Diversity and distribution of macrofungi in Kodagu region (Western Ghats) - A preliminary account.

Abstract

This chapter provides preliminary observations on the diversity, distribution and ecology of macrofungi in selected biomes (sacred groves, reserve forests and agroforests) of Kodagu region of the Western Ghats. One-time survey of three biomes during monsoon season (August-October, 2011) yielded 25 species with a highest of 23 species in agroforests and the rest two biomes possess 12 species each. A brief description based on the field and laboratory studies along with substrates and distribution in the Western Ghats are given. None of the macrofungi was frequent in all biomes and nine species were restricted to agroforest sand one species each confined to sacred groves and reserve forests. Among the macrofungi recovered, a maximum of 17 species are known from the Western Ghats of Kerala followed by four species from Karnataka and one species from Tamil Nadu. Eight species were edible, five species were medicinal and one species was ectomycorrhizal, and all except for Tricholoma sp. were recovered from agroforests shows the potential of this biome of Kodagu region in cultivation and harnessing economically valuable macrofungi. Strategies and necessity of further exploration of macrofungi in different ecological niches of the Western Ghats are highlighted.

Full text

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Chapter 2
_________________________________
Diversity and Distribution of
Macrofungi in Kodagu Region (Western
Ghats) – A Preliminary Account
_________________________________
N.C. Karun1, K.R. Sridhar1* and K.A. Anu Appaiah2
1Department of Biosciences, Mangalore University, Mangalagangotri,
Mangalore 574 199, Karnataka, India
2Department of Food Microbiology, Central Food Technological
Institute, Mysore 570 020, Karnataka, India
(*Correspondence: E-mail: kandikere@gmail.com)
Karun, N.C., Sridhar, K.R. and Anu Appaiah, K.A. 2014. Diversity and
distribution of macrofungi in Kodagu region (Western Ghats) - A
preliminary account. Biodiversity in India, Volume 7 (Ed. Pullaiah, T.,
Karuppusamy, S. and Rani, S.). Regency Publications, New Delhi,
7396.
ABSTRACT
This chapter provides preliminary observations on the diversity,
distribution and ecology of macrofungi in selected biomes (sacred
groves, reserve forests and agroforests) of Kodagu region of the Western
Ghats. One-time survey of three biomes during monsoon season
(August-October, 2011) yielded 25 species with a highest of 23 species
in agroforests and the rest two biomes possess 12 species each. A brief
description based on the field and laboratory studies along with
substrates and distribution in the Western Ghats are given. None of the
macrofungi was frequent in all biomes and nine species were restricted
to agroforest sand one species each confined to sacred groves and
reserve forests. Among the macrofungi recovered, a maximum of 17
species are known from the Western Ghats of Kerala followed by four

74
species from Karnataka and one species from Tamil Nadu. Eight species
were edible, five species were medicinal and one species was
ectomycorrhizal, and all except for Tricholoma sp. were recovered from
agroforests shows the potential of this biome of Kodagu region in
cultivation and harnessing economically valuable macrofungi. Strategies
and necessity of further exploration of macrofungi in different ecological
niches of the Western Ghats are highlighted.
Keywords: Macrofungi, Mushrooms, Woodrot fungi, Western Ghats,
Sacred groves, Reserve forests, Agroforests, Plantations,
Diversity, Economic value
Introduction
Fungi constitute the third essential functional component after
flora and fauna as decomposers, symbionts and pathogens representing
highest global diversity between 1.5 and3 million species based on
continuous rise of reports on new species and in turn fungus/plant ratios
in tropics (Hawksworth, 2001, 2012). Macrofungi especially mushrooms
represent up to 41,000 species, of which about 850 species are recorded
from different parts of India especially in Himalayan and Western Ghat
region (Manoharachary et al., 2006). Like Himalayas, the Western Ghats
of India is also one of the most valuable natural repositories of macro-
and microfungi of the world. It runs 1,600 km (~160,000 km2) through
the western part of Deccan Plateau in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala states passing through complex
reverine system encompassing a wide range of hills and mountains (up
to 1,200 m asl).
Some studies are available on the macrofungi in different parts of
the Western Ghats. Thomas et al. (2001) have reported 13 species
belonging to Bolbitiaceae from Kerala. In 25 sacred groves, 23 coffee
agroforests and 10 reserve forest sites in Karnataka, a total of 163
macrofungi were recovered and identified only up to genus level
(Bhagwath et al., 2005; Brown et al., 2006). Nearly 195 species and 28
species of agarics have been reported from the Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve of Tamil Nadu and Kerala region (Natarajan et al., 2005a). Up
to 25 species of ectomycorrhizal fungi in dipterocarp evergreen
Kadamakkal Reserve Forest of Kodagu (Karnataka State) were
documented by Natarajan et al. (2005b). Twenty-five species of
Hygrocybe were described from Kerala by Leelavathy et al. (2006).
Riviere et al. (2007) compared the diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi of
the rain forests of Africa and Western Ghats of India based
mitochondrial large subunit rRNA. Surveys in semi-evergreen and
moist-deciduous forests of Karnataka yielded 778 species of macrofungi
(Swapna et al., 2008). Twenty-two species of Lepiota, nine species of
Leucoagaricus and 15 species of Leucocoprinus were recorded from
Kerala (Kumar and Manimohan, 2009a, 2009b). Mohanan (2011)
documented 550 species (belonging to 51 families) from various parts of
Kerala. Ranadive et al. (2011) gave a checklist of 256 species of
Aphyllophorales from Maharashtra. A total of 68 species of mushrooms
were recovered from Thiribhuvanamala et al. (2011) from Tamil Nadu
and Kerala. Survey of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka yielded 56 species of
woodrot fungi (Selvam et al., 2012). However, compared to the diversity

75
of flora and fauna and varied ecological niches exists in the vast area of
Western Ghats, our knowledge on the macrofungal diversity,
distribution and ecological functions is limited. In this report,
occurrence, diversity and distribution of macrofungi from four protected
biomes (two each of sacred groves and reserve forests) and two
cultivated landscapes (coffee agroforests) of Kodagu region of the
Western Ghats based on one-time survey are reported with a brief
description of each species along with distribution in different parts of
the Western Ghats.
Study area and sampling
Kodagu District (formerly known as Coorg) in Karnataka State is
situated between 11°56', 12°52' N and 75°22', 76°11' E (Pascal and
Meher-Homji 1986). The mean temperature during the coldest months
(December-January) in the study area selected ranges between 8°C and
20°C, approximate rainfall ranges from 200-500 cm/annum and dry
season persists for about 3-4 months (February-May; 28-32°C). The
landscape of Kodagu consists of a large number of sacred groves,
reserve forests, tree-covered plantations and treeless cultivated lands
(Bhagwath et al., 2005). For example, sacred groves (known as
‘Devarakadu’) are common in Kodagu region occupied about 2% of the
landscape accounting one grove for every 300 ha, which vary in area
from a fraction of hectare up to a few tens of hectares (Kushalappa and
Bhagwat 2001; Bhagwath et al., 2005; Brown et al., 2006). The reserve
forests occupied up to 30% of the area, while the shade-grown
plantations occupied about 60% (e.g. coffee) and the treeless cultivated
lands occupied 8% (e.g. paddy).
Macrofungi were assessed in three biomes: i) Sacred groves
(Maggula and Bettoli); ii) Reserve forests (Sampaje and Makutta); iii)
Coffee agroforests (V’Badaga and B’Shettigeri) (Fig. 1). Sacred groves
studied have least human interference and encompass economically
valuable plant species those were maintained traditionally by the local
communities as a measure of biodiversity preservation and restoration
[Artocarpus hirsutus (wild jack), Canarium strictum (black dhupa),
Caryota urens (toddy palm), Dysoxylum malabaricum (white cedar),
Holigarna beddomei (kadu geru), H. nigra (kadu geru), Lagerstroemia
microcarpa (nandi), Mangifera indica (kadu mavu), Syzygium cuminii
(nerale), Toona ciliata (red cedar), and Vateria indica (white dhupa)].
Usually edible mushrooms like Lentinus and Pleurotus are common in
standing dead, woody litters and logs of C. strictum, D. malabaricum,
M. indica and V. indica. The reserve forests studied are located in hilly
zones with homogenous evergreen tree vegetation with high rainfall.
The agroforests studied consists of shade-grown coffee plantations with
common native (Artocarpus hirsutus, Dalbergia latifolia, Syzygium
cuminii and Toona ciliata) and exotic (Acacia mangium, Acrocarpous
fraxinifolius, Erythrina subumbrans and Grevelia robusta) tree species.
Opportunistic mode of sampling was performed in three biomes
during August (sacred groves), September (reserve forests) and October
(agroforests) 2011. In each sampling, an area of 50 m2 was intensely
surveyed for the presence of fruit bodies of woodrots and mushrooms.
Representative fruit bodies were sampled from different substrates like
soil, leaf/bark/twig/woody litter, rotting logs/stubs, termite mounds and

76
Figure 2.1. Map of the study area and biomes studied in Kodagu
District of Karnataka State of the Western Ghats.
Sacred grove: 1. Maggula, 2. Bettoli; Forest reserve: 3. Sampaje, 4.
Makutta; Agroforest: 5. V’Badaga, 6. B’Shettigeri.
standing dead trees. The snaps of each mushroom was taken on the spot,
fruit bodies were assessed for general features like type, colour,
dimension, extent of fruit bodies (solitary or gregarious) and substrates.
Part of fragile mushrooms possessing spores was fixed in lactophenol or
aniline-blue-lactophenol in labeled vials. Sturdy fruit bodies of
mushrooms were collected in labeled polythene bags and brought to the
laboratory for further observations. Spores of each mushroom were
evaluated based on the light microscopic observations. Each mushroom
was fixed (formalin-ethanol-water) and deposited in the herbarium of the
Department of Biosciences, Mangalore University(#
MUBSNCKKRSMF-002-026) (Fig. 2-5).A brief morphological
description of each fungus is given after confirming the identity based
on the monographs (Kibby, 1979; Purkayastha and Chandra, 1985;
Jordan, 1995; Mohanan, 2011) along with their substrates and
distribution.
Diversity and distribution
One-time survey in sacred groves, reserve forests and agroforests
in Kodagu region yielded 25 macrofungi (Table 1; Fig. 2.2-2.5).
Agroforests consists of a maximum of 23 species and the rest (sacred
groves and reserve forests) possess 12 species each. Eight species were
seen in all biomes (Auricularia auricula-judae, Cookeina tricholoma,
Daldinia concentrica, Ganoderma applanatum, Lentinus
dicholamellatus, Lenzites vespacea, Termitomyces tylerianus and
Xylaria longipes), nine species were restricted to agroforests
(Auricularia mescenterica, Clitocybe infundibuliformis, Crepitotus
variabilis,Exidia glandulosa, Gymnopilus junonius, Lentinus patulus,

77
Pleurotus pulmonarius, Ramaria sp. and Trogia infundibuliformis) and
one species each confined to the sacred groves (Polyporus sp.) and
reserve forests (Tricholoma sp.).None of the macrofungi was frequent in
all biomes. Only Cookeina tricholoma was frequent in sacred groves as
well as reserve forests, while A. auricula-judae, C. variabilis, C.
striatus, L. patulus and T. tylerianus were frequent in agroforests. Based
on published records, a maximum of 17 species are known from the
Western Ghats of Kerala followed by four species in Karnataka and one
species in Tamil Nadu. One species each of Geastrum, Ployporus,
Ramaria and Tricholomawas not identifiable up to species level and
seem to be new species to the Western Ghats needs further enquiry.
Among the macrofungi recorded, eight species were edible, fivespecies
were medicinal and one species was ectomycorrhizal based on literature
Table 1. Distribution of macrofungi in three biomes of Kodagu
region of the Western Ghats.
Species (Figure 2.2-2.5)
Sacred-
groves
Reserve
forests
Agro-
forests
Economic
value
Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél. (2.2a)
++
++
+++
Edible and
medicinal
A. mescenterica (Dicks.) Pers. (2.2b & c)
-
-
++
Clitocybe infundibuliformis Quél. (2.2d & e)
-
-
+
Edible
Cookeina tricholoma (Mont.) Kuntze (2.2h)
+++
+++
+
Crepidotus variabilis (Pers.) P. Kumm. (2.2f & g)
-
-
+++
Cyathus striatus (Huds.) Willd. (2.2i)
+
-
+++
Daldinia concentrica (Bolton) Ces. & De Not. (3.3a)
++
++
++
Medicinal
Dictyophora cinnabarina W.S. Lee (2.2j)
-
+
+
Exidia glandulosa (Bull.) Fr. (3.3b)
-
-
+
Ganoderma applanatum (Pers.) Pat. (3.3c &d)
++
++
++
Medicinal
Geastrum sp. (3.3g)
+
-
++
Gymnopilus junonius (Fr.) P.D. Orton (3.3e & f)
-
-
+
Edible
Ileodictyon gracile Berk. (3.3h)
-
++
++
Lentinus dicholamellatus Manim. (4.4a & b)
+
+
++
Edible
L. patulus Lév. (4.4e)
-
-
+++
Lenzites vespacea (Pers.) Pat. (4.4c & d)
++
++
++
Panus conchatus (Bull.) Fr. (4.4g & h)
-
++
++
Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél. (4.4a & b)
-
-
++
Edible
Polyporus sp. (4.4c & d)
+
-
-
Ramaria sp. (4.4f)
-
-
++
Scleroderma verrucosum (Bull.) Pers. (5.5e)
++
-
++
Edible and
Ectomycorrhizal
Termitomyces tylerianus Otieno (5.5f & g)
++
++
+++
Edible and
medicinal
Tricholoma sp. (5.5i & j)
-
++
-
Edible
Trogia infundibuliformis Berk. & Broome (5.5h)
-
-
++
Xylaria longipes Nitschke (5.5k)
++
++
++
Medicinal
Total species
12
12
23
-, not found; +, rare; ++, common; +++, frequent
and traditional knowledge (Purkayastha and Chandra, 1985; Jordan,
1995; Puttaraju et al, 2006; Das, 2010; Jha et al., 2011; Mohanan, 2011).
All of them (except for Tricholoma sp.) were recovered from the

78
agroforests shows the potential of this biome in Kodagu region for
cultivation and harnessing economically important macrofungi.
Description
Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Quél. (Fig. 2.2a) (Auriculariaceae –
Basidimycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-002)
Non-gilled, small to medium, fleshy, neither encrusting nor
bracket-like, purple brown to grey brown, fruit bodies sessile, ear-like,
grow in clusters, annual, lignicolous, odour and taste not distinctive,
edible and medicinal.
Fruit body. Upper surface purple brown with grey tinge when
damp, shiny, lower surface grey brown, shiny, smooth becoming
wrinkled, inverted cup-/irregular bracket (flabelliform)/fan-shaped, often
fused with adjacent fruit bodies and narrowly attached: 4.4 (2.1-6.2) cm
diam. (n=10). Flesh purple brown, gelatinous, tough and rubbery when
damp, and hard and brittle on drying.
Spores. Hyaline, allantoid or cylindrical and smooth: 12.9 (11.1-
13.9) ×5.2 (4.7-5.5) µm (n=10).
Substrate. Rotting logs and bark of Acacia mangium, Acrocarpus
fraxinifolius, Artocarpus hirsutus, Careya arborea, Olea dioica and
Toona ciliata.
Occurrence. Found in all the locations of sacred groves, reserve
forests and agroforests.
Distribution. Karnataka (Swapna et al., 2008), Tamil Nadu
(Johnsy et al., 2011; Sargunum et al., 2012) and Kerala (Mohanan,
2011).
Auricularia mesentrica (Bull.) Quél. (Fig. 2.2b and c) (Auriculariaceae
– Basidimycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-003)
Non-gilled, small to medium, fleshy, neither encrusting nor
bracket-like, purple brown to grey brown, fruit bodies sessile, ear-like,
grow in tires, annual, lignicolous, infrequent, odour and taste are not
distinctive and inedible.
Fruit body. Upper surface brownish-grey, zoned, more pallid at
margin, hairy, lobed margin, initially disc-shaped and becoming
expanded into densely tiered brackets. Under surface reddish purple,
wrinkled, white and pruinose: 3.5 (1.1-4.8) cm diam. (n=14). Flesh
brown, gelatinous, elastic when damp, hard and brittle when dry.
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and ellipsoidal: 8.5 (6.6-9.7) × 5.4 (4.6-
5.9) µm (n=10).
Substrate. Rotting logs and bark of Memecylon umbellatum and
Syzygium cumini.
Occurrence. Coffee agroforest in B’Shettigeri.
Distribution. Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Clitocybe infundibuliformis Quél. (Fig. 2.2d and e) (Tricholomataceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-004)
Gilled, medium-size agaric, fleshy, stipe central, foamy white,
solitary or in small troops, annual, rare, humicolous/lignicolous, odour
of almonds, taste not distinctive and edible.
Cap. Whitish to cream, smooth and silky, infundibuliform with
typical wavy margin: 1.8-6.6 cm (n=5). Flesh whitish, thick and soft.

79
Gills. Creamish, deeply decurrent, narrow and crowded.
Spore. Hyaline, smooth and ellipsoidal: 5.9 (4-7.9) × 3.2 (2.6-4)
µm (n=14).
Stipe. Concolorous with cap, smooth, equal and slightly swollen
at base: 0.7-1.8 cm tall × 0.2-0.4 cm thick (n=5). Flesh creamish,
tougher than in cap and partly stuffed or hollow.
Substrate. On the decomposing coir of Cocos nucifera.
Occurrence. Coffee agroforest in V’Badaga.
Distribution. Not known.
Cookeina tricholoma(Mont.) Kuntze (Fig. 2.2h) (Sarcocyphaceae –
Ascomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-005)
Small to medium, top shaped, fleshy, orange, spiny, in trooping
groups/clusters, frequent, annual, lignicolous, odour and taste not
distinctive and inedible.
Fruit body. Orange coloured, fading to pinkish-orange with age,
deeply cup- to funnel-shaped: 2.1 (1.3- 2.4) × 2.8 (2.2-3.6) cm (n=10),
sparse long whitish hairs throughout, more hairs towards margin,
without hairs on stipe, inner hymenial surface orange coloured, smooth
and bears sporangium.
Asci. Cylindrical and equal: 320.9 (289.3-341.9) × 19.9 (18.4-21)
µm.
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and broadly fusiform: 28.9 (26.8-31.6)
× 14.1 (11.8-16.3) µm.
Stipe. Smooth, equal and hallow: 1.5 (0.4-2.8) × 0.4 (0.3-0.5) cm
(n=10).
Substrate. On rotting twigs of Canarium strictum, Dysoxylum
malabaricum, Euodia lunu-ankenda, Toona ciliate and Vateria indica.
Occurrence. Found in all the locations of sacred groves, reserve
forests and agroforests.
Distribution. Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Crepidotus variabilis(Pers.) P. Kumm. (Fig. 2.2f and g) (Crepidotaceae
– Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-006)
Gilled, small, fleshy, sessile, whitish to creamish, irregular, in
trooping groups/clusters, annual, rare, lignicolous, odour and taste not
distinctive and inedible.
Fruit body. Upper surface whitish become creamish with age,
kidney or reniform or irregularly fan-shaped or lobed and faintly striate
towards the margin: 1.7 (0.7-2) cm (n=9). Flesh white, thin, soft and
brittle.
Gills. Whitish becoming pink-violet, decurrent and fairly
crowded.
Spores. Pinkish-brown, minutely warty and elongated to
ellipsoidal: 7.5 (5.3-7.9) × 4.7 (3.3-5.3) µm(n=10).
Stipe. Lateral, rudimentary or absent.
Substrate. On the rotting burnt Bambusa sp. and rotting twigs of
Jatropha curcas.
Occurrence. Coffee agroforest in B’Shettigeri.
Distribution. Not known.

80
Cyathus striatus (Huds.) Willd. (Fig. 2.2i) (Nidulariaceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-007)
Non-gilled, small, cone-/trumpet-shaped, leathery, blackish-
greyish brown, hairy, in small clusters, rare, annual, lignicolous, odour
and taste not distinctive and inedible.
Fruit body. Cone- or trumpet-shape dperidium: 0.9 (0.8-0.9) ×
0.8 (0.7-0.9) cm (n=10). Outer surface brownish, shaggy and covered in
fine felty hairs. Inner surface greyish-brown to greyish-silver, vertically
striated and covered by operculum (whitish membrane), which ruptures
at maturity to expose several (20-30) greyish-white lens shaped ‘eggs’
(peridioles) (2mm diam.), immersed in mucilage at the base and attached
by fine mycelial strands. Flesh soft, paper-thin and resistant.
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and ellipsoidal: 6.8 (5.3-7.9) × 3.7 (2.9-
4) µm (n=10).
Substrate. On rotting twigs of Aporusa lindleyana, Euodia lunu-
ankenda, Erythrina subumbrans and on soil rich with woody debris.
Occurrence. Sacred grove in Bettoli and coffee agroforest in
B’Shettigeri.
Distribution. Karnataka (Swapna et al., 2008) and Kerala
(Mohanan, 2011).
Daldinia concentrica (Bolton) Ces. & De Not. (Fig. 2.3a) (Xylariaceae
– Ascomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-008)
Small to medium, irregularly sub-spherical, tough and woody,
reddish-brown to purple brown, sessile, annual, frequent, lignicolous,
solitary to gregarious, odour and taste not distinctive, inedible and
medicinal.
Fruit body. Stroma reddish-purple brown, becoming black with
age by shedding black spores, sub-spherical, sometimes shiny, ostiolate:
5.1 (1.8-7.8) cm diam. (n=12). Perithecia black, sub-spherical,
embedded in stromatal tissue in single layer below the surface. Flesh
blackish-grey with zebra-banded silver sheen on cut surface, hard, brittle
and fibrous.
Asci. Baseball bat-shaped, long and 8-spored: 141.5 (113.1-
173.6) × 9.2 (6.8-10.5) (n=10).
Spores. Black, smooth and ellipsoidal with longitudinal slit 12.5
(11.6-15.1) × 5.6 (5.3-6.1) (n=10).
Substrate. Rotting logs and bark of Acacia mangium, Acrocarpus
fraxinifolius, Artocarpus hirsutus, Careya arborea and Toona ciliata.
Occurrence. Found in all the locations of sacred groves, reserve
forests and agroforests.
Distribution. Karnataka (Swapna et al., 2008) and Kerala
(Mohanan, 2011).
Dictyophora cinnabarina W.S. Lee (Fig. 2.2j) (Phallaceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-009)
Non-gilled, medium, fleshy, phallic, white stipe with brownish
head and orange net, solitary, annual, rare, silvicolous, odour
foetid/stringent, taste not distinctive and inedible.

81
Figure 2.2. Photographs of macrofungi of Kadagu region.
a: Auricularia auricula-judae on wood; b and c: A. mescenterica on
wood; d and e: Clitocybe infundibuliformis on coconut surface (coir);
f and g: Crepidotus variabilis on wood; h: Cookeina tricholoma on
bark and wood; i: Cyathus striatus on twigs and embedded in soil;
j: Dictyophora cinnabarina on soil.

82
Figure 2.3. Photographs of macrofungi of Kadagu region.
a: Daldinia concentrica on wood; b: Exidia glandulosa on wood; c
and d: Ganoderma applanatum on wood; e and f: Gymnopilus
junonius on burnt soil; g: Geastrum sp. on leaves, twigs and soil; h:
Ileodictyon gracile on twigs.

83
Fruit body. White egg, sub-spherical, resistant to rubbery outer
membrane with gelatinous matrix separated from the embryonic spore
mass and stipe by an inner membrane. Attached to soil by a rhizomorphs
(3-4) and on maturity the egg ruptures and the spore mass are carried
rapidly upward on the receptacle in tip of stipe. Stipe whitish, honey-
combed, cylindrical, spongy, hollow: 13.1 (12.9-13.3)× 1.7 (1.6-1.7) cm
(n=3) and leaving membranous volva around the base of stipe. Volva
white to creamish or yellowish brown, thickly gelatinous, soft: 3.6 (3.5-
3.8)cm diam. (n=3), surmounted by a greyish yellow to brownish yellow
conical head carrying the spore mass and orange indusium hanging out
from under the lower margin. The head is strongly chambered, bears a
reticulate mesh of raised ribs with apical disc perforated in centre and
surrounded throughout with dark olive-green to metallic green
mucilaginous gleba (spore mass): 2.2 (2.1-2.3) × 2.2 (2-2.3) cm (n=3).
Indusium orange to yellowish orange, netted, partly elastic and flaring at
bottom: 6.9 (6.7-7.1) cm height (n=3).
Spores. Smooth, ellipsoidal and hyaline. 3.3 (2.6-3.9) × 1.3 (1.1-
1.6) µm (n=10).
Substrate. Soil below the trees of Lagerstroemia microcarpa.
Occurrence. Reserve forest in Sampaje and coffee agroforest in
V’Badaga.
Distribution. Karnataka (Abrar et al., 2007; Swapna et al., 2008)
and Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Exidia glandulosa (Bull.) Fr. (Fig. 2.3b) (Tremellaceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-010)
Non-gilled, small to medium, gelatinous, blackish brown to
blackish ash, sessile, contorted disc-shaped, grow in groups, annual,
lignicolous, rare, odour and taste not distinctive and inedible.
Fruit body. Brownish when damp, ash black when dry, expanses
of tissues appear like brain folding and fused with adjacent sporophores,
smooth, shiny with glandular warts and sessile. Under surface creamish,
wrinkled and wholly attached to the decaying log: 2.8 (1.6-4.7) cm diam.
(n=5). Flesh brownish gelatinous/soft when damp, dry on hard, become
thin and membranous.
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and ellipsoidal: 8.1 (6.6-9.2) × 4.7 (3.9-
5.3) µm (n=10).
Substrate. On the rotting logs of Artocarpus heterophyllus.
Occurrence. Coffee agroforest in B’Shettigeri.
Distribution. Not known.
Ganoderma applanatum (Pers.) Pat. (Fig. 2.3c and d)
(Ganodermataceae – Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-011)
Non-gilled, large to very large, woody bracket, sessile, grey-
brown, grow in limited overlapping tiers, perennial, lignicolous,
common on wood, odour fungoid, taste bitter, inedible and medicinal.
Fruit body. Greyish-brown, often discoloured into reddish brown
or cocoa brown from deposited spores, generally flattened, radially wavy
or wrinkled, concentrically grooved and zoned, broadly attached, sessile:
18.8 (12.6-24.9) cm diam. (n=5). Flesh dark brick, thicker than the tube
region, very tough and fibrous.

84
Pores. White, bruising brown and circular in annual layers.
Spores. Brown, warty, ovoid to broadly ellipsoidal and flattened
at one end with hyaline germ pore: 7.8 (7.7-7.9) × 5.4 (5.3-5.9) µm
(n=14).
Substrate. Rotting trunks of Artocarpus heterophyllus and A.
hirsutus.
Occurrence. Found in all the locations of sacred groves, reserve
forests and agroforests.
Distribution. Maharashtra (Ranadive et al., 2011) and Kerala
(Mohanan, 2011).
Geastrum sp. (Fig. 2.3g) (Geastraceae – Basidiomycotina) (#
MUBSNCKKRSMF-012)
Non-gilled, small, sessile, creamish-white, rounded/bulb on a star
shaped outer wall, grow in trooping groups, annual, humicolous,
infrequent, odour and taste not distinctive and inedible.
Fruit body. At first brownish, coarsely scaly, bulb shaped,
0.6(0.4-0.7) cm diam. (n=5), sessile, thick and brittle. Outer peridium
splitting at maturity into 5 pointed starfish-like rays which reflex back to
reveal the creamy-white inner fleshy layer. Inner peridium (spore sac,
gleba and spore mass) creamish-white, sub-spherical, thin, papery,
sessile and opening by a fringed apical pore.1.4 (1.1-1.8) cm diam.
(n=7).
Gleba (spore mass). At first pallid. Firm and becoming brown
with powdery deposits.
Spores. Spherical, warty and brown, 4-5 µm diam. (n=10).
Substrate. On decomposing leaf litter and twigs of Acacia
mangium and Sapium insigne.
Occurrence. Sacred grove in Maggula and coffee agroforest in
V’Badaga.
Distribution. Not known.
Gymnopilus junonius (Fr.) P.D. Orton (Fig. 2.3e and f) (Strophariaceae
– Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-013)
Gilled, medium to large agaric, orange to yellow, dense
caespitose clusters, annual, carbonicolous, rare, odour acidic or bamboo
shoot, taste not distinctive and edible.
Cap. Initially dark orange fades to yellow with age, appressed
fibrillose-squamulose, convex, becoming expanded, plane and wavy and
depression often deepens to the stipe. Flesh concolorous, firm and
medium: 5.2 (2.8-8.2) cm diam. (n= 10).
Gills. Orange brown to creamish yellow, adnate, broad and
crowded.
Spores. Brownish orange, finely warty and ellipsoid: 8 (7.9-8.3)
× 5.4 (5.3-5.9) µm (n=14).
Stipe. Ring absent, pallid ochraceous-brown, more or less equal
or slightly bulged towards the base and fibrillose-striate with scattered
squamules: 4.9 (2.4-8.4) × 0.9 (0.35-1.6) cm (n=10). Flesh yellowish,
firm, stuffed and full.
Substrate. On soil, roots and stumps of burnt decaying Bambusa
sp.
Occurrence. Coffee agroforestry in B’Shettigeri.

85
Distribution. Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Ileodictyon gracile Berk. (Fig. 2.3h) (Phallaceae – Basidiomycotina) (#
MUBSNCKKRSMF-014)
Non-gilled, small, sessile, white, lattice-like sphere extruding
from a partially submerged egg, grow in troops or solitary, annual,
humicolous, infrequent, odour foul/foetid, taste not distinctive and
inedible.
Fruit body. Initially bone-white, egg-shaped/sub-spherical: 0.7
(0.6-0.8) × 0.5 (0.4-0.6) cm (n=6), attached to the substrate by a
mycelial cord, outer membrane delicate, finely elastic, and closing the
compressed lattice surrounded the white gleba (spore mass). At maturity
the egg ruptures and the spore mass carried upwards on the inside
surface of the bright white lattice: 2.7 cm (1.5- 3.3) × 1.3 cm (1.0-1.6)
diam. (n=6).
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and ellipsoidal: 4.4 (3.3-4.6) × 1.6 (1.3-
1.8) µm (n=10).
Substrate. Rotting sheath of inflorescence of Cocos nucifera and
rotting twigs and leaf litter of Eupatorium odoretum and Pongamia
pinnata.
Occurrence. Reserve forest of Makutta and coffee agroforest of
V’Badaga.
Distribution. Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Lentinus dicholamellatus Manim. (Fig. 2.4a and b) (Polyporaceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-015)
Gilled, large, irregular infundibuliform bracket with lateral stipe,
creamish with brownish squamules/tinge, solitary or in groups, annual,
lignicolous, frequent, odour mealy, taste not distinctive and edible with
second preference.
Cap. Upper surface at first pale yellow changing to brownish
orange and densely dotted with very fine appressed or erect squamules.
Initially convex with a depressed centre becoming deeply
infundibuliform, finely striate, radially fibrillose, margin
incurved/inrolled and lobate: 19.3 (25.6- 14.2) cm diam. (n=3). Flesh
creamish, thin, elastic and leathery.
Gills. Yellowish-white, deeply decurrent and crowded.
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and ellipsoidal: 7.7 (7.2-7.9) × 3.8 (3.4-
3.9) µm (n=10).
Stipe. Concolorous with cap, often dotted with erect pointed
squamules, central/eccentric/lateral, almost equal and solid: 4.1 (3.1-4.7)
× 1.3 (1.2-1.3) cm (n=3).
Substrate. Rotting logs of Canarium strictum, Mangifera indica
and Vateria indica.
Occurrence. In Bettoli sacred grove, reserve forest in Makkuta
and coffee agroforest in V’Badaga.
Distribution. Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Lentinus patulus Lév. (Fig. 2.4e) (Polyporaceae – Basidiomycotina) (#
MUBSNCKKRSMF-016)

86
Gilled, small to medium, infundibuliform with central stipe,
creamish-white with brownish squamules, in small clusters, annual,
lignicolous, infrequent, odour mealy, taste not distinctive and inedible.
Cap. White to cream, with fine brown to blackish squamules
more towards the centre, at first convex with depressed centre, finally
attain infundibuliform, finely sulcate, striate towards margin, margin
regular and thin: 3.8 (2.7-4.9) cm (n=10). Flesh white, thin and at first
weakly elastic becoming more leathery on drying.
Gills. White becoming creamish buff, decurrent, narrow and
moderately crowded.
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and ellipsoidal: 8 (6.6-9.2) × 4.6 (4-5.3)
µm (n=14).
Stipe. Ring absent, concolorous with cap, possess fine blackish
fibrillose squamules, typically central to eccentric, short, more or less
equal, arising from rhizomorph: 1.7 (0.9-3.8) × 0.3 (0.2-0.6) cm (n=10).
Flesh white, firm, tough and thin.
Substrate. On dead stub of Mangifera indica.
Occurrence. Coffee agroforest in B’Shettigeri.
Distribution. Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Lenzites vespacea (Pers.) Pat. (Fig. 2.4c and d) (Polyporaceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-017)
Non-gilled, Large, semi-circular or fan-shaped bracket,
creamish-white to brownish-orange, solitary or in limited tires,
perennial, lignicolous, common, odour and taste not distinctive and
inedible.
Fruit body. Upper surface creamish brown with concentric zones
(brown, tan and grey), downy or finely hairy, concentrically grooved and
radially wrinkled, sometimes surface shows algal growth, narrowly
attached and sessile: 15 (10.4-23.4) cm diam. × 1-1.2 cm thick (n=3).
Flesh creamish, leathery and tough.
Pores. Whitish-buff and straw/gill/maize-like in a radial
arrangement with branching.
Spores. Hyaline, broadly ellipsoidal and smooth: 7.8 (5.3-9.2) ×
5.7 (5.3-6.6) µm (n=11).
Substrate. Rotting logs of Acacia mangium, Acrocarpus
fraxinifolius, Artocarpus heterophyllus, A. hirsutus, Lagerstroemia
microcarpa, Syzygium cuminii, Tectona grandis and Toona ciliata.
Occurrence. Found in all the locations of sacred groves, reserve
forests and agroforests.
Distribution. Maharashtra (Ranadive et al., 2011) and Kerala
(Mohanan, 2011).
Panus conchatus (Bull.) Fr. (Fig. 2.4g and h) (Polyporaceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-018)
Gilled, medium, trumpet-shaped agaric, infundibuliform with
central stipe, brownish-orange, velvety, solitary or in small clusters,
annual, lignicolous, infrequent, odour and taste not distinctive and
inedible.
Cap. Upper surface at first purple redfading to brownish-orange
with age, applanate to depressed, surface striate, velvety, smooth, thin,
leathery, appressed squamules at centre, margin inrolled, lobed and hairy

87
throughout: 8.8 (6.5-10.2) cm diam. (n=5). Lower hymenial surface at
first violet or purple fading to creamish, possess a series of irregular,
blunt gill-like wrinkles and folds and decurrent.
Stipe. Purple-brown, thickly velvety/pubescent throughout,
fading with age, tough, long, solid and more or less equal: 4.6 (3.4-5.8)
× 0.9 (0.6-1.1) (n=5). Flesh creamish-brown, tough, leathery and thin.
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and ellipsoidal: 5.3 (4.6-5.9) × 2.8 (2.6-
3.2) µm (n=12).
Substrate. Rotting logs of Delonix regia, Mangifera indica and
Memecylon umbellatum.
Occurrence. Reserve forest in Sampaje and coffee agroforestry
in B’Shettigeri.
Distribution. Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quél. (Fig. 2.5a & b) (Pleurotaceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-019)
Gilled, small to medium, fleshy, stipe lateral or absent, whitish
becoming creamish, irregular, fan- or bracket-shaped, incaespitose tufts
or groups, annual, infrequent, lignicolous, mealy odour and taste, and
edible.
Cap. Whitish becoming creamish-yellow with age, at first
shallowly convex then flattened, reniform to irregularly flabelliform,
undulating and wavy, lobed as well as split margin, narrowing at point
of attachment, fleshy and smooth: 2.1 (0.8-3.8) cm diam. (n=6). Flesh
white, slightly fibrous and moderate.
Gills. White, becoming creamish, decurrent, narrow and close.
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and ellipsoidal or cylindrical: 8.1 (7.9-
8.6) × 4.9 (4-5.3) µm (n=12).
Stipe. White, lateral or eccentric, very short, slightly woolly,
stout and hard: 0.5 (0.3-0.7) × 0.4 (0.3-0.5) cm (n=6). Flesh white, firm
and full.
Substrate. Rotting twigs of Erythrina subumbrans and Jatropha
curcas.
Occurrence. Coffee agroforestry in B’Shettigeri.
Distribution. Not known.
Polyporus sp. (Fig. 2.5c & d) (Polyporaceae – Basidiomycotina) (#
MUBSNCKKRSMF-020)
Porous, small, fan- or kidney-shaped, creamy-brown, solitary,
annual, lignicolous, rare, odour and taste not distinctive and inedible.
Cap. Camouflaged, upper surface creamy with coffee-brown
concentric bands, kidney- or fan shaped, fleshy, shiny, smooth and with
regular margin: 2.6-2.8 cm diam. (n=2). Flesh white, thick and fleshy.
Stipe. Lateral, short, ivory-colour and tough.
Pores. Whitish, irregularly angular, decurrrent and 3.5-4 mm
deep.
Spores. White, fusiform and smooth: 10.7 (9.2-13.2) × 5.4 (5.3-
5.9) µm (n=6).
Substrate. Rotting twigs of Ficus religiosa.
Occurrence. Sacred grove in Maggula.
Distribution. Not known.

88
Figure 2.4. Photographs of macrofungi of Kadagu region.
a and b: Lentinus dicholamellatus on wood; c and d: Lenzites
vespacea on stub; e: Lentinus patulus on stub; f: Ramaria sp. on
soil; g and h: Panus conchatus on twig.

89
Figure 2.5. Photographs of macrofungi of Kadagu region.
a and b, Pleurotus pulmonarius on wood; c and d, Polyporus sp. on
twig; e, Scleroderma verrucosum on soil; f and g, Termitomyces
tylerianus on termite soil; h, Trogia infundibuliformis on twig; i
and j, Tricholoma sp. on soil with woody debris; k, Xylaria longipes
on wood embedded in soil.

90
Ramaria sp. (Fig. 2.4f) (Gomphaceae – Basidiomycotina) (#
MUBSNCKKRSMF-021)
Non-gilled, small to medium, coral-like and antler-tip-like, lilac
to creamish, solitary, or in small groups, annual, carbonicolous, rare,
odour and taste not distinctive and inedible.
Fruit body. Lilaceous to creamish, fragile with loose limited
branching and coral-like with pointed forked tips (antler-like). Branches
filiform arising from long slender stipe and dusted with smokes of grey
spores and minutely downy at the base: 5.4 (2.5-9.6) × 1.8 (1.1-2.5) cm
diam. (n=10). Flesh creamish and elastic.
Spores. Fusiform, hyaline and smooth: 10.3 (7.9-13.2) × 5.6 (5.3-
7.9) µm (n=10)
Stipe. Long, slender, fibrous, tough, smooth and equal: 4.6 (2.2-
8.3) × 0.2 (0.2-0.3) cm (n=10).
Substrate. On laterite soil and clay roof tiles.
Occurrence. Clay tiled roofs of coffee agroforest in B’Shettigeri.
Distribution. Not known.
Scleroderma verrucosum (Bull.) Pers. (Fig. 2.5e) (Sclerodermataceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-022)
Non-gilled, medium, knobbly, yellowish-brown, solitary or in
small groups, annual, silvicolous, rare, odour and taste not distinctive,
edible and ectomycorrhizal.
Fruit body. Yellowish-brown, knobby (round headed hammer-
like) and tapered below into a thick grooved hard long stipe-like base:
5.7 (3.8-7.9) × 2.4 (1.8-3.3) cm (n=10). Attached to the soil by a dense
mass of mycelial cord, wall of head/hymenial portion thin, smooth,
brittle and sparsely scaly throughout: 4.3 (3.2-6.6) cm diam. (n-10). On
cracking opens at apex to form an irregular slit for the release/dispersal
of spores.
Spores. Spherical, dark brown and spiny: 11.1 (9.2-13.2) × 10.8
(9.2-13.2) µm (n=10).
Substrate. On soil below the trees of Canarium strictum,
Holigarna nigra and Vateria indica.
Occurrence. Sacred grove in Bettoli and coffee agroforest of
V’Badaga.
Distribution. Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Termitomyces tylerianus Otieno (Fig. 2.5f and g) (Lyophyllaceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-023)
Gilled, medium to large agaric, grayish-white, solitary or
occasionally in small groups (3-5), annual, particolous, common, odour
and taste mealy, edible and medicinal.
Cap. Upper surface grayish-white to slightly grayish-yellow,
convex to plane, with a prominent umbo/perforatorium and pointed to
broadly conical(sharply to bluntly umbonate): 9.5 (4.9-14.4) cm diam.
(n=10). Margin straight, smooth, entire and splitting with age. Flesh
white to creamish, thick, smooth and fleshy.
Gills. White, free, crowded and regular.

91
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and broadly ellipsoidal: 7.2 (5.9-9.2) ×
3.8 (3.3-4.7) µm (n=10).
Stipe. White, long, fibrillose, cylindrical with a swollen base and
tapering downwards to a long firm pseudorrhiza: 14.6 (10.2-17.6) × 2.3
(1.2- 4.5) cm (n=10).
Substrate. Termite mounds and soils of grasslands, path of paddy
fields, playgrounds, sacred groves, forests and coffee plantations.
Occurrence. Found in all the locations of sacred groves, reserve
forests and agroforests.
Distribution. Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Tricholoma sp. (Fig. 2.5i and j) (Tricholomataceae – Basidiomycotina)
(# MUBSNCKKRSMF-024)
Gilled, medium to large agaric, creamish-brown to potato-brown,
caespitose clusters, annual, silvicolous and lignicolous, rare, odour and
taste mealy and edible.
Cap. Greyish-brown with deposition of fine powder paling
almost wholly after rain to potato/sapota-brown. Initially hemispherical,
becoming campanulate, margin inrolled, smooth and dry: 3.9 (2.8-5.5)
cm diam. (n=10). Flesh white and medium.
Gills. Initially whitish becoming slightly creamish, emarginate
and distant.
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and oval-ellipsoidal: 6.9 (5.3-7.9) × 4.4
(4-5.3) µm (n=12).
Stipe. Long: 9.2 (7.2-11.3) cm tall (n=10), pallid, decorated with
whitish-brown speckled fibrils below ring-zone, bulbose at base: 2.02
(1-2.7) cm diam. (n=10), tapering towards apex: 1.3 (0.7-1.9) cm diam.
(n=10) and ring absent. Flesh white, becoming yellowish with age and
stuffed.
Substrate. On soil rich with debris of Caryota urens.
Occurrence. In reserve forest in Sampaje.
Distribution. Not known.
Trogia infundibuliformis Berk.& Broome (Fig. 2.5h) (Marasmiaceae –
Basidiomycotina) (# MUBSNCKKRSMF-025)
Vein-like ridges, small, funnel-shaped, brownish to orange,
solitary or in small groups, annual, lignicolous, infrequent, odour
fungoid, taste not distinctive and inedible.
Cap. Brown to orange, fading with age, deeply infundibuliform,
fleshy, thin, smooth, shiny, surface deeply sulcate and margin wavy and
irregular: 2.6 (1.4-3.3) cm diam. (n=6). Gills absent, lower hymenial
surface orange, possess vein-like ridges and decurrent.
Stipe. Brownish fading with age, smooth, hollow and more or
less equal but slightly bulged at the base or point of attachment to wood:
2.2 (1.5-2.6) × 0.3 (0.2-0.4) cm (n=6). Flesh brownish orange, tough and
thin.
Spores. Hyaline, smooth and ellipsoidal: 7.8 (7.2-8.5) × 4.1 (3.3-
4.6) µm (n=10).
Substrate. On decaying twigs of Coffea robusta.
Occurrence. Sacred grove in Maggula and coffee agroforestry in
V’Badaga.

92
Distribution. Kerala (Kumar and Manimohan, 2009c; Mohanan,
2011).
Xylaria longipes Nitschke (Fig. 2.5k) (Xylariaceae – Ascomycotina) (#
MUBSNCKKRSMF-026)
Club-shaped mature fruit body, develops on wood, project above
ground, usually gregarious, common, possess stipe, tough or woody,
annual, odour and taste not distinctive, and medicinal.
Fruit body. Upper stromatal surface black, warty, often
somewhat bent over and narrowing slightly into a brownish-black
sterile.
Stipe. Cylindrical or baseball bat-shaped or clavate and smooth
or slightly downy. Perithecia black, sub-spherical, fully embedded in
stromatal tissue and arranged in a single dense layer just below the
surface towards the apex: 4.8 (2.8-6.1) × 0.7 (0.4-0.8) cm (n=10). Flesh
white and hard.
Asci. Cylindrical: 155.6 (147.3-163.1) × 7.5 (5.5-9) µm.
Spores. Dark brown, smooth, ellipsoid to reniform, flattened on
one side with distinct cleft, non-septate and uniseriate: 13.3 (12.5-14.5)
× 5.9 (5.5-6) µm (n=10).
Substrate. Rotting logs and stumps of Acrocarpus fraxinifolius,
Artocarpus hirsutus, Erythrina subumbrans, Memecylon umbellatum
and Syzygium cumini.
Occurrence. Found in all the locations of sacred groves, reserve
forests and agroforests.
Distribution. Kerala (Mohanan, 2011).
Discussion and outlook
Two megadiversity hotspots in India, the Western Ghats and
Himalayas are the treasures of a variety of life forms and always
fascinating for exploration. Mushrooms especially edible forms are of
immense economic value as alternative food source against plant and
animal food sources. They are versatile as source of adequate protein,
fibre and a variety of bioactive compounds and possess the capacity to
decrease cholesterol level in blood. Besides food source, several
macrofungi serve as medicinal and some are of agricultural importance
as ectomycorrhizal fungi. Interestingly, a wide range of agarics has been
reported from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Natarajan et al., 2005a)
and ectomycorrhizal fungi from dipterocarp forest stands of Kodagu
region (Natarajan et al., 2005b).
The current study projected several edible, medicinal and one
ectomycorrhizal fungi in one-time survey. Sacred groves and reserve
forests provide fairly undisturbed natural habitats for a variety of
macrofungi. These biomes are the ideal sites for successful conservation
of macrofungi as natural repositories (Brown et al., 2006).
Domestication of desired macrofungi can be achieved in agroforest
consisting of shade-grown commercial plantations (e.g. coffee,
cardamom, cocoa and areca), monocrops (e.g. rubber) and tree-less field
crops (e.g. paddy, sugarcane and banana). Brown et al. (2006) studied
the impact of fragmentation and disturbance on the diversity and
distribution of macrofungi in tropical rain forests of Kodagu region.
They recorded macrofungi during three wet seasons in 25 sacred groves,

93
10 reserve forests and 23 coffee plantations. Based on this long-term
study, they concluded that habitat degradation is an important threat to
macrofungal diversity than fragmentation. Although sacred groves
occupied less area, they are valuable in macrofungal conservation due to
unique habitat with higher abundance of sporocarp as well as
morphospecies compared to reserve forests and coffee-agroforests. On
the contrary, our one-time study revealed the highest species richness in
coffee-agroforests than sacred groves and reserve forests. However,
there may be some difference regarding the abundance of sporocarps of
macrofungi in these habitats and long-term studies may reveal more
improved perception. In shade-grown coffee-agroforests, in addition to
native trees, several exotic tree species are common (e.g. Acacia
mangium, Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Artocarpus hirsutus, Dalbergia
latifolia, Grevelia robusta,Syzygium cuminiiand Toona ciliata). Besides,
small treespecies are also common (e.g. Erythrina subumbransand
Glyricidia sepium). It is likely, regular pruning of such shade trees as
litter source for coffee plantation and misting during dry seasons might
be responsible for occurrence of macrofungi throughout the year. As
human disturbanceshave to be avoided in sacred groves and reserve
forests, agroforests constitute ideal habitats to domesticate edible,
medicinal and ectomycorrhizal fungi for economic growth. Similar to
flora and fauna, macrofungi also consititutes another important link in
forest ecosystems as detritus decomposers. But, knowledge on the
diversity, distribution of mcrofungi and impact of forest
degradation/fragmentation on macrofungi is insufficient. Rehabilitation
of many forest communities needs considerable time especially
macrofungiprefers old-growth forests than the new forests for their
perpetuation (Norden and Appelqvist, 2001). For instance,distinct
succession pattern of ectomycorrhizal fungi was seen in old (11–17
years) and young (3–7 years) dipterocarp forests in Kodagu region
(Natarajan et al., 2005b). Besides plant detritus and pure forest stands
(e.g. dipterocarp and bamboo groves), there are several ecological niches
deserve meticulous attention to explore macrofungi in the Western
Ghats: coprophilus fungi on the dung of wild animals (e.g. Amanita,
Entoloma and Xylaria), medicinally valuable entomopathogens (e.g.
Cordyceps and Ophiocordyceps) and termite mounds for edible
mushrooms (e.g. Termitomyces).
Each geographical location has specific characteristic features
and yield of optimum number of macrofungi depends on the time and
frequency of field survey (Halme and Kotiaho, 2012). For each biome in
a location, it is necessary to earmark substrate, time and frequency of
sampling for maximum recovery of macrofungi. In addition, phase-wise
long-term studies on macrofungi are warranted for a comprehensive and
total understanding of the diversity in different parts of the Western
Ghats to improve ourknowledge on the species richness, functional
diversity, conservation strategies and economic benefits. Traditional
knowledge of local people and tribals should not be ignored to fill the
gaps in our knowledge on the value of macrofungi.

94
Acknowledgement
Authors are thankful to Mangalore University for permission to
carry out this study in the Department of Biosciences.
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