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Earthquakes and civilizations of the Indus Valley: A challenge for archaeoseismology
Abstract
Civilizations have existed in the proximity of the Indus River Valley regions of modern Pakistan and India from at least 3000 B.C. onward. Geographically, the region encompasses a swath of the Makran coast, the alluvial plain and delta of the Indus River, and the Runn of Kachchh. The regional tectonic setting is controlled by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates and the subduction of the Arabian plate beneath the Eurasian plate. Earthquakes have undoubtedly struck many ancient sites, but finding their footprint in a riparian environment represents a challenge for archaeoseismology. However, some insight into seismoarchaeological indicators can be gleaned from examining the earthquake effects produced by historical infrequent large-magnitude events that have occurred in the region. Studies of these earthquakes emphasize the importance of repeated reconstructions, direct faulting, river damming from seismic uplift, and coastal elevation change as indicators of past earthquakes. Examples of past earthquake effects are presented for Banbhore in the Indus Delta, Brahmanabad, and the Harappan sites of Kalibangan and Dholavira. Future hermeneutic investigations in the region need to incorporate a seismological/tectonic perspective and not rely solely on serendipity.
... Archeoseismology is a branch of paleoseismology, which focuses on earthquake-related damage to man-made structures to understand the timing and type of past earthquakes [5,59,60]. Several deformation types, such as fallen pillars and blocks, conjugate fracture sets in walls, toppled walls, fallen columns, dropped keystones in arches, displaced arch segments, displaced pillars, penetrative cracks in walls, folded floors, etc., can be used as markers of earthquake-related damage, and the timing of the earthquakes can be determined from the history of the buildings, dating of the features, and historical seismicity records [14,15,[59][60][61][62]. Archeoseismology can help us to identify specific earthquakes responsible for the destruction of structures and sites or even the abandonment of civilization as it can provide useful information about earthquakes that has not been recorded in the historical records, where this can be used to extend the seismic catalog of the area [17,[62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69]. Accurate estimation of the effects of historical earthquakes on heritage buildings can help us determine the recurrence and past impacts for accurately estimating the seismic risk in intraplate regions [68,69]. ...
... Several deformation types, such as fallen pillars and blocks, conjugate fracture sets in walls, toppled walls, fallen columns, dropped keystones in arches, displaced arch segments, displaced pillars, penetrative cracks in walls, folded floors, etc., can be used as markers of earthquake-related damage, and the timing of the earthquakes can be determined from the history of the buildings, dating of the features, and historical seismicity records [14,15,[59][60][61][62]. Archeoseismology can help us to identify specific earthquakes responsible for the destruction of structures and sites or even the abandonment of civilization as it can provide useful information about earthquakes that has not been recorded in the historical records, where this can be used to extend the seismic catalog of the area [17,[62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69]. Accurate estimation of the effects of historical earthquakes on heritage buildings can help us determine the recurrence and past impacts for accurately estimating the seismic risk in intraplate regions [68,69]. ...
... Several researchers have used archeological evidence to understand the earthquake history in India. Kovach et al. [69] reported archeoseismological evidence from the Dholavira site in the Kachchh region, Western Gujarat. Rajendran [70] reported evidence of ancient earthquakes from the Ter region of Maharashtra, whereas Rajendran and Rajendran [34] presented evidence of past earthquakes from stone temples in the Almora region, along with the damages to the Qutab Minar in New Delhi during the 1505 CE and 1803 CE earthquakes. ...
The seismic shaking observed around Delhi and the surrounding region due to near-field and far-field earthquakes is a matter of concern for the seismic safety of the national capital of India, as well as the historical monuments of the region. Historical seismicity indicates that the Delhi region has been affected by several damaging earthquakes originating from the Himalayan region as far-field events, as well as due to near-field earthquakes with epicenters close to Delhi. The historical records, along with recent archeoseismological studies, suggest that Qutab Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was damaged by the earthquake of 1803 CE. This event represents the only evidence of seismic damage from the region, as there has been no detailed study of other historical monuments in the area or earthquakes that have caused damage. In this context, the earthquake damage to other monuments might have been overlooked to some extent around the Qutab Minar due to the lack of proper earthquake damage surveys and documentation in historical times. The main goal of this study is to identify evidence of earthquake archeological effects around the Qutab Minar and to shed new light on the occurrence and characteristics of ancient earthquakes while providing data to inform seismic risk assessment programs. With this aim, we describe different earthquake-related damage (EAE, earthquake archeological effects) at the Isa Khan Tomb and Hu-mayun's Tomb, built between 1548 CE and 1570 CE, respectively, as well as the older Tomb of Il-tutmish (built in 1235 CE) along with the Qutab Minar, which was built between 1199 CE and 1220 CE. The damage was probably caused by seismic events with intensities between VIII and IX on the European Macroseismic Scale (EMS). Based on the methodology of paleo ShakeMaps, it is most likely that the 1803 CE earthquake was the causative earthquake for the observed deformation in the Isa Khan Tomb, Tomb of Iltutmish, and Humayun's Tomb. More detailed regional paleoseis-mological studies are required to identify the responsible fault. In conclusion, the impressive cultural heritage of Delhi city and the intraplate region is constantly under seismic threats from near-field earthquakes and far-field Himalayan earthquakes. Citation: Naik, S.P.; Reicherter, K.; Kázmér, M.; Skapski, J.; Mohanty, A.; Kim, Y.-S. Archeoseismic Study of Damage in Medieval Monuments around New Delhi, India: An Approach to Understanding Paleoseismicity in an Intraplate Region. GeoHazards 2024, 5, 142-165.
... Dholavira, a famous Harappan Civilization Site (HCS) is also located towards the northern part of Kahcchh (see Fig. 1). The civilization in the Dholavira along with Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal was in mature phase during the period of 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE (Joshi, 1972;Joshi et al., 1984;Joshi and Bisht, 1994;Kovach et al., 2010;Bisht, 2011). In Dholavira, four distinct periods,e.g., Early Harappan, Harappan, Late Harappan and Post-Harappan, representing seven cultural stages were reported by the Archeologists (for details, please refer to the supplementary document) (Joshi, 1972;Joshi et al., 1984;Bisht, 2011) and it is opined by (Possehl, 2002;Bisht, 2011) that at the end of III stage, the region had been struck by a major earthquake. ...
... Dholavira experienced a large earthquake in 2200 BCE (Girijalva et al. (2006). Kovach et al. (2010) mentioned that the effects of past earthquakes are preserved in the sites of Dholavira (see also Malik et al., 2017). However, it is not clear that the epicenter of the event was nearby or distant as damage to the site may be possible by distant event too. ...
... The excavations by the Archeological Survey of India (ASI) brought to light the sophisticated urban planning and architecture. The relics of Dholavira provide occurrence of major earthquakes during BCE 2900-2700, BCE 2100-2000and BCE 1900-1300(Kovach et al., 2010Bisht, 2011;Gaur et al., 2013;Malik et al., 2017) (For detail please refer to supplementary document). The north gate of the citadel shows clockwise rotation and tilting (Fig. 4) which is supposed to be due to the past earthquake. ...
To understand the geodynamics in the vicinity of Dholavira, a Harappan Civilization Site (HCS), in Kachchh - western India, GPS data from 2009 to 2015 were processed and analyzed. Tectonically, this part of northern Kachchh is in the influence of Island Belt Fault (IBF) and Allah Bund Fault (ABF) and is seismically one of the most active intra-plate regions of India. The motion with respect to Indian plate is used for the estimation of deformation and strain rate while fault associated slip rate has been estimated by inverse modeling of observed site motions. The analysis reveals that the ABF deforms with an average rate of 1.8 mm/yr. However, the segmented IBF has a maximum deformation rate of 2.9 mm/yr towards the Pachham Island and minimum towards the Khadir Island. The computation discloses a maximum seismic moment (M0) of 2.1 × 10²⁴ dyne-cm in this part which corresponds to an earthquake of ≈Mw 6.0. The calculated maximum strain of 0.04 micro-strain/year is low but significant in the intra-plate region. The postseismic deformation, after the Mw 7.7, 2001 Bhuj earthquake is estimated to be low in this part. The reverse along with strike-slip motion of faults builds up stress in the area and accumulating more strain.
... Even though the depth of the event was shallow, the earthquake did not accompany any surface rupture. Further, based on the excavation records from archaeological site of Harappan Era (Dholavira, located in Khadir Island, Fig. 2) it has been suggested that the site experienced extensive damage caused by major earthquakes during BCE 2900-2700, BCE 2100-2000and BCE 1900-1300(Kovach et al., 2010Bisht, 2011;Gaur et al., 2013). ...
... Based on the paleoseismic investigations from the Great Rann of Kachchh attempts have been made by a few researchers to correlate the liquefaction features with some of these historical earthquakes (Table 1). Archaeological remains from Dholavira -flourished from BCE 2900 to 1300 in Kachchh, suggested that the town experienced significant damage caused by major earthquakes during BCE 2900-2700, BCE 2100-2000and BCE 1900-1300(Kovach et al., 2010Bisht, 2011;Gaur et al., 2013) (Table 1). The Mature Harappan period (BCE 2200(BCE -1900 at Dholavira was considered the period of architectural marvel. ...
... The Mature Harappan period (BCE 2200(BCE -1900 at Dholavira was considered the period of architectural marvel. It has been suggested that this Mature phase at Dholavira underwent gradual decline and abandonment for a short period of~100 years towards its end, and later reoccupied during late Harappan phase (Kovach et al., 2010). The final abandonment of Dholovira was probably caused by a damaging earthquake that occurred during Late Harappan -Post-Harappan period i.e., BCE 1900-1300 (Bisht, 2011). ...
In last 500 years, Kachchh experienced several large magnitude earthquakes (6.0 ≥ M ≤ 7.8), however, not all accompanied surface rupture. The 1819 Allah Bund earthquake (Mw7.8) accompanied surface rupture, whereas, the 2001 Bhuj event (Mw7.6) occurred at a depth of 23 km on E-W striking south dipping thrust fault remained blind. Discontinuities between the denser-brittle basement (?) and overlying ductile-softer Mesozoic-Tertiary-Quaternary succession resulted in a different geometry of faulting. Normal faults associated with rift were reactivated as reverse faults during inversion tectonics, propagated in sedimentary succession and arrested. Thrust-ramps developed along the discontinuities accompanied surface ruptures. Folded structures along the South Wagad Fault (SWF) – an active thrust, exhibits lateral-propagation of fold segments and linkage, suggestive of fault-related-fold growth. Paleoseismic investigations revealed evidence of at least three paleo-earthquakes. Event I occurred before BCE 5080; Event II between BCE 4820 and 2320, and was probably responsible for a massive damage at Dholavira – Harappan site. Event III was between BCE 1230 and 04, most likely caused severe damage to Dholavira. Archaeo-seismological Quality Factor (AQF) of 0.5 suggests that the Dholavira is vulnerable to earthquakes from nearby active faults. With 1500–2000 yr of recurrence interval, occurrence of a large magnitude earthquake on SWF cannot be ruled out.
... Seismo-archaeological evidence also exists in the region corresponding to the Indus Valley Civilization. Excavations at different locations in Kalibangan, an Early and Mature Harappan site, show clear signs of fault rupture and earth movements, implying violent shaking (Kovach et al. 2010). In fact, some archaeologists attribute the end of Early Harappan occupation of Kalibangan to an earthquake. ...
... In fact, some archaeologists attribute the end of Early Harappan occupation of Kalibangan to an earthquake. Dholavira, located in the Rann of Kutch in Gujarat, is another Harappan settlement with evidence of earthquake damage and repairs (Kovach et al. 2010). Dholavira is also in the vicinity of two major recent earthquakes, the 1819 M8.0 Kutch earthquake that caused the Allah Bund and the 2001 M7.7 Bhuj earthquake. ...
... Long term human response to earthquakes(Keys 1988) ...
The Indian subcontinent has suffered some of the greatest earthquakes in the world. The earthquakes of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries triggered a number of early advances in science and engineering related to earthquakes that are discussed here. These include the development of early codes and earthquake-resistant housing after the 1935 Quetta earthquake in Baluchistan, and strengthening techniques implemented after the 1941 Andaman Islands earthquake, discovered by the author in remote islands of India. Activities in the late 1950s to institutionalize earthquake engineering in the country are also discussed. Despite these early developments towards seismic safety, moderate earthquakes in India continue to cause thousands of deaths, indicating the poor seismic resilience of the built environment. The Bhuj earthquake of 2001 highlighted a striking disregard for structural design principles and quality of construction. This earthquake was the first instance of an earthquake causing collapses of modern multi-storey buildings in India, and it triggered unprecedented awareness amongst professionals, academics and the general public. The earthquake led to the further development of the National Information Centre of Earthquake Engineering and the establishment of a comprehensive 4-year National Programme on Earthquake Engineering Education that was carried out by the seven Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institute of Science. Earthquake engineering is a highly context-specific discipline and there are many engineering problems where appropriate solutions need to be found locally. Confined masonry construction is one such building typology that the author has been championing for the subcontinent. Development of the student hostels and staff and faculty housing on the new 400-acre campus of the Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar has provided an opportunity to adopt this construction typology on a large scale, and is addressed in the monograph. The vulnerability of the building stock in India is also evident from the occasional news reports of collapses of buildings under construction or during rains (without any earthquake shaking). Given India’s aspirations to be counted as one of the world’s prosperous countries, there is a great urgency to address the safety of our built environment. There is a need: to create a more professional environment for safe construction, including a system for code enforcement and building inspection; for competence-based licensing of civil and structural engineers; for training and education of all stakeholders in the construction chain; to build a research and development culture for seismic safety; to encourage champions of seismic safety; to effectively use windows of opportunity provided by damaging earthquakes; to focus on new construction as opposed to retrofitting existing buildings; and to frame the problem in the broader context of overall building safety rather than the specific context of earthquakes. Sustained long-term efforts are required to address this multi-faceted complex problem of great importance to the future development of India. While the context of this paper is India, many of the observations may be valid and useful for other earthquake-prone countries.
... Even though the depth of the event was shallow, the earthquake did not accompany any surface rupture. Further, based on the excavation records from archaeological site of Harappan Era (Dholavira, located in Khadir Island, Fig. 2) it has been suggested that the site experienced extensive damage caused by major earthquakes during BCE 2900-2700, BCE 2100-2000and BCE 1900-1300(Kovach et al., 2010Bisht, 2011;Gaur et al., 2013). ...
... Based on the paleoseismic investigations from the Great Rann of Kachchh attempts have been made by a few researchers to correlate the liquefaction features with some of these historical earthquakes (Table 1). Archaeological remains from Dholavira -flourished from BCE 2900 to 1300 in Kachchh, suggested that the town experienced significant damage caused by major earthquakes during BCE 2900-2700, BCE 2100-2000and BCE 1900-1300(Kovach et al., 2010Bisht, 2011;Gaur et al., 2013) (Table 1). The Mature Harappan period (BCE 2200(BCE -1900 at Dholavira was considered the period of architectural marvel. ...
... The Mature Harappan period (BCE 2200(BCE -1900 at Dholavira was considered the period of architectural marvel. It has been suggested that this Mature phase at Dholavira underwent gradual decline and abandonment for a short period of~100 years towards its end, and later reoccupied during late Harappan phase (Kovach et al., 2010). The final abandonment of Dholovira was probably caused by a damaging earthquake that occurred during Late Harappan -Post-Harappan period i.e., BCE 1900-1300 (Bisht, 2011). ...
... The area containing Jacobobad-Khaipur lies close to the frontal folds of the Sulaiman lobe (Szeliga et al., 2010) and hence is influenced by incipient local fold-and thrust tectonics. The area immediately east of Karachi lies near an east-verging fold and thrust belt (Schelling, 1999;Kovach et al., 2010), whereas the eastern delta including the Rann of Kachchh is subject to footwall subsidence associated with reverse faulting of the Kachchh mainland and other faults (Jorgensen et al 1993;Bendick et al., 2001;Biswas, 2005). That natural avulsions were triggered by tectonic events is further evidenced by the fact that Mansurah (25.88°N, 68.78° E), the Arabic capital of the Sindh province, was destroyed by an earthquake c. 980AD (Intensity ≈VIII), resulting in a post-seismic avulsion of the river (Fig. 3 inset, Bilham and Lodi 2010). ...
... Sinuosity is the ratio of thalweg length to river valley length, using appropriate length scales (Knighton 1998). Migration rates are determined from changes in thalweg position between any two time intervals, every 2 km along the Indus River. ...
... After the 2010 river flood, sinuosity decreased to 1.71 in just two months. Pakistan has experienced severe floods in 1950in , 1956in , 1957in , 1973in , 1976in , 1978in , 1988in , 1992in and 2010in (Hashmi 2012. The lateral migration between 1944 and 2000 was 1.95 ± 0.2 km on average (Fig. 6) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 12 flow discharge in the main trunk river during the 2010 flood, so that the Indus only carried 43% of its upstream maximum discharge (Syvitski and Brakenridge, 2013). ...
Tropical river systems, wherein much of a drainage basin experiences tropical climate are strongly influenced by the annual and inter-annual variations of the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and its derivative monsoonal winds. Rivers draining rainforests and those subjected to tropical monsoons typically demonstrate high runoff, but with notable exceptions. High rainfall intensities from burst weather events are common in the tropics. The release of rain-forming aerosols also appears to uniquely increase regional rainfall, but its geomorphic manifestation is hard to detect. Compared to other more temperate river systems, climate-driven tropical rivers do not appear to transport a disproportionate amount of particulate load to the world’s oceans, and their warmer, less viscous waters are less competent. Tropical biogeochemical environments do appear to influence the sedimentary environment. Multiple-year hydrographs reveal that seasonality is a dominant feature of most tropical rivers, but the rivers of Papua New Guinea are somewhat unique being less seasonally modulated.
Modeled riverine suspended sediment flux through global catchments is used in conjunction with observational data for 35 tropical basins to highlight key basin scaling relationships. A 50 year, daily model simulation illuminates how precipitation, relief, lithology and drainage basin area affect sediment load, yield and concentration. Local sediment yield within the Amazon is highest near the Andes, but decreases towards the ocean as the river’s discharge is diluted by water influxes from sediment-deprived rainforest tributaries. Bedload is strongly affected by the hydraulic gradient and discharge, and the interplay of these two parameters predicts foci of net bedload deposition or erosion. Rivers of the tropics have comparatively low inter-annual variation in sediment yield.
... The area containing Jacobobad-Khaipur lies close to the frontal folds of the Sulaiman lobe (Szeliga et al., 2010) and hence is influenced by incipient local fold-and thrust tectonics. The area immediately east of Karachi lies near an east-verging fold and thrust belt (Schelling, 1999;Kovach et al., 2010), whereas the eastern delta including the Rann of Kachchh is subject to Page 6 of 38 A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 5 footwall subsidence associated with reverse faulting of the Kachchh mainland and other faults (Jorgensen et al 1993;Bendick et al., 2001;Biswas, 2005). That natural avulsions were triggered by tectonic events is further evidenced by the fact that Mansurah (25.88°N, 68.78° E), the Arabic capital of the Sindh province, was destroyed by an earthquake c. 980AD (Intensity ≈VIII), resulting in a post-seismic avulsion of the river (Fig. 3 inset, Bilham and Lodi 2010). ...
... After the 2010 river flood, sinuosity decreased to 1.71 in just two months. Pakistan has experienced severe floods in 1950in , 1956in , 1957in , 1973in , 1976in , 1978in , 1988in , 1992in and 2010in (Hashmi 2012. The lateral migration between 1944 and 2000 was 1.95 ± 0.2 km on average (Fig. 6) of its upstream maximum discharge (Syvitski and Brakenridge, 2013). ...
... This study reveals that the river sinuosity changed from 1950, 1956, 1957, 1973, 1976, 1978, 1988, 1992and 2010(Hashmi 2012). These migration rates occur despite the extensive system of artificial levees, and the erosion poses acute danger to people, livestock and infrastructure during the floods, and mandates considerable maintenance and repair after floods. ...
The Indus River/Delta system is highly dynamic, reflecting the impacts of monsoonal-driven floods and cyclone-induced storm surges, earthquakes ranging up to Mw = 7.8, and inundations from tsunamis. 19th century Indus discharge was likely larger than today, but upstream seasonal spillways limited the maximum flood discharge. Upstream avulsions during the 2010 flood similarly reduced the downstream discharge, so that only 43% of the floodwaters reached the delta. The present-day Indus River is wider with larger meander wavelengths (∼13 km) compared to the 4 km to 8 km meander wavelengths for the super-elevated historical channel deposits. The Indus River is presently affected by: 1) artificial flood levees, 2) barrages and their irrigation canals, 3) sediment impoundment behind upstream reservoirs, and 4) inter-basin diversion. This silt-dominated river formerly transported 270+ Mt/y of sediment to its delta; the now-transformed river carries little water or sediment (currently ∼13 Mt/y) to its delta, and the river often runs dry. Modern-day reduction in fluvial fluxes is expressed as fewer distributary channels, from 17 channels in 1861 to just 1 significant channel in 2000. Abandoned delta channels are being tidally reworked. Since 1944, the delta has lost 12.7 km2/y of land altering a stunning 25% of the delta; 21% of the 1944 delta area was eroded, and 7% of new delta area formed. The erosion rate averaged ∼69 Mt/y, deposition averaged ∼22 Mt/y, providing a net loss of ∼47 Mt/y particularly in the Rann of Kachchh area that is undergoing tectonic subsidence.
... One of the famous site is Dholavira, located in Central Kachchh. The site was occupied from 2650 BCE, and the occupation declined slowly after about 2100 BCE, and it was abandoned around 1950 BCE (Kovach et al., 2010;Bisht, 2011). It is hypothesized that the decline of Harappan civilization was probably caused by natural calamities such as floods and earthquakes (Athavale, 1999;Bisht, 2011). ...
... The archaeological quality factor ranges between 0.03 and 0.5 representing high potential site for seismic hazard (Grützner et al., 2010). Based on different phases of construction and damage pattern and quantitative analysis, the Archaeoseismological Quality Factor (AQF) of 0.5 major three seismic events during BCE 2900-2700, BCE 2100and BCE 1900-1300(Kovach et al., 2010Bisht, 2011;Gaur et al., 2013;Malik et al., 2017a). The damage pattern of fortification walls observed from Kotada Bhadli site shows similar pattern of structural damage as observed from Dholavira. ...
Paleoseismic and archaeological records of the Kachchh Rift Basin (KRB) of western India indicates that the region become tectonically active during the period of Middle to Late Holocene. To understand the relationship between strain accumulation, earthquake genesis, and landform development, we analyzed uplifted Late Quaternary terraces and archaeological evidence along the Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF) zone. Dividing the elevation of the bedrock strath at each site by their ages, yields vertical uplift rates of 0.29–1.17 mm/y for the KMF zones. Archaeological data from the excavation of the Kotada Bhadli site suggest that the site was occupied during the Late mature Harappan (2300-2500 BCE) period and abandoned around 1900 BCE. The ruins of Harappan civilization at Kotada Bhadli location are resting over the Middle Holocene fluvial sediments. The oldest fluvial sediment is dated to 4 ka, whereas the youngest sediment yielded an age of 3 ka. The chronological constraints in geomorphic and archaeological records suggest that the area was hit by an earthquake around 2200 BC (∼3.5ka). The geomorphic and chronologically constrained uplift rates reveal that the KMF zone of the intraplate region of the Kachchh is geodynamically controlled by several fault segments, which are consistent with the ambient tectonic stress field owing to the northward movement of the Indian Plate concerning the Eurasian Plate.
... Such massive calamities could only be caused by incidence of earthquake. At Kalibangan on the Gaggar River some palaeoseismic evidence is recorded in a Harappan site providing evidence of earthquake-induced destruction of over 6.5 Richter magnitude (between VIII to IX in modified Mercalli Intensity Scale) (Kovach et al. 2010). At the Harappan 'metropolis' Dholavira located in an island in Great Rann of Kachchh, several prehistoric incidence of seismicity causing destruction has been recorded in different excavations (Kovach et al. 2010, Kayal, 2008. ...
... At Kalibangan on the Gaggar River some palaeoseismic evidence is recorded in a Harappan site providing evidence of earthquake-induced destruction of over 6.5 Richter magnitude (between VIII to IX in modified Mercalli Intensity Scale) (Kovach et al. 2010). At the Harappan 'metropolis' Dholavira located in an island in Great Rann of Kachchh, several prehistoric incidence of seismicity causing destruction has been recorded in different excavations (Kovach et al. 2010, Kayal, 2008. Archaeological excavations revealed six or seven stages of successive habitation at Dholavira (23º 53'11"; 70º 13'19") all buried under 12m cover of debris. ...
Kachchh in western Indian Shield, according to the Bureau of Indian Standard (IS:1893:2002), falls in Seismic Zone V. This is intriguing considering that the region is far away from active Plate margin. Apart from the recent incidences of earthquakes, there are several pre-historic/archaeological records of earthquakes in the region. Beyond these, the geological evidence of earth-movements (causing earthquakes) is provided by the occurrence of several 'active' faults, which are considered geological markers of palaeoseismicity. There are records of innumerable incidences of faulting in the region in not so distant geological past. Study of fault features especially the scarp faces marking abrupt change in physical relief proves that the different levels of topography in the entire terrain are fault-bound features. Studies also confirm that the topographic difference between the high and 'sunken' features have formed due to uplift and relative down-sagging during the geomorphotectonic evolution of the terrain. Features that make the region unique are: (i) restriction of fault-related deformation zone to a narrow strip between the southern margin of Thar Desert and the south coast line of the Kachchh Peninsula; (ii) overall sub-horizontality of bedding and other topographic and planation surfaces over the entire region; (iii) evidence of fault-controlled geomorphology indicating vertical movement along fault planes; (iv) evidence constraining the time of geomorphological evolution of the terrain only during the Late Quaternary, making it the youngest neotectonically evolved terrain in the Precambrian Indian Shield.
... These studies have equated the destruction and abandonment of Mansurah and Samawani, two ancient cities to earthquakes c. 980AD and 1668 (Oldham and Oldham, 1883;Bilham and Lodi, 2009) although the magnitude of these earthquakes is currently unknown. Speculation about earthquake damage to Bhanbore based on inscriptions at the time of reconstruction of the city in the 8 th century (Kovach et al., 2008) has superseded earlier errors in conflating an Armenian earthquake with one in Sindh province (Ambraseys and Jackson, 2003), although the evidence for earthquake damage is as yet unconvincing. ...
... The mode of formation of the lobate features of the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges have been demonstrated in sand-box experiments (Haq and Davis, 1997) and as mathematical models using thin-skinned kinematics (Bernard et al., 2000). A common feature of these models is the need to invoke an underlying Katawaz block that is believed to slide along the boundary between India and Asia, rigidly attached to neither plate, and which according to paleo-magnetic data has rotated 50° clockwise since the Palaeozoic (Klootwijk et al., 1981). It is possible that the Katawaz block continues to rotate or that it is bounded by a shear zone to its south as suggested by the recent Pishin earthquake sequence. ...
Shortly after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, scientists from three Pakistan Universities collaborated with US, and through them, Indian scientists to monitor seismotectonic deformation and crustal velocities on the western edge of the Indian plate. Twelve GPS receivers were installed at key locations in Pakistan, with some sites monitored continuously and others for a week once each year. More than 80 points have been measured with various periods of longevity. We report here the initial results of these surveys using the Indian pate as a fixed frame of reference. Following are the main results of our study: 1) Sindh province and the southern Punjab are deforming insignificantly (linear strain rates 0.01 µstrain per year) 2) the Makran coast is moving rapidly (18 mm yr-1) southward indicating a locked offshore region; 3) post-seismic effects of 2005 Kashmir earthquake are largely ceased by 2009; 4) interseismic convergence of the Karakorum ranges (>16 mm yr-1) is reduced to 5-8 mm about a line from Peshawar through Islamabad to Srinagar indicating significant strain to have focused in the ranges to the north; 5) the Potwar plateau is moving at less than 3 mm SSE, a factor of four slower than to its geologically estimated rate of 13±2 mm yr-1 ; and 6) the geodetic rupture parameters of the 2005 Kashmir, and the October 2008 Pishin Baluchistan earthquakes.
... Such massive calamities could only be caused by incidence of earthquake. At Kalibangan on the Gaggar River some palaeoseismic evidence is recorded in a Harappan site providing evidence of earthquake-induced destruction of over 6.5 Richter magnitude (between VIII to IX in modified Mercalli Intensity Scale) (Kovach et al. 2010). At the Harappan 'metropolis' Dholavira located in an island in Great Rann of Kachchh, several prehistoric incidence of seismicity causing destruction has been recorded in different excavations (Kovach et al. 2010, Kayal, 2008. ...
... At Kalibangan on the Gaggar River some palaeoseismic evidence is recorded in a Harappan site providing evidence of earthquake-induced destruction of over 6.5 Richter magnitude (between VIII to IX in modified Mercalli Intensity Scale) (Kovach et al. 2010). At the Harappan 'metropolis' Dholavira located in an island in Great Rann of Kachchh, several prehistoric incidence of seismicity causing destruction has been recorded in different excavations (Kovach et al. 2010, Kayal, 2008. Archaeological excavations revealed six or seven stages of successive habitation at Dholavira (23º 53'11"; 70º 13'19") all buried under 12m cover of debris. ...
Kachchh in western Indian Shield, according to the Bureau of Indian Standard (IS:1893:2002), falls in Seismic Zone V. This is intriguing considering that the region is far away from active Plate margin. Apart from the recent incidences of earthquakes, there are several pre-historic/archaeological records of earthquakes in the region. Beyond these, the geological evidence of earth-movements (causing earthquakes) is provided by the occurrence of several’ active’ faults, which are considered geological markers of palaeoseismicity. There are records of innumerable incidences of faulting in the region in not so distant geological past. Study of fault features especially the scarp faces marking abrupt change in physical relief proves that the different levels of topography in the entire terrain are fault-bound features. Studies also confirm that the topographic difference between the high and ’sunken’ features have formed due to uplift and relative down-sagging during the geomorphotectonic evolution of the terrain. Features that make the region unique are: (i) restriction of fault-related deformation zone to a narrow strip between the southern margin of Thar Desert and the south coast line of the Kachchh Peninsula; (ii) overall sub-horizontality of bedding and other topographic and planation surfaces over the entire region; (iii) evidence of fault-controlled geomorphology indicating vertical movement along fault planes; (iv) evidence constraining the time of geomorphological evolution of the terrain only during the Late Quaternary, making it the youngest neotectonically evolved terrain in the Precambrian Indian Shield.
... Neither geology (Gutscher and Westbrook, 2009), (I) This study (estimations based on the CA plate motion w.r.t. Macondo Block [∼ 7 mm/yr]), (II) (Hayes et al., 2013), (III) (Clark et al., 2019), (IV) (Tselentis et al., 1988), (V) (Stiros, 2010), (VI) (Kovach et al., 2010). nor seismotectonics shows clear alignments along the boundary leaving the southern margin of the Macondo block uncertain. ...
... Recently, Shirvalkar and Rawat 16 have suggested that the main event of seismicity took place around 2200 BC, which collapsed and tilted walls of a Matura Harappan settlement (Kotada Bhadli, Kachchh). Kovach et al. 13 provided details of the archaeological sites at Banbhore, Brahmanabad (Mansurah), Kalibangan and Dholavira in the Kachchh area (Table 1, Figure 1). ...
... Neither geology (Gutscher and Westbrook, 2009), (I) This study (estimations based on the CA plate motion w.r.t. Macondo Block [∼ 7 mm/yr]), (II) (Hayes et al., 2013), (III) (Clark et al., 2019), (IV) (Tselentis et al., 1988), (V) (Stiros, 2010), (VI) (Kovach et al., 2010). nor seismotectonics shows clear alignments along the boundary leaving the southern margin of the Macondo block uncertain. ...
Northwestern Colombia is located at a convergent plate boundary between the Caribbean plate and the North Andean Block; however, no megathrust earthquakes have been reported during last 500 years. In order to evaluate seismic potential in this area, we analyze GPS data during 2007–2018 from GeoRED – the nationwide GPS array in Colombia – to obtain interseismic 3-dimensional velocities. GPS velocity data indicate the northern part of the North Andean Block is differentiated as another block and we name it Macondo Block. The velocity data are then inverted to estimate interplate coupling on the subducting Caribbean plate interface. The result shows an isolated, fully locked patch south of the city of Cartagena extending from 9.0 to 20 km in depth on the subduction interface with an area of ∼11,000 km². The estimated locked patch implies a potential of M-8 class earthquake with an average recurrence time of ∼600 years, which is consistent with the absence of such an event in the available historical record. As another possibility, the observed surface deformation may be accommodated inelastically. A comparison of geological and geodetic strain rates in the convergence direction shows that the geological one is smaller by one or two orders of magnitude and does not support such an interpretation though the estimate itself still has a large uncertainty. For improving the evaluation of earthquake/tsunami potential, it is essential to conduct a careful geological investigation to identify recent evidence of crustal shortening or paleotsunami along northwestern Colombia.
... The archaeological records suggest that the famous Harappan site, Dholavira located in the Khadir Island of Kachchh region was damaged by several earthquakes of magnitude >6 during 2900-2700 BCE, 2100-2000 BCE and 1900 -1300 BCE (Kovach et al., 2010, Bisht, 2011Kothyari et al., 2019a;Kothyari et al., 2020;Fig. 1). ...
The intraplate Kachchh Rift basin has been hit by several devastating earthquakes in the historic past including the 1819 Allah Bund Earthquake and the 2001 Bhuj earthquake. The source region of these earthquakes, within the basin have been studied by several workers in the last two decades to understand their potential for earthquake recurrence. However, very little information is available on the palaeoseismic and geomorphic characterization of Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF). Therefore, in the present study, six trenches were excavated across the KMF, between Lakhpat and Nirona to understand ground deformation pattern and timing of the historic earthquakes. Based on geomorphic and palaeoseismic investigations, five palaeoearthquakes of Early to Late Holocene have been identified between 10,000–890 yrs. Apart from the Holocene, an earthquake of Late Quaternary period was also identified, which possibly occurred around 19,800 yrs BP. Fault related parameters were analyzed to understand the geometry of the active fault scarp along KMF. The results of the analyzed fault geometric parameters show that the vertical displacement along the KMF is higher than the horizontal displacement. The slip rate of the KMF from the western portion to the middle portion decreases from 0.08 to 0.04 mm/yr, and increases towards east from 0.22 mm/yr to 0.36 mm/yr. As the Kachchh district of the Gujarat state is rapidly developing in terms of infrastructural development, the outcome of this research might provide significant inputs for micro zonation studies and also in the evaluation of the seismic hazard in the Kachchh region.
... The archeological evidences observed from 40 km west of study area (e.g. Dholavira) suggested that the ancient town was damaged by several major earthquakes between 2900BC and 1300BC [63,[77][78][79]. Presence of geomorphic and paleoseismic features within the WH, studied by previous workers are correlated with these historical earthquakes [23,25,63]. ...
The eastern part of Kachchh Rift basin was reactivated after 2001 Bhuj earthquake of
Mw 7.7 and continuous seismicity has been recorded since then. The northern part
of Wagad upland also experienced moderate earthquakes Mw ≥ 5.7 in February 2006
and March 2007. These moderate to major Intraplate earthquakes provide a unique
opportunity to study the effects and linkage between brittle-ductile dynamics, surface
processes and drainage evolution. We presented a geomorphological analysis of the
Wagad highland providing new constraints on the evolution of river network. The
shallow to deeper nature of fault and their response to development of hydrological
networks has been analyzed using seismic tomography. Based on surface drainage
offset and seismic structures several E-W oriented faults controlling fluvial dynam-
ics are identified. From seismic structures and drainage offset it is clear that the flu-
vial dynamics is controlled by shallower to deeper faults. The estimated attributes
are well supported with seismic structures and focal mechanisms solutions. Based on
fluvial offset and seismic structure analysis a new tectonic model has been proposed
for WH. The tectonic model shows that the faults WH are well connected at deeper
level and generated negative flower structures and significantly controlling surface
fluvial dynamics.
... The arche- ological evidences observed from 40 km west of study area (e.g. Dholavira) suggested that the ancient town was damaged by several major earthquakes between 2900BC and 1300BC [63,[77][78][79]. Presence of geomorphic and paleoseismic features within the WH, studied by previous workers are correlated with these historical earthquakes [23,25,63]. ...
... The possibility of earthquake-induced destruction of the Talakad temples is implicit in the geomorphotectinic studies of Valdiya [4][5][6] . Such an explanation gets support from the fact that there is a striking similarity in the destruction features observed in the Talakad temples to the earthquake-damaged ruins reported from the Harappan cultural site at Dolavira in the Rann of Kachchh [9][10][11] . ...
Low-lying sediment mound, known as Talakad sand dunes, on the left bank of the meandering Kaveri River at Talakad, Mysore district, Karnataka, is an enigmatic geomorphic feature. Archaeological excavations in the area revealed the presence of a cluster of ancient temples, mostly in dilapidated condition, which were presumably built during the time-period dating back between 6th and 17th century AD. It is generally believed that the temples were entombed under a pile of riverine sand dunes during the 'ecodisaster' that lashed the region in the 17th century. Our field studies coupled with archaeological reports on excavations indicate that the mound is not entirely made of dune sands. Virtual absence of sand deposits over some severely damaged temples occurring near the top suggests that destruction could not have taken place only because of the load of the overlying sands. On the other hand, the scale of destruction witnessed in some of the affected temples can only be explained by the incidence of earthquakes of high magnitude. Additional proof of earthquake-related destruction comes from the occurrence of sedimentary layers (beds) containing fragmented pieces of building materials like bricks and stones in silt and clay-bearing flood plain deposits at the sites of the destructed temples and other buildings. Historical records of repeated renovation or rebuilding of temples at the same place provide further proof of recurrent incidence of earthquake-related destruction. Geomorphic changes manifested in the form of shifting of river courses consequent with the rise of the sediment mound also indicate uplift-related earth movements which must have ensued repeated earthquakes in the region.
... Despite its close proximity to the India/Eurasia plate boundary, no damaging earthquake has occurred near the megacity of Karachi (Bilham et al., 2007). However, there is some evidence to suggest than an earthquake circa 906 AD destroyed the ancient port of Bandhore, 40 km to the east of Karachi (Kovach et al., 2010). Byrne et al. (1992). ...
The September 2013 M(w)7.7 Balochistan earthquake ruptured a similar to 200-km-long segment of the curved Hoshab fault in southern Pakistan with 10 +/- 0.2 m of peak sinistral and similar to 1.7 +/- 0.8 m of dip slip. This rupture is unusual because the fault dips 60 +/- 15 degrees towards the focus of a small circle centered in northwest Pakistan, and, despite a 30 degrees increase in obliquity along strike, the ratios of strike and dip slip remain relatively uniform. Surface displacements and geodetic and teleseismic source inversions quantify a bilateral rupture that propagated rapidly at shallow depths from a transtensional jog near the northern end of the rupture. Static friction prior to rupture was unusually weak (mu < 0.05), and friction may have approached zero during dynamic rupture. Here we show that the inward-dipping Hoshab fault defines the northern rim of a structural unit in southeast Makran that rotates - akin to a 2-D ball-and-socket joint - counter-clockwise in response to India's penetration into the Eurasian plate. This rotation accounts for complexity in the Chaman fault system and, in principle, reduces seismic potential near Karachi; nonetheless, these findings highlight deficiencies in strong ground motion equations and tectonic models that invoke Anderson-Byerlee faulting predictions. Published by Elsevier B.V.
... An example is the 28 December 893 Daibul earthquake in Armenia (Dvin, 40.02 @BULLET N, 44.58 @BULLET E), that appeared in Oldham's (1883) Indian catalogue as a result of a passage in one account mentioning " outer India " (Ambraseys and Jackson 2003). The ruin of Daibul in Armenia was identified incorrectly with the ruins of Debil (Daybul, Bhanbore) near Karachi in Sindh province, and although there is evidence that earthquakes may have shaken this part of the Indus delta, and Kufic inscriptions found there have been interpreted as indicating reconstruction (Ghafur 1966; Kovach et al. 2008), there is no evidence for earthquake damage to Banbhore in AD 893 (Khan 1964). ...
The final projected doubling in Earth’s population in the next half century, requires an additional 1billion housing units,
more dwellings constructed in a single generation than at any time in Earth’s history. Earth’s tenfold increase in population
has occurred during a time that is short compared to the return time of damaging earthquakes. In the next century, therefore,
earthquakes that had little impact on villages and towns, will be shaking urban agglomerations housing upwards of 12million
people. An epicentral hit on a megacity has the potential to cause 1million fatalities. The incorporation of earthquake resistant
structures in the current global building boom, despite successes in the developed nations, has been neglected in the developing
nations where historically earthquake damage has been high. The reasons for this neglect are attributed to indifference, ignorance
and corrupt practices, not due to an absence of engineering competence. Never has a generation of earthquake engineers been
faced with such a grave responsibility to exercise their skills, both political and technical, as now.
The eye is bewildered by “a city become an heap”. Robert Mallet (1862).
The 1819 earthquake (M ≥ 7.5), located in the northern part of the Kachchh (Kutch) rift basin in the state of Gujarat, is the largest and one of the most well-documented continental earthquakes prior to seismic instrumentation. Although located in a region that was sparsely populated, it caused severe impact around its source as well as in distant locations like Hyderabad.
The archaeological and historical record of past cultures in seismically active regions offers potential information on the incidence, timing, or size of damaging earthquake events, providing evidence that can contribute to geological studies of long-term seismic hazard assessment. The investigation of cultural signatures of past seismic destruction has been an interdisciplinary endeavor, integrating historians and archaeologists with geologists and engineers to interpret the damage or abandonment of ancient sites. Deciphering diagnostic identification criteria for past seismic effects is problematic, with evidence most commonly being ambiguous. Nevertheless, in regions where damaging seismicity is endemic, societies are often structured or constrained by active tectonic processes, and archaeological sites may contain multiple evidence of seismic faulting and its ruinous impact. Bu perhaps the most enduring imprint of active tectonism is not on the physical remains of ancient places but on their cultural legacy and on the deeper human psyche of those living in earthquake country.
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• Access to water shapes determines rise and collapse of civilizations
• Water conservation, human health and culture are closely connected
• Agricultural intensification triggers multiple cropping, irrigation and fertilization
• Mastering access to water will determine pace and sustainability of urbanization
Settlement patterns and social structures have been shaped by access to water since the onset of human societies. This review covers historical and recent examples from Cambodia, Central Asia, India, Latin America and the Arabian Peninsula to analyze the role of water resources in determining the rise and collapse of civilizations. Over recent decades increasing globalization and concomitant possibilities to externalize water needs as virtual water have obscured global dependence on water resources via telecoupling, but rapid urbanization brings it now back to the political agenda. It is foremost in the urban arena of poorer countries where competing claims for water increasingly lead to scale-transcendent conflicts about ecosystem services. Solutions to the dilemma will require broad stakeholder-based agreements on water use taking into account the available data on water resources, their current and potential use efficiency, recycling of water after effective treatment, and social-ecological approaches of improved governance and conflict resolution.
Kachchh of western India, considered to be a Stable Continental Region (SCR), has experienced several large magnitude earthquakes in recent past, viz. 1668 CE (Mw7.0), 1819 CE (Mw7.8), 1845 CE (Mw6.3), 1956 CE (Mw6.0), and 2001 CE (Mw7.7). Our present study emphasizes on identifying archaeoseismic signatures from the ruins of an ancient city built by Lakho Punarvo of Samma Dynasty around 1000 CE found near the Manjal Town of Kachchh. Among the ruins, Punvareshwar Temple exhibits penetrative fractures within masonry blocks, recycled anomalous elements, displaced blocks and lateral shift of superstructure. Vadi Medi, a pillared structure, shown varied orientation of intact columns, displaced blocks, fallen and oriented columns. The nature of these signatures exhibits the influence of seismic phenomena which can be categorized as off-fault damage caused by strong seismic shaking. In order to quantify the ground shaking experienced by the structures, seismic hazard analysis which considers all the possible potential seismic sources within a radius of 100 km has been employed. It is identified from the analysis that the damage incurred to the structures is due to the strong ground acceleration experienced during the 1819 and 2001 earthquakes and the recurrence of similar peak ground acceleration is estimated as 700–750 and 500–600 years respectively.
We present a hybrid framework appropriate for identifying distinct dynamical regimes and transitions in a paleoclimate time series. Our framework combines three powerful techniques used independently of each other in time series analysis: a recurrence plot, manifold learning through Laplacian eigenmaps, and Fisher information metric. The resulting hybrid approach achieves a more automated classification and visualization of dynamical regimes and transitions, including in the presence of missing values, observational noise, and short time series. We illustrate the capabilities of the method through several pragmatic numerical examples. Furthermore, to demonstrate the practical usefulness of the method, we apply it to a recently published paleoclimate dataset: a speleothem oxygen isotope record from North India covering the past 5700 years. This record encodes the patterns of monsoon rainfall over the region and covers the critically important period during which the Indus Valley Civilization matured and declined. We identify a transition in monsoon dynamics, indicating a possible connection between climate change and the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
The 2015 Gorkha Earthquake was a humanitarian disaster but also a cultural catastrophe that damaged and destroyed historic monuments across Nepal, including those within the Kathmandu Valley UNESCO World Heritage Property. In the rush to rebuild, traditionally constructed foundations are being removed and replaced with modern materials without assessments of whether these contributed to the collapse of a monument. Generally undertaken without scientific recording, these interventions have led to the irreversible destruction of earlier subsurface phases of cultural activity and the potential loss of evidence for successful traditional seismic adaptations and risk reduction strategies, with no research into whether modern materials, such as concrete and steel, would offer enhanced resilience. In response to this context, multidisciplinary post-disaster investigations were undertaken between 2015 and 2018, including archaeological excavation, geophysical survey, geoarchaeological analysis, linked to architectural and engineering studies, to begin to evaluate and assess the damage to, and seismic adaptations of, historic structures within Nepal’s Kathmandu Valley. Where possible, we draw on archaeoseismological approaches for the identification and classification of Earthquake Archaeological Effects (EAEs) at selected monuments damaged by the 2015 Gorkha Earthquake. Lessons learned from evidence of potential weaknesses, as well as historic ‘risk-sensitive tactics’ of hazard reduction within monuments, are now being incorporated into reconstruction and rehabilitation initiatives alongside the development of methods for the protection of heritage in the face of future earthquakes.
This chapter provides a summary of the broad contours of urban life toward the end of the Holocene, with a focus on cultural processes in three phases of the Harappan culture, Early, Mature, and Late Harappan periods. The earliest evidence of settled village life in South Asia was documented at Kili Ghul Mohammad in the Quetta Valley and at the site of Mehrgarh at the foothills of the Bolan Pass on the Kacchi Plain. Elements of the Harappan tradition developed at Mehrgarh but there is also a long sequence of continuous cultural development in the Indus Valley itself. A short survey of the Harappan achievements demonstrates an advanced socioeconomic and technological fabric, a complex economic infrastructure, and political organization that involved international relations. Climate change significantly impacted international trade and the resulting economic decline affected the Harappan lifestyle, which is reflected in their material culture.
One-third of the world's population lives in South Asia, an area that has lost 0.4 million people to earthquake deaths in the past 12 years, and more than 2 million in the past millennium when populations averaged one-tenth of their present levels. The large multicentury earthquake death toll results from a broad collisional zone where earthquakes with Mw > 7.0 are common inland. The purpose of this article is to examine some of the underlying reasons why populations are especially vulnerable to earthquakes in the region, and why a perceived disconnect exists between earthquake-resistant engineering and those populations most at risk from earthquakes. The article notes that urban growth and changes in building styles have rendered urban populations more vulnerable than in the past, but that there exist numerous hidden factors within the structure of societies that act to thwart the best intentions of seismologists and engineers to apply ubiquitous earthquake resistance. More than 80 percent of all earthquake deaths worldwide have occurred in nations where the mean per capita income is <$3,200 per year. The Gross Domestic Product of a country influences its level of education, its financial ability to implement earthquake resistance, and the efficiency of its laws to regulate the welfare of its people. Although all these factors contribute to the resilience of building stock to shaking from earthquakes, in many cases, the absence of code enforcement in the building industry is directly responsible for the collapse of structures. Contractors who are anxious to maximize profits in societies where corrupt practices are endemic can avail themselves of numerous opportunities to circumvent not only earthquake-resistant regulations but also common-sense safe-assembly guidelines, and the resulting dwellings frequently become the homes of the urban poor. For this reason, many of the cities of Asia are disproportionately fragile, and can be expected to be the site of numerous future earthquake disasters.
This chapter describes the mode of formation and seismogenesis of the very active Mesozoic-age intraplate 200 km×300 km Kachchh Rift, which continues to be seismically active. As well as aftershocks of the 2001 Mw 7.7 Bhuj earthquake, seismicity has continued to occur to Mw 5.6 levels along other newly activated faults up to a distance of 240 km over the past dozen years. This ongoing activity has provided a natural laboratory for studying seismogenesis of intraplate rifts. Over the past decade, detailed investigations included intense seismicity monitoring with up to 75 broadband seismographs, ground motion detection with a GPS network of 22 stations and InSAR, active fault investigation, and subsurface mapping with various types of geophysical surveys. The results of these studies led to the detection and mapping of subsurface faults. Though the low GPS-derived horizontal deformation (2-5 mm/yr) may be adequate to trigger earthquakes along pre-existing faults away from the rupture zone, pockets of high vertical deformation (1-27 mm/yr) were detected by InSAR, indicating greater vertical deformation. The uplift was possibly aided by migration of the stress pulse due to a 20 MPa stress drop associated with the mainshock. It is inferred that tectonic inversion of the rift is causing uplift of the region. The seismicity and receiver function analysis suggest a thin crust overlying a thinned lithosphere. Tomographic studies reveal the presence of a high-velocity ~100 km wide solid mafic intrusive with embedded low-velocity zones, which suggest the presence of metamorphic fluids or volatile carbon dioxide. The thin crust and lithosphere facilitated placement of mafic intrusive and metamorphic fluids and/or volatile carbon dioxide from the underlying magma chambers. It is inferred that the high-density mafic body acts as a local stress concentrator and the low-velocity fluid-filled patches act as asperities.
The origin of earthquake has long been recognized as resulting from
strike-slip instability of plate tectonics along the fault lines. Several
events of earthquake around the globe have happened which cannot be explained
by this theory. In this work we investigated the earthquake data along with
other observed facts like heat flow profiles etc... of the Indian subcontinent.
In our studies we found a high-quality correlation between the earthquake
events, seismic prone zones, heat flow regions and the geothermal hot springs.
As a consequence, we proposed a hypothesis which can adequately explain all the
earthquake events around the globe as well as the overall geo-dynamics. It is
basically the geothermal power, which makes the plates to stand still, strike
and slip over. The plates are merely a working solid while the driving force is
the geothermal energy. The violent flow and enormous pressure of this power
shake the earth along the plate boundaries and also triggers the intra-plate
seismicity. In the light of the results reported by the California Energy
Commission from the ongoing geothermal power project at the Big Geysers in
California, we further propounded that by harnessing the surplus geothermal
energy the intensity and risk of the impending earthquakes can be substantially
reduced.
Although local and regional instrumental recordings of the devastating 26, January 2001, Bhuj earthquake are sparse, the distribution of macroseismic effects can provide important constraints on the mainshock ground motions. We compiled available news accounts describing damage and other effects and interpreted them to obtain modified Mercalli intensities (MMIs) at textgreater200 locations throughout the Indian subcontinent. These values are then used to map the intensity distribution throughout the subcontinent using a simple mathematical interpolation method. Although preliminary, the maps reveal several interesting features. Within the Kachchh region, the most heavily damaged villages are concentrated toward the western edge of the inferred fault, consistent with western directivity. Significant sediment-induced amplification is also suggested at a number of locations around the Gulf of Kachchh to the south of the epicenter. Away from the Kachchh region, intensities were clearly amplified significantly in areas that are along rivers, within deltas, or on coastal alluvium, such as mudflats and salt pans. In addition, we use fault-rupture parameters inferred from teleseismic data to predict shaking intensity at distances of 0–1000 km. We then convert the predicted hard-rock ground-motion parameters to MMI by using a relationship (derived from Internet-based intensity surveys) that assigns MMI based on the average effects in a region. The predicted MMIs are typically lower by 1–3 units than those estimated from news accounts, although they do predict near-field ground motions of approximately 80%g and potentially damaging ground motions on hard-rock sites to distances of approximately 300 km. For the most part, this discrepancy is consistent with the expected effect of sediment response, but it could also reflect other factors, such as unusually high building vulnerability in the Bhuj region and a tendency for media accounts to focus on the most dramatic damage, rather than the average effects. The discrepancy may also be partly attributable to the inadequacy of the empirical relationship between MMI and peak ground acceleration (PGA), when applied to India. The MMI–PGA relationship was developed using data from California earthquakes, which might have a systematically different stress drop and therefore, a different frequency content than intraplate events. When a relationship between response spectra and MMI is used, we obtain larger predicted MMI values, in better agreement with the observations.
Occurrence of three earthquakes in the Indian stable continental region (SCR) during 1993 -2001 has triggered many questions on their nature of recurrence, characteristic size and mechanisms. Seismogenic sources in Killari and Kachchh may be considered as represent ative examples of two distinctive classes of SCR earthquakes, the former originating on discrete faults in the unrifted part of the crust, and the latter associated with larger structures in an ancient rift. Seismic-hazard evaluation in these regions must take into account the inherent characteristics of these causative structures, which are reflected in their respective seismic productivities. While the Killari-type earthquakes are of moderate size (M ~ 6) and repeat over intervals of several tens of thousands of years, the Kachchh-type earthquakes are larger (M > 7), and may have much shorter recurrence intervals. The observation that multiple sources related to unexposed seismogenic structures with unknown seismic histories exist in the Kachchh region, calls for concerted efforts to study this important seismogenic zone in SCR India. FIVE damaging earthquakes occurred in India during the last ten years, causing substantial loss of life and damage to property. These earthquakes occurred at Uttarkashi (1991 , mb 6.5); Killari (1993, Mw 6.2); Jabalpur (1997, Mw 5.8); Chamoli (1999, mb 6.3) and Bhuj (2001, Mw 7.7) (Figure 1). What is noteworthy about this sequence of eart hquakes is that three out of these five events occurred in peninsular India, a part of the stable continental region (SCR), cha r- acterized by slow deformation and low seismic producti- vity 1
to a plate boundary and within reach of earthquakes on numerous tectonically active structures surrounding the city. One can draw parallels—geologic as well as demographic—with another megacity for which seismic hazard is known to be high: Los Angeles, California (figure 1). Yet with a short historical record, limited instrumental seismic data, and little geological or geodetic constraint on slip rates, seismic hazard in Karachi is poorly characterized. In this report we present a critical review of the historical record as well as an overview of potential earthquake sources in and around Karachi. Prior to 1800, the history of Karachi, the current capital of Sindh (one of Pakistan’s four provinces), is indistinguishable from that of many fishing villages on the northern shores of the Arabian Sea. It was known to Arab and Portuguese traders who sometimes stopped at the village on the way to the Malabar
The present contribution describes the method of work, the types of source materia] used, and the historio- graphical and historico-eismic tradition of Armenia. The catalogue' s territorial frame of reference is that of socalled historical Armenia (which included part of present Eastern Turkey, and part of present Azerbaijan). The sources belong to different languages and cultures: Armenian, Syriac, Greek, Arab, Persian and Georgian. A comparison of the local sources with those belonging to other cultures enab]es the historical and seismological I"adition of the Mediterl'anean to be "linked" with that of the Iranian p]ateau, traditionally considered as two separate areas. We analyzed historical events listed in the most recent catalogues of earthquakes in the Armenian area compiled by Kondorskaya and Shebalin (1982) and Karapetian (1991). Important and valuable though these catalogues are, they are in need of revision. We found evidence for six hitherto unrecorded seismic events. Numerous errors of dating and location have been corrected, and several new localities and seismic effects have been evidenced. Each modification of the previous catalogues has been documented on the hasis of the historiographical and literary sources and the data from the written sources have been linked with those concerning the history of Armenian cities and architecture (monasteries, churches, episcopal complexes). On the whole. the revised earthquakes seem underestimated in the previous catalogues. The aim of this catalogue is to make a contribution to the knowledge of historical seismicity in Armenia, and at the same time to underline the specific nature of the Armenian case, thus avoiding a procedure which has generally tended to place this area in a marginal position, within the wider field of other research on historical earthquakes.
The Chaman, Ghazaband, and Ornach-Nal faults are conspicuous left lateral faults of the transform zone between the northwestern margin of the Indian Plate and the Afghan Block of the Asian mass. The total displacement of the Chaman fault is 460 km on the basis of four sets of features matched across the fault. Strike-slip motion on the Chaman fault began after the Khojak flysch was deposited at about the Oligocene-Miocene boundary, suggesting a minimum average slip rate of 1.9 to 2.4 cm/yr. Neotectonic features are abundant along the fault. Offset stream channels, fan surfaces, pressure ridges, and tilted alluvial surfaces are common. Entrenched valleys are displaced across the fault in southern Afghanistan and the Chaman area. The largest and most destructive earthquakes recorded on the fault occurred in the Kabul area in 1505 and the Chaman area in 1892. -from Authors
Radiocarbon dating of mollusks and barnacles from fossil shoreline de-posits in the Persian Gulf and on the coast of Iranian Makran is being used to assess the extent and rate of recent crustal deformation in the area. Samples are selected with the help of x-ray diffraction and of light and scanning electron microscopy; whenever possible, two or more ages are determined for each locality on monospecific samples. Age/height values have been used to compute local uplift rates by allowing for sea-level fluctuations, but eustatic controversy can be avoided by limiting the anal-ysis to fault chronology and to relative vertical movements between dated sections. Short counting times on large, carefully pretreated samples would supply the numerous, cheap, low-resolution ages required to follow up the preliminary results obtained by the survey.
As we cannot know what will happen in the future, to estimate likely earthquake hazards we have to find out what happened in the past and extrapolate from there. Previous research has uncovered evidence of destructive earthquakes in areas of the eastern Mediterranean where only small events have been experienced recently, with the evidence drawn from realistic physical considerations and input data. For earthquakes before our era, however, historical and archaeological data, which are rarely unambiguous and always of little use to the scientist, have attracted interpretations that are influenced by the dogma of catastrophism, attributing to earthquakes the obliteration of the eastern Mediterranean region in the Bronze Age, large movements of peoples, and the demise of flourishing city-states.
In the early part of the 19th century geology was under the influence of the dogma of catastrophism, the hypothesis that changes in the Earth occurred as a result of isolated major catastrophes of relatively short duration, as opposed to the idea implicit in uniformitarianism, that small changes are taking place continuously. Catastrophism passed off the scene, now more or less completely discarded, and uniformitarianism took over. The last few decades, however, have seen a gradual re-emergence of neocatastrophism, this time in the field of archaeoseismology, particularly for earthquakes before our era in the eastern Mediterranean, bringing back into prominence the ideas of Velikovsky (1950).
To mention a few of the propounders of this dogma, Marinatos in the late 1930's postulated a catastrophic eruption of the volcano of Santorini and a seismic sea wave responsible for the demise of the Minoan civilization (Marinatos, 1939). Then followed Schaeffer (1948), who attempted to account for gaps in the sequence of civilizations in the 3rd or 2nd millennium in the Middle East within a relatively short period by a series of major seismic …
In the north-western extremity of our Indian possessions, and under the tropic, is situated the small and sterile territory of Cutch, of importance to the government from its advanced position, but of more attraction to the student of history from its western shore being washed by the waters of the classic Indus and from its proximity to the scene of Alexander's glories. Divested, however, of these alluring enticements to enter on its history, Cutch is a country peculiarly situated. To the west it has the inconstant and ever varying Indus. To the north and east the tract called Runn, which is alternately a dry sandy desert and a muddy inland lake. To the south it has the Gulf of Cutch and the Indian Ocean, with waters receding yearly from its shores.