta-carotene-linoleate model assay. Acid hydrolysis of the extract enhanced its antioxidant activity. Hydroxytyrosol and quercetin showed antioxidant activities similar to that of 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol. A hydroxyl group at the ortho position at 3' on the B ring of the flavonoid nucleus could contribute to the antioxidant activity of the flavonoids.
High performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array and coulometric array detectors were used to characterize and quantify phenolic compounds in achenes and flesh of ripe strawberries (cv Totem and Puget Reliance). Total phenolics and total monomeric anthocyanins were measured and antioxidant activities were evaluated by the FRAP and the ORAC assays. Strawberries contained 1% achenes on a fresh weight basis; however, they contributed to about 11% of total phenolics and 14% of antioxidant activities in strawberries. Ellagic acid, ellagic acid glycosides, and ellagitannins were the main contributors to the antioxidant activities of achenes. The major anthocyanin in flesh was pelargonidin-3-glucoside, whereas achenes consisted of nearly equal amounts of cyanidin-3-glucoside and pelargonidin-3-glucoside. Phenolic content and antioxidant activity of strawberry achenes were reduced by industrial processing. However, the levels were still high and strawberry waste byproduct could thus be a possible source of nutraceuticals or natural antioxidants.
The fatty acid and tocopherol compositions of three heartnut (Juglans ailanthifolia var. cordiformis) varieties (Imshu, Campbell CW1, and Campbell CW3) were examined and compared with those of two Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) varieties (Combe and Lake). The major fatty acids found in heartnuts and walnuts were identified by gas chromatography as linoleic (18:2n-6), alpha-linolenic (18:3n-3), oleic (18:1n-9), palmitic (16:0), and stearic acid (18:0). Polyunsaturated fatty acids were the main group of fatty acids found in both heartnut and walnut, ranging from 73.07 to 80.98%, and were significantly higher in heartnut than in Persian walnuts (P < 0.001). In addition, heartnuts had significantly higher levels of 18:2n-6 and lower levels of 18:3n-3 compared to the Persian walnuts. gamma-Tocopherol was the main tocopherol homologue present in both types of nuts, followed by delta- and alpha-tocopherol. The highest concentration of gamma-tocopherol was found in Combe Persian walnut at 267.87 mug/g, followed by Lake Persian walnut and Imshu, Campbell CW1, and CW3 heartnut at 205.45, 187.33, 161.84, and 126.46 mug/g, respectively. Tocopherols, particularly the gamma-tocopherol, were found to contribute the most to the strong total antioxidant activities of both walnut and heartnut oils using either the free radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay or the photochemiluminescence method.
Chemical screening using reversed phase HPLC-photodiode array detection (RPLC-DAD) and RPLC-electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (RPLC-ESI-MS) is widely applied as an approach to streamline natural products research. The full potential of this approach is demonstrated in this paper by application to the chemical screening of olive products including olive mill waste (OMW). Out of 100 biophenols previously reported in olive products, the on-line RPLC-DAD-ESI-MS was able to confirm the presence of 52 compounds in OMW. This included a number of simple phenols, flavonoids and secoiridoids. By careful examination of the combined DAD and ESI-MS data, extra information was elucidated including: the site of glycosidation on the phenol ring of hydroxytyrosol; the identity of the other luteolin-glucoside isomer as luteolin-4'-O-glucoside; identifying rutin rather than the previously reported hesperidin (and the reasons for possible mis-assignment); and the detection of diastereomers of 4-hydroxyphenylethyl alcohol-deacetoxy elenolic acid dialdehyde (4-HPEA-DEDA) and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylethyl alcohol-deacetoxy elenolic acid dialdehyde (3,4-DHPEA-DEDA).
Thin-layer chromatography analysis revealed that the contents stored in oil bodies isolated from jelly fig (Ficus awkeotsang Makino) achenes were mainly neutral lipids (>90% triacylglycerols and approximately 5% diacylglycerols). Fatty acids released from the neutral lipids of achene oil bodies were highly unsaturated (62.65% alpha-linolenic acid, 18.24% linoleic acid, and 10.62% oleic acid). The integrity of isolated oil bodies was presumably maintained via electronegative repulsion and steric hindrance provided by their surface proteins. Immunological cross-recognition using antibodies against sesame oil-body proteins indicated that two oleosin isoforms and one caleosin were present in these oil bodies. MALDI-MS analyses confirmed that the three full-length cDNA fragments obtained by PCR cloning from maturing achenes encoded the two jelly fig oleosin isoforms and one caleosin identified by immunological screening.
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