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Carbonate features in the uppermost layers of Quaternary deposits, Northern Armenia, and their significance for paleoenvironmental reconstruction
Abstract
Recent archaeological studies in the Lori Depression of Armenia (Lesser Caucasus) revealed a series of multilevel Early Paleolithic (Acheulian) sites belonging to the Early-Middle Pleistocene stage of occupation of the Caucasus. In the uppermost layers of these sites, the paleosols and sediments contain carbonate features (CFs) whereas the lower layers are absolutely free from carbonates. The aim of this work is to examine the role of detected CFs as an indicator for reconstructions of the Early-Middle Pleistocene paleoenvironments, to determine the source, time and conditions of carbonates' accumulation in initially non-calcareous and high-degree weathered humid paleosols. Three sections were studied: Kurtan I, points 1e2 and Muradovo. There are different forms of CFs represented by the calcified root cells in the layer 1, the hard nodules in the layer 2 and the laminae-like carbonates in the layer 3 of the sites studied. All the CFs are of the aqueous (hydrogenic) origin. The CFs of the uppermost layers 1 and 2 in the Kurtan I, point 2 were accumulated in the Holocene lake. The calcified root cells were formed on the swamp shore whereas the hard nodules on the lake bottom under stagnant water. The laminae-like carbonates in the layer 3 were accumulated in the Kurtan I and Muradovo sections due to strong erosion cycle(s) in the Late Pleistocene interglacial period(s) that led to the limestone scour in the region by ground and surface water. They reflect the earliest stage of the allochthonous carbonate accumulation in the area dated by radiocarbon method to approximately 20 ka cal BP. Therefore, all the CFs cannot be regarded as indicative of Early and Middle Pleistocene environmental changes, as they appeared in the uppermost layers of the studied sections much later than the time of formation for the surrounding groundmass.
... Similarities between lithic tools recovered from Karakhach and Kurtan I sites suggest that they belong to the same Acheulian technocomplex of the Early and Middle Pleistocene . Calcareous features in the uppermost layers of pedosediments were earlier studied by the authors at Muradovo and Kurtan I, Points 1 and 2 (Sedov et al., 2011;Khokhlova et al., 2015). Here we revealed that such calcareous pedofeatures could not be regarded as indicators of environmental changes that occurred in the Early and Middle Pleistocene, because they formed within those layers much later, from the Late Pleistocene to the Middle Holocene, under lacustrine conditions. ...
... Here, a series of loam, sandy-loam, and sand layers with carbonate inclusions in the upper part and ash and pumice sand layers in the lower part is underlain by basalt lava flows dating around 2.0 Ma (Trifonov et al., 2015). Two upper calcareous paleosols of this series were studied in detail previously (Sedov et al., 2011;Khokhlova et al., 2015), were shown to contain Early-Middle Acheulian stone tools (Belyaeva, 2011;Belyaeva and Lyubin, 2013) and were formed at the time between the Early and Middle Pleistocene, according to paleomagnetic readings (Trifonov et al., 2015). ...
Indications of the Early Pleistocene paleopedogenesis were analyzed in multilevel sections of pedosediments at Early Acheulian sites within the Lori Plateau in Northern Armenia, with the purpose of reconstructing the paleoclimatic conditions during the initial stage of early human occupation of this region. At the study sites, lithic tools typical of the Acheulian technocomplex dating back to 1.4–1.9 Ma were found. The sections of studied pedosediments were shown to contain material from former paleosols that developed higher up the slope, then were eroded and transported by colluvial processes (presumably during catastrophic events) and finally redeposided in an inverted order at the foot of the slope. Three evolutionary stages of Lower Pleistocene paleosols were identified, which allow for paleoclimatic reconstruction of the initial stages of early human occupation of this region. In the earliest chronointerval, ∼1.9–1.77 Ma, Vertic Cambisols and Colluvic Regosols Humic developed in the region, in savanna-like landscapes under (sub)tropical climatic conditions. Towards the end of this period, ∼1.77 Ma, the climatic conditions remained sub(tropical), but became more humid, with the development of Stagnic Cambisols and Andosols with an abundance of redoximorphic features. During the latest period studied, between 1.77 and 1.4–1.5 Ma, the development of Luvisols indicates a stronger leaching environment under a permanently humid climate with significant cooling. Early hominin communities had to adapt to the cooler environment to be able to continue their uninterrupted development into the Middle Pleistocene.
... Because of the very old age of the deposits studied, there were no proper palaeosols identified. However, there were thin soil-like layers between coarse stone and volcanic ash strata, which allowed suggesting that there were short periods of surface stability and soil formation (Sedov et al., 2011;Khokhlova et al., 2014;2015). ...
... However, the paleosol of the Lasko warm period has a very light weight isotope composition of pedogenic carbonates. Such isotope values require further investigation, However, few similar data are known on pedogenic carbonates recorded in sediments and paleosols of the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene [56,57]. ...
Loess-paleosol series are well preserved in the south part of the Russian Plain. However, these sequences have a low number of studies on their organic matter, such as researches of isotope composition, n-alkane and other biomarkers. Thus, the purpose of the study was to reconstruct vegetation conditions from the Late Glacial to Late Holocene. We used the leaf wax-derived n-alkanes to detect vegetation evolution of the Bryansk Region. The stable carbon isotope composition of organic matter and pedogenic carbonates was carried out for the same aim. Three paleosols (of Lasko, Bølling-Allerød warmings and Holocene second humus horizons) and modern soils of different relief positions were investigated. n-Alkane distribution, as well as isotope composition indicates changes from grassy to woody vegetation during this period. The use of biomarkers such as n-alkanes helps to more clearly interpret isotopic data.
... It has a profile Вca b-Bca,fe b-Gb. Second humus horizons Ab with data 2180±60 BP (390-90 BC; Ki-17415) and 1650±60 BP (257-539 AD; Ki-18775) distinguished in the soils of microdepressions at a depth of On the other hand, we have previously shown [4] that the most informative archive for paleoecological recovery of the palaeoenvironment are such inertial soil solid phase characteristics as granulometric composition, specific surface area, mineralogy, magnetic susceptibility, porosity, bulk chemistry composition and iron content. ...
The solid phase of Greyzemic Phaozems Albic was studied in the paper as an archive of palaeoenvironmental information. Textural differentiation of soil profiles was observed by the granulometric fractions content. The features of second humus horizon formation were described based on water regime, granulometric composition, mineralogy, porosity, specific surface area studying. Such characteristics as texture similarity index and loessation coefficient are also involved for this purpose.
... About 2 thousand years ago (2180±60 BP Ki-17415, 1650±60 Ki-18775) chernozem under meadow vegetation with C-3 type of photosynthesis on this aria of modern gray forest soils was formed. Accumulation of stable highly condensed molecules of organic matter in the second humus horizons of modern soils, apparently, is a relic of the chernozem soil formation stage [4,8]. Atlantic Chernozem soil is separated from modern gray soil by the Late Holocene podzolic horizon (AE 30-50 cm) with date 2180+60 cal BP. ...
Paleosols of Trubchevsk district of the Bryansk region (Russia) lie in landscape with its own characteristic micro-relief, called Trubchevsk Opolye. The radiocarbon data have obtained for two interstadial soils: 16500 ± 230 Ki-17 414, 12930 ± 170 Ki-17 413 years ago. The ratio δ¹³Corg for underlying sandy pedosediments varies in range -26.5-27.2 %o characterizes relatively humid climate. The most lightweight carbon isotope composition (δ¹³C = -28.4-29.5 %o) measured for the Holocene second humus horizon, discovered in microdepressions of Trubchevsk opolye and dating (in its upper part) 2180 ± 60 Ki-17 415 BP, 1650±60 Ki-18775. It is characterized by a high content of phosphorus, including its strong accumulation of organic compounds (635.8 mg/kg P2O5).
The presented work is a continuity of a long-term research in the Lory Basin, Armenia. It is important to expand the area of paleosol research in the Lory Basin, because some habitats of an ancient people were found, living here periodically, advancing and retreating, during migration from Africa to Eurasia. We studied two sites, Kurtan-IV and Yagdan. No human-processed artifacts were seen, but the sites were dated and reconstructed. Paleoclimatic and paleolandscape data were used for clarification of ecological conditions around the hominids. The used methods include magnetic susceptibility, particle size distribution, major oxide and trace element determination, CHN, phytoliths and micro-morphological analyzes. Based on previous studies, we determine the formation time of the red-colored and pedosediments studied to be 1.9–1.4 Ma. The investigated pedosediments were formed in a changeable humid climate under savanna-like vegetation. Such conditions prevailed in the Lory Basin during the Pleistocene.
It is likely that the morphology of pedogenic carbonate accumulations (CAs) relates to soil formation conditions and processes. The technique of electron microscopy is especially efficient and applicable to the description of CAs morphology. This method allows estimating the structure and organization of CAs visually and their composition with the X-ray energy dispersive spectrometer for both buried paleosols and surface soils. The relations between submicromorphological features of CAs and conditions of their formation in soil were established: (i) in contrasting climates (alternation of dry and wet seasons), colloform (cryptocrystalline) films are formed; (ii) in dry periods CAs with perfect crystals and sharp borders are formed; (iii) in more humid periods the CAs crystals become irregular with broken faces and holes on surfaces; (iv) needle-shaped calcite crystals are formed in fast-changing water regimes from saturated solutions; (v) perfect crystals grow in quiet conditions from solutions of normal concentration. Submicromorphological studies of the CAs in pedochronosequences can account for trends in changes undergone by soils/paleosols and permit estimation of the general trend of soil evolution.
The carbonate status of the soil catena in the steppe zone of Russia (Southern Cis-Urals) has been studied. It is shown that soft and hard calcareous nodules-beloglazka and zhuravchik-are formed under different soil conditions-automorphic and hydromorphic, respectively-providing different genesis of these formations. Hard nodules tend to turn into soft nodules upon recrystallization, as the crystals become morphologically similar to those of soft nodules; no features of a reverse process are observed.
Micromorphology of calcic accumulations (calcite, whewellite and gypsum) and geochemical indices were considered as indicators of genesis and evolution of pedogenic accumulations in soils and paleosediments of the Argentinean Pampa. Two groups of separate and independent calcic accumulations were studied using scanning electron microscopy: (i) in situ Argiudolls, reflecting the current soil formation; (ii) in the layers of calcrete (locally named tosca), reflecting the past environments and conditions of these layers sedimentation. New pedogenic gypsum accumulations in Argiudolls were described and possible ways of their formation were suggested. Combined analyses of morphology of carbonate accumulations and geochemical indices in different horizons of Argiudolls and layers of tosca showed that the tosca is paleopedocomplex with complicated formation history. Influence of current environment on tosca morphology is absent, so it is possible to use these pedofeatures for paleoreconstructions in further studying.
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania contains a rich record of Pleistocene paleoclimate and paleoenvironment, as well as an abundance of paleontological and archaeological data. The 2.2 Ma of volcaniclastic infill can be divided into time-slices using dated tuffs. Sediments were deposited in a semi-arid, closed rift basin containing a shallow saline–alkaline lake until ∼1.75 Ma. Four trenches in uppermost Bed I sample a ∼20 ka time-slice between Ng'eju Tuff (base, 1.818 ± 0.006 Ma) and Tuff IF (top, 1.803 ± 0.002 Ma). They form a ∼1 km transect of the lake margin flat that contains both stacked and cumulative paleosols that are interpreted as a heterogeneous paleocatena. Closer to the lake, paleosols are thinner, vertically stacked, and separated by thin tuffs or tufa. Further from the lake margin, there is additional volcaniclastic input, and paleosols are thicker and cumulative. Macroscale and micromorphological features identify these clay-rich paleosols as paleo-Vertisols. Abundant pedogenic slickensides and a variety of ped shapes were observed in the field, as well as micro-ped structures and stress cutans in thin section. Although weakly developed, these paleo-Vertisols also have distinct horizons defined by soil color changes, differing ped shapes, and bulk geochemistry and are indicative of monsoonal precipitation seasonality.
The Pleistocene volcanic paleosols of Armenia and Mexico combine the features of both arid and humid pedogeneses. They were studied in order to reconstruct the environmental conditions during the period of the initial settlement of humans in these areas. The main attention was paid to the micromorphological analysis of the pedogenic features. The pedocomplexes studied in Armenia have been forming since the Early Pleistocene. They bear evidences of humid (weathering, clay illuviation, and gleying) and arid (calcification) pedogeneses alternating in different soil layers and pointing to climatic cycles. The nonuniform lithology of the soil profiles is related to pulsating volcanic activity. Mexican paleosols of the Late Pleistocene period are similar to the lower layers of the soils in Armenia with respect to the features characteristic of the humid and arid phases of pedogenesis. This allows us to suggest that the early stages of the formation of the Armenian pedocomplex proceeded under warmer paleoclimatic conditions similar to those of a tropical climate. It is shown that the arid pedogenesis may erase the features produced during the previous stage of humid pedogenesis. The studied paleosols are characterized by the destruction of the features inherited from the humid phase (the clayey groundmass and illuviation coatings) by the newly forming calcite. Paleopedological records point to the fact that the paleoenvironmental conditions during the periods of the initial settlement of humans in both regions differed significantly from the modern environmental conditions in these regions.
Carbonate pedofeatures (CPs) in a chronosequence of paleosols buried under kurgans in the Northern Caucasus region of Russia
in a period from the end of the 4th to the middle of the 5th centuries AD (It seams that there is no time left) were studied
by using a set of morphological and isotopic methods. The CPs in chernozem-type soils of Russia are usually represented by
crystallomorphic calcite whereas the non-segregated carbonates occurred at the same horizons — by collomorphic one. Those
two morphotypes of calcite have the differences in elemental composition and isotopic composition of carbon and, hence, should
have different origins — from true and colloidal solutions, respectively. The same differences including radiocarbon age have
been revealed for pseudomycelium of the ABca horizon of the youngest paleosols as compared with the same CPs of other paleosols
in the chronosequence studied. Our assumption is that it was succeeded in finding that the pseudomycelium right away after
its precipitation from a colloidal solution migrated from the lower soil horizons to the surface horizons during the periods
of climatic aridization. After a short time interval (not more than 25–50 years) collomorphic calcite in the pseudomicelium
of the yongest paleosols mentioned above will likely become by “usual” acicular calcite.
Understanding the earliest period of hominid dispersal from Africa to Eurasia requires reliable ages. Since artifacts are not suitable for direct dating, geochronology of an artifact host-rock matrix is the only robust approach. Possible matrix contamination limits the application of bulk mineral analysis, but the spatially selective secondary ionization mass spectrometry (SIMS) technique allows screening of contaminants. In two recently discovered Early Paleolithic sites in the northern Armenian Highland, the stratigraphic sequence includes ash-bearing volcanic layers with zircon autocrysts, suitable for SIMS U–Pb dating. At the Karakhach site, zircons from the ash-bearing volcanic layers yielded single age populations. This suggests that the layers were formed during multiple eruptions and were not reworked. Zircon crystallization ages of 1.942 ± 0.046 Ma, 1.804 ± 0.030 Ma, and 1.750 ± 0.020 Ma are close to eruptions and therefore date the enclosed Early Acheulian lithic artifacts. For artifacts underneath the oldest ash layer, the zircon age indicates the minimum age of artifacts. These results identify the Karakhach as the oldest Early Acheulian site in Eurasia. At the Kurtan site, the dated ash layer underlies palaeosols containing Early-Middle Acheulian artifacts. The stratigraphic succession at this site implies that the U–Pb zircon age of 1.432 ± 0.028 Ma from the ash is nearly coeval with the beginning of human occupation at the site.
The use of 13C natural abundance (δ13C) to follow C input to soil has gained widespread acceptance. However, inorganic C present in the soil as carbonates will interfere with the measurement of soil organic 13C unless removed or excluded from measurement. We report a simple and convenient HCl-fumigation method to remove inorganic C from soil. Soil samples are weighed in Ag-foil capsules, arranged on a microtiter plate, wetted with water to approximately field capacity, and placed in a desiccator containing a beaker with concentrated (12 M) HCl. The carbonates are released as CO2 by the acid treatment in 6 to 8 h. The soil samples are then dried at 60°C prior to isotope determination. The advantages of the HCl-fumigation method to remove inorganic C from the soil are that: (i) no water soluble C will be lost from the soil; (ii) a large number of samples can be processed simultaneously; (iii) the removal of inorganic C is rapid and complete; and (iv) the method could also be used to determine both organic and inorganic C content in the soil. A potential disadvantage, however, is that the HCl fumigation changed the 15N natural abundance of soil N.
Fine white branching structures isolated from calcareous soils in southern France were shown by microscopy and by chemical and mineralogical analysis to be calcified roots. These structures occur mainly in Rendzinas, Calcic Xerosols and Cambisols that are dense or rich in fines and where drainage is slow. Visible to the naked eye, they can locally represent up to a quarter of the soil mass. Calcified roots consist of calcite elements whose mean size varies from 60 to 80 μm, and which retain the structure of the original cells of the root cortex. Each calcified cell has a central nucleus composed of two crystals on average and is coated with a thin mineral layer that seems to be poorly crystallized. Some retain organic remnants and the structure of cell walls. Calcified cells contain tubes, less than 1 μm in diameter, which appear to have formed by weathering. Although they have generally not been recognized as calcified roots, similar microstructures have been indicated in some calcareous soils and calcretes, both present day and ancient ones. That suggests that calcified roots are widespread and that their occurrence contributes to the genesis of some calcareous soils.
The morphogenetic evolution of the Lesser Caucasus has been strongly influenced by Plio-Quaternary volcanic and tectonic events and Pleistocene glaciations. Fluvio-lacustrine environments, indicated by diatomaceous deposits, prevailed in the Syunik region of southern Armenia during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. The Pleistocene diatomaceous deposits studied contain leaf impressions and pollen, allowing local palaeoclimatic reconstructions. The chronology of morphogenetic events has been determined by 17 radiometric dates (K/Ar, Ar/Ar, U/Th), palaeomagnetic investigations and is placed in a spatial context by a detailed geomorphological map and a 24-km geological transect of the Vorotan valley, the main area studied. Before 1.21 Ma, tectonic movements (antecedents of the lower part of the Vorotan valley) generated extensive lake formations with diatomaceous deposits. From 993 ka, volcanic eruptions produced lava flows that covered the fluvio-lacustrine accumulations. During Marine Isotopic Stages 12, 6 and 4, glaciers and fluvio-glacial deposits were probably present overall the principal uplands and valleys of southern Armenia. At 53.68 ka (MIS 3), 12.6 ka, 10.78 ka and 4.14 ka (MIS 1), the development of travertines on some slopes and in some valleys highlights temperate and humid climatic phases. Palaeobotanical studies of leaf and pollen floras show that the vegetation changed several times from forested to steppic phases in response to the climate oscillations of the Lower Pleistocene. This work proposes a first morphogenic and palaeoclimatic reconstruction from the lower Pleistocene to the Postglacial period, when the first settlements of the population in the Lesser Caucasus were influenced by tectono-volcanic events, lake level changes and glacial–interglacial oscillations forced by the obliquity orbital parameter (41 ky cycles).
Paleosols (fossil soils) are preserved throughout the geologic record in depositional settings ranging from alluvial systems to between basalt flows. Until recently, paleosols were studied using primarily qualitative methods. In recent years, paleopedology has shifted from a largely qualitative field based on comparisons with modern analogues to an increasingly quantitative endeavor. Some of this change has been a result of applying existing techniques to new materials, but many of the innovations have been the result of applying new techniques to new materials, including thermodynamic modeling of soil formation, isotope geochemistry, and applications of empirical relationships derived from modern soils. A variety of semi-quantitative and quantitative tools has been developed to examine past weathering and pedogenesis, and to reconstruct both paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic conditions at the time that the paleosols formed. Though it is often not possible to achieve the same temporal resolution as with marine records for paleoclimatic reconstructions, proxies based on paleosols are potentially a much more direct means of making paleoclimatic reconstructions because soils form at the Earth's surface, in direct contact with the atmospheric and climatic conditions at the time of their formation. Paleoclimatic and environmental properties that may be reconstructed using the new proxies include provenance, weathering intensity, mean annual precipitation and temperature during pedogenesis, nutrient fluxes into and out of the paleosols, the atmospheric composition of important gases including CO2 and O2, the moisture balance during pedogenesis, the soil gas composition, reconstructed vegetative covering, and paleo-altitude.
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