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Variety Testing and Release Approaches in DTMA
Project Countries in sub-Saharan Africa
Peter S. Setimela, Baour Badu-Apraku and Wilfred Mwangi
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)
e International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, known by its Spanish acronym,
CIMMYT® (www.cimmyt.org), is an international, not-for-prot research and training
organization that, together with partners in over 100 developing countries, works to increase
food security, improve the productivity and protability of farming systems, and sustain natural
resources in the developing world. · e center’s outputs and services include improved maize and
wheat varieties and cropping systems, the conservation of maize and wheat genetic resources, and
capacity building. CIMMYT belongs to and is funded by the Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (www.cgiar.org), and also receives support from national
governments, foundations, development banks, and other public and private agencies.
© International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT), 2009. All rights reserved.
e designations employed in the presentation of materials in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever in the part of CIMMYT or its contributory organizations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. CIMMYT encourages fair use of this
material. Proper citation is requested.
Correct citation: Setimela P.S., B. Badu-Apraku, and W. Mwangi. 2009. Variety testing and release
approaches in DTMA project countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Harare, Zimbabwe, CIMMYT.
AGROVOC Descriptors: Grain crops, Maize, Varieties, Seed testing, Quality, Seed certication,
Seed industry
AGRIS Category Codes: F01
Dewey Decimal Classif. 633.1047 67
ISBN: 978-92-9059-252-5
Printed in Kenya
Variety Testing and Release Approaches in
DTMA Project Countries in sub-Saharan Africa
Peter S. Setimela, Baour Badu-Apraku and Wilfred Mwangi
Contents
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................ii
List of Figures ...............................................................................................................................ii
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................... iii
Introduction...........................................................................................................................................iii
Major ndings .......................................................................................................................................iii
Variety release regulations ...................................................................................................................iii
Varietal releases .....................................................................................................................................iii
Recommendations ................................................................................................................................ iv
Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. v
Acronyms and Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... vi
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1
1. Importance of maize in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) ...................................................................... 1
2. Data sources ...................................................................................................................................... 4
3. Summary of current status of variety release and registration in DTMA project
countries in SSA ............................................................................................................................... 4
4. Current status for distinctness, uniformity and stability (DUS) in DTMA project
countries ............................................................................................................................................ 5
Current status of value for cultivation and use in DTMA Project countries in SSA .................. 8
Maize varietals release by region ........................................................................................................ 13
Public and private sector releases....................................................................................................... 14
Type of germplasm released in DTMA project countries in SSA .................................................. 15
Summary: organization and structure of variety release systems by country ..........................16
Angola .................................................................................................................................................... 16
Benin ......................................................................................................................................................17
Ethiopia .................................................................................................................................................17
Ghana ..................................................................................................................................................... 18
Kenya ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
Malawi ................................................................................................................................................... 20
Mali ........................................................................................................................................................ 21
Mozambique ......................................................................................................................................... 22
Nigeria ................................................................................................................................................... 22
Tanzania ................................................................................................................................................ 24
Uganda ................................................................................................................................................... 25
South Africa .......................................................................................................................................... 26
Zambia ................................................................................................................................................... 27
Zimbabwe .............................................................................................................................................. 28
Conclusions and recommendations ..........................................................................................29
References ...................................................................................................................................31
ii
List of Tables
Table 1. Estimated maize seed supply and need in eastern and southern Africa ............................2
Table 2. Estimated maize seed demand and supply in the selected countries in West Africa. .....3
Table 3. Current seed control in the DTMA project countries including South Africa. ................5
Table 4. Current status of DUS in DTMA project countries including South Africa. .................... 7
Table 5. Current status of value for cultivation and use in DTMA Project countries and South
Africa. ..........................................................................................................................................11
Table 6. Average number of varieties released per year in DTMA Project Countries including
South Africa, 2002–2006. .........................................................................................................12
Table 7. Time taken to release a maize variety in selected DTMA Project countries, including
South Africa. ..............................................................................................................................12
Table 8. Estimated number of maize varieties by type released by public and private breeding
programs in DTMA Project countries including South Africa, 2002–2006. ..................15
Table 9. e number of varieties tested and released by the KEPHIS. .............................19
List of Figures
Figure 1. Mother-Baby Trial design to evaluate maize cultivars by researchers and farmers. ....... 9
Figure 2. e average maize varietals releases by region 2002–2006. ................................................13
Figure 3. Percentage of public and private seed sector maize releases in DTMA Project countries
including South Africa, 2002–2006. .......................................................................................14
Figure 4. Variety release channel in Angola. ..........................................................................................16
Figure 5. Variety release channel in Ethiopia. .......................................................................................17
Figure 6. Variety release channel in Ghana. ..........................................................................................18
Figure 7. Variety release channel in Kenya. ...........................................................................................20
Figure 8. Variety release channel in Malawi. .........................................................................................21
Figure 9. Variety release channel in Mali. ..............................................................................................21
Figure 10. Variety release channel in Mozambique. ...............................................................................22
Figure 11. Variety release channel in Nigeria. .........................................................................................24
Figure 12. Variety release channel in Tanzania. ......................................................................................25
Figure 13. Variety release channel in Uganda. .........................................................................................26
Figure 14. Variety release channel in Zambia. .........................................................................................27
Figure 15. Variety release channel in Zimbabwe. ....................................................................................28
iii
Executive Summary
Introduction
is report presents a summary of variety testing and release regulations in DTMA project
countries in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In order to understand these approaches a study was
undertaken in 2007 under the auspices of the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) project
funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (B&MGF). e objectives of the study were to:
• Dene the time taken to release elite maize varieties.
• Summarize the variety release requirements and procedures in DTMA countries in SSA.
• Identify constraints hampering the release of elite maize varieties to smallholder farmers.
• Propose strategies to hasten the release of new maize varieties.
e study covered all the DTMA project countries: Angola, Benin, Ethiopia, Malawi, Ghana,
Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. South Africa was
included as a reference point because it is considered to have the most advanced and liberal seed
system in SSA.
e data for the study were collected in 2007/2008 through a survey of 13 selected national
seed authorities (NSA). e questionnaire for the survey was sent out to the NSAs followed by
discussions with agricultural researchers, and the revision of published information on variety
release guidelines and procedures for each country. e data were also complemented by
information from national variety release catalogues wherever possible.
Major ndings
Variety release regulations
e results from the study show that for new maize varieties to be marketed they must be registered.
e registration process requires that tests for distinctiveness, uniformity and stability (DUS) and
value for cultivation and use (VCU) be conducted rst before registration. e registration establishes
legal ownership of the new maize variety. e DUS and the VCU tests can take between one and
three years before sucient data are available for variety registration. e seed laws for variety testing
and release govern seed production, certication, marketing, import and export of maize seed.
e seed laws on variety testing and release among the 13 countries are variable and inconsistent.
e variability and inconsistency of the seed laws make it costly for seed companies to release and
market new maize varieties. A new maize variety must be tested each time it is to be marketed in
the respective countries, even if it is developed for sale across a wide range of agro-ecologies. In each
country, a National Variety Release Committee (NVCR) makes a decision to release or to reject
a new variety based on the data compiled in the release proposal. In a number of situations, the
public sector was found to be dominant in the variety release committee meetings and there were
complaints that there was a bias in the scrutiny of varieties to the disadvantage of those from the
private sector. In some cases the variety was not released based on its merit and uniqueness.
Varietal releases
e results also show that between 2002 and 2006 nearly 600 maize varieties were released by the
private and the public sectors. e varietal release rates were highest in southern Africa including
iv
South Africa followed by eastern Africa, and lastly, West Africa. Southern Africa had the highest
adoption rate of new improved maize varieties while West Africa had the lowest adoption rate. e
private seed sector dominated the varietal release rates in South Africa, Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania,
Zambia, and Zimbabwe, indicating the strong presence of the private sector. White maize hybrids
dominated the maize varietal releases between 2002 and 2006.
Recommendations
• Promotion of regional standards for plant breeders rights (PBRs): Regional standards for PBRs
should be promoted to allow plant breeding programs to generate income from the products of
their research through royalties. is will provide an opportunity for the private and the public
sectors to benet from the product of research and encourage more investments in variety
improvement. e study therefore recommends the development of PBRs in each country.
• Regional harmonization of seed laws: e three regions—eastern, southern and western Africa—
will benet from free ow of germplasm across national boundaries if the regional variety
release process is implemented. Maize varieties released in one country should be regarded as
automatically released in the other countries with similar ecologies. Mega-environments cut
across country boundaries and adaptation zones are not country specic so varieties should be
released based on mega-environments to create a larger seed market and quicken variety release.
erefore this study supports regional variety release based on mega-environments.
• Promoting the use of data from other countries: Only a few countries accept data from other
countries for variety release. Testing should not be mandatory for varieties already released in
other countries if the recommendation domain is the same. If data from other countries are
accepted for variety release this will eliminate re-testing of varieties from country to country
therefore saving resources and quickening variety release.
• Simplication of variety testing: A number of agronomic and DUS data are required for variety
release. Registration should be simplied so that only important VCU and DUS information
would be required to distinguish the new variety from the others. e DUS information should
be from one season since DUS is not aected much by the environment. DUS tests should be
conducted along with multi-environment trials (METs) to shorten time to variety release.
• Promotion of the use of breeders’ own data: Breeders’ own data should be used to support
variety release thereby eliminating the need for national performance trials (NPTs). e number
of locations required for release should be few and emphasis should be on locations where the
variety will be recommended for production. Production of breeders’ seed: Breeders should
embark on limited seed production and marketing instead of waiting until the variety is fully
released, as this prolongs the period taken for the variety to reach farmers.
• Variety release guidelines: In some cases the NVRC rejects the variety and asks the breeder to
improve a specic trait delaying the release of a new variety. e determination to release should
be based on merit and uniqueness. e new variety should contribute new trait(s) that the
existing one does not possess. erefore, governments should develop variety release guidelines
in those countries where these are lacking to ensure fairness and transparency in the variety
release process.
v
• Frequency of meetings of NVRC: e variety release meetings have been irregular in some
countries. is study encourages governments to ensure that NVRC meet regularly and funds
should be made available for the meetings.
Concluding remarks
e survey results show that variety testing and release committees dier a great deal among
countries, including in their composition. In a number of situations, the public sector dominates
the variety release committee meetings. e diculties with existing variety releases system have
resulted in delayed access by farmers to new maize varieties. e system has allowed few varieties
to be released; it is costly and duplicative, as the same variety must be tested in all countries where
it is being targeted for marketing. e return on investment is also delayed as seed companies
have to wait for a long period before they can enter the seed market while their variety is
undergoing testing prior to release.
vi
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AREX Agricultural Research and Extension, Zimbabwe
B&MGF Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo / International Maize
and Wheat Improvement Center
CRI Crops Research Institute, Ghana
CSIR Council for Scientic and Industrial Research, Ghana
DAR Department of Agricultural Research, Malawi
DSS Department of Seed Service, Mozambique
DTMA Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa
DUS Distinctness, Uniformity and Stability
EIAR Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
IER Institut d’Economie Rurale du Mali
IIAA Instituto de Investigação Agronómica de Angola
IIAM Instituto de Investigação Agrária de Moçambique
INRAB Institut National des Recherches Agricoles du Benin
ISTA International Seed Testing Association
KEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service
MBT Mother-baby trials
MET Multi-environment trial
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MOFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture
NARS National agricultural research systems
NCRP Nationally Coordinated Research Project
NCVLBRRC National Crop Varieties and Livestock Breeds Registration and Release Committee
NPT National performance trials
NPTC National Performance Trials Committee
NSA National Seed Authority
NGO Non-governmental organization
NVPT National variety performance trial
NVRC National Variety Release Committee
PBRs Plant Breeders’ Rights
SADC Southern African Development Community
SARI Savanna Agricultural Research Institute
SCCI Seed Control Certication Institute
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
OPV Open-pollinated variety
SSSN SADC Seed Security Network
TOSCI Tanzania Ocial Seed Certication Institute
TSC Technical Sub-Committee
UPOV International Union for the Protection of New Plant Varieties
USAID United States Agency for International Development
VCU Value for Cultivation and Use
VRC Variety Release Committee
1
Introduction
1. Importance of maize in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)
Maize ranks rst worldwide in terms of production among cereals, just ahead of wheat and
signicantly ahead of rice. In developing countries’ economies, maize ranks rst (FAO 2001). It is
projected that the demand for maize by 2020 will far surpass the demand for rice and wheat. e
crop has wide uses, as it can be harvested while it is still green or when it is fully mature as grain.
In SSA, over 650 million people annually depend on it for their livelihood as source of calories
and protein (FAOSTAT 2006). It plays a major role as a food security crop and socio-economic
stabilizer in many countries. Smallholder farmers allocate more than 50% of their land to maize
to ensure that sucient maize is harvested as core to family food basket and income security
(Bänziger et al. 2006).
Maize is a versatile crop that adapts to a wide range of environments. e plant grows at a
latitude ranging from the equator to areas that are 3000 m above sea level, under heavy rainfall,
semi-arid conditions, temperate zones and tropical climates (Dowswell et al. 1996). e diverse
environment in which maize is grown reects its adaptability to a wide range of environments
and suitability to various cropping systems.
In the nine DTMA project countries in eastern and southern Africa, maize is grown on more
than 12 million hectares. Ethiopia accounts for more than 1.7 million hectares whereas Zambia
accounts for the smallest area of about 0.6 million ha (Table 1). By region, eastern Africa accounts
for the largest hectarage (Table 1). During the 2006/07 season an estimated 103,600 t of improved
maize was marketed in eastern and southern Africa. Improved open-pollinated varieties (OPVs)
of maize accounted for about 23,000 t while hybrid maize seed was estimated at 80,000 t. e rest
of the seed was sourced from the informal seed sector through seed exchanges and recycling of
OPVs and hybrids (Table 1).
By region, eastern Africa accounts for the largest sales of hybrid seed. Kenya accounted for the
largest hybrid seed sales in eastern Africa while in southern Africa, Zimbabwe accounted for the
largest sales. e seed need ranges from 64,000 t in Tanzania, to 14,000 t in Zambia. Compared
to the adoption rates recorded in 2001 by Hassan et al., Zambia and Malawi had the highest
adoption rates of improved maize seed. e high adoption rate in Malawi is attributed to the
large number of seed companies that are now operating in the country (Langyintuo et al. 2008).
Seed companies are more eager to promote the use of improved seed as the use of more improved
seed leads to more prots. Looking at the seed sales in 2006/2007, more hybrid seed was sold
compared to OPVs. e high sales of maize hybrid seed may be attributed to seed companies
as they can derive more prot compared to OPVs. Additionally, the yield penalty for recycling
hybrids is higher in comparison to OPVs.
2
Table 1. Estimated maize seed supply and need in eastern and southern Africa
Region/country
Maize area
(x mil ha)
Estimated
seed need
(x 1000
MT)1
Improved OPV maize seed
sales Hybrid
maize seed
sales in
2006/07 (x
1000 MT)
Adop-
tion rate
2006/07 (as
% of maize
area)2
Adjusted
adoption
rate in
2006/07 (as
% of maize
area)3
(x 1000 MT)
2004/05 2005/06 2006/07
Eastern Africa 6.6 161.8 4.0 3.5 11.1 42 33 (23) 37
Ethiopia 1.7 42.4 0.4 0.4 2 6.2 19 (8) 21
Kenya 1.6 38.9 0.6 0.1 1.7 26.3 72 (71) 74
Tanzania 2.6 64 0.6 2 3.9 7.3 18 (4) 22
Uganda 0.7 16.5 2.3 1 3.5 2.2 35 (9) 54
Southern Africa 5.4 133.4 9.3 9.8 12 38.5 38 (28) 52
Angola 0.8 19.3 0.8 0.1 0.8 0.2 5 (12) 10
Malawi 1.4 35.3 5.2 4.5 5.4 2.5 22 (14) 50
Mozambique 1.2 30.3 1.2 2.2 3.1 0.2 11 (9) 22
Zambia 0.6 14.1 0.3 1 0.5 9.7 73 (23) 81
Zimbabwe 1.4 34.4 1.8 2.1 2.2 25.9 80 (82) 93
Total/average 12.0 295.1 13.3 13.3 23.1 80.5 35(26) 44
Note: 1Estimate based on area and planting rate of 25 kg/ha.
2In parentheses are gures observed in 1997 by Hassan et al. (2001). Only seed sales in 2006/07 were used in
the estimation.
3Adjusted for OPV sales in 2004/05, 2005/06 and 2006/07 assuming that similar quantities purchased in
the rst two years were recycled in 2006/07. at is, total improved OPV seed planted is aggregated over
2004/05, 2005/06 and 2006/07. Note that total area under improved maize varieties is 4.2 million ha (0.92
million ha under OPV) before and 5.3 million ha (2 million ha under OPV) aer adjustment with previously
purchased OPV seed.
Source: DTMA seed sector survey, 2007/2008
e estimates of maize seed demand and supply from 1997 to 2006 are shown in Table 2, for
selected countries in West Africa. e total seed demand outweighs the seed supply from the
formal seed sector in the selected countries in West Africa. Compared to eastern and southern
Africa the formal seed sector in West Africa supplied more OPVs than hybrids. e supply of
more OPVs in West Africa indicated that there are few seed companies in the region compared
to eastern and southern Africa. In Nigeria, the seed supply accounted for only about 46%, in
Ghana 11% and only 3% Mali. In terms of the maize area, Nigeria accounted for the largest area at
3,567,000 hectares, with Mali being the smallest at 309,000 ha.
3
Table 2. Estimated maize seed demand and supply in the selected countries in West Africa.
Country Maize area
(x 000 ha) (1997–
2006 average)1
Estimated seed
demand
(x 000mt)2
Seed supply from the formal seed sector (x 000mt)
OPVs Hybrids % of total
requirement
West Africa 5273 131.84 25.84417.98533.21
Benin3651 16.28 – – –
Nigeria33567 89.18 23.60617.96646.6
Ghana3746 18.65 2.0070.01810.8
Mali3309 7.73 0.23 – 3.0
Note: 1 Source: FAOSTAT 2008.
2 Estimated based on a planting requirement of 25 kg/ha.
3 Estimates are computed over the period 1997–2006.
4 Estimate for West Africa excludes Benin.
5 Estimate for West Africa excludes Benin and Mali.
6 Seed supply by the seed companies formal suppliers of the Maize Association of Nigeria (MAAN)
7 Source: Ewool, 2007
8 Source: Alhassan and Bissi 2006.
Source: DTMA seed sector survey West Africa, 2007/2008.
e variety testing and release regulations in SSA have been identied as one of the major
impediments in getting elite maize varieties to the smallholder farmers. e regulations in the
dierent countries were found to overlap and were rigid, thus making it dicult to commercialize
new improved varieties (Zulu et al. 2003). To meet the minimum requirements for variety
release, agricultural research institutions routinely assemble breeding nurseries and test variety
performance in national and regional variety trials with the objective of generating important
agronomic data to identify the best varieties for release (Wobil 1997; Lanteri and Quagliotti 1997).
ese trials are professionally managed to minimize variability and ensure the integrity of the
results. However, extensive variety testing has been inadequate in speeding up variety releases
to benet the smallholder farmers. Economic analysis done by the International Crops Research
Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) found that farmers could lose as much as US$43
million because of the delay in replacing an old variety with a new one. is was demonstrated
in one a popular sorghum variety, SDS 3220, which was released in Mozambique in 1989, and
11 years later in Tanzania (Mgonja et al. 2002). Despite massive investments in plant breeding
research, the rate of adoption of improved seed in SSA remains low and variable ranging from 5%
in Angola to 80% in Zimbabwe (Table 1), partly due to the ineciency of local seed systems.
is study was undertaken in 2007/2008 under the auspices of the DTMA project supported
by Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (B&MGF) in order to understand the variety testing and
release approaches in DTMA project countries in SSA. e specic objectives of the study were to:
• Dene the time taken to release elite maize varieties;
• Summarize the variety release requirements and procedures in DTMA countries in SSA;
• Identify constraints hampering the release of elite maize germplasm to smallholder farmers; and
• Propose strategies to hasten the release of new maize varieties.
is report is organized as follows: Section 1 gives an introduction to the study while section
4
2 discusses the sources of the data. is is followed by a presentation of the summary of
current status of variety release and registration in section 3. Section 4 presents the summary
of variety release systems in each DTMA country. e report ends with the conclusions and
recommendations in section 5.
2. Data sources
A survey was conducted on the varietal release systems in 14 countries which included 13 DTMA
countries (Angola, Benin, Ethiopia, Malawi, Ghana, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania, Kenya,
Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) in SSA. Although South Africa is not participating in the
DTMA project, it was included as a reference point in the study because it is considered to have an
advanced and the most liberal variety release systems in SSA. e study was conducted between
late 2007 and October 2008. It involved completion of questionnaires by national seed authorities
(NSA) in each country followed by personal interviews with researchers and reviews of published
literature and documents. e data were complemented with information from national variety
release catalogues, personal interviews with the national seed authorities and FAO statistics.
3. Summary of current status of variety release and registration in DTMA project countries in SSA
In the 14 countries surveyed, it was found that for a new maize variety to be released, registered
and marketed, it must be distinct, uniform and stable, and have value for cultivation and use
(VCU). e NSA along with National Variety Release Committee (NVRC) determines if the new
maize varieties are DUS and meet the criteria for VCU in the respective countries. e DUS and
VCU tests can take as long as one to three years before the data are sucient to be submitted to
the NVRC. In those countries that have plant breeders’ rights (PBRs), this process establishes legal
ownership of the new variety (Table 2). e NVRC is mostly composed of representatives from
national agricultural research systems (NARS), seed companies, and universities. In most of the
countries the NSA is responsible for convening and chairing the NVRC meetings. On average, the
NVRC meets once a year except in Uganda where it meets twice a year to evaluate and approve
variety releases. It is only in Malawi that it is possible for seed companies to call for special
variety release meetings if they want to release a variety before or aer the annual meeting for
variety release has been held. In this case, a seed company has to provide nancial support for the
meeting. Due to nancial constraints, the committee may not meet for several years. ere are no
incentives given and the membership is on voluntary basis. is may explain why the committee
meets only once a year. e process of variety release worked well when all varieties were derived
from national breeders or a single company. e liberalization of the seed market and expansion
in sources of new maize varieties has brought about questions on the fairness and eciency of the
system.
e seed laws for variety release among the 13 DTMA countries have high degree of heterogeneity
and inconsistency. Seed laws govern production, certication, marketing, import and export of
seed. Of the 13 countries studied, only a few follow the standards set by the International Union
for the Protection of New Plant Varieties (UPOV) and the International Seed Testing Association
(ISTA) (Table 3). UPOV is an international organization that aims to protect new plant varieties
with intellectual property rights including plant breeders’ rights while ISTA sets the standards for
seed testing and certication. Membership of these organizations is costly and only few countries
can aord to pay their annual membership fees.
5
e variety release procedure is cumbersome and delays the introduction of new maize varieties
among countries. e process of variety release is costly for seed companies as the same variety
has to be tested each time it is released in another country, even if that country has a similar agro-
ecology. Retesting in a similar ecology in another country delays the return on the investment
made by seed companies because the time required for a new variety to enter the seed market
is prolonged. Even within the same country, the release process delays the registration of new
varieties because of the number of seasons required to collect VCU and DUS data. e delay
in the time for variety release denies farmers access to new improved varieties. is is because
choices become limited in the seed market and farmers continue to grow seed of old varieties.
Due to the unpredictable nature of the plant breeding process, varietal release rates are oen not
regular, particularly in those countries where the guidelines are not very transparent and the
NVRC rarely meets. e varietal release rates indicate the success of the maize breeding programs
in the country.
Table 3. Current seed control in the DTMA project countries including South Africa.
Country Plant Breeders’ Rights Member of ISTA Member of OECD
Angola No No No
Benin No No No
Ethiopia Yes No No
Ghana No No No
Kenya Yes Yes Yes
Malawi No Yes Yes
Mali No No No
Mozambique Yes No No
Nigeria No No No
South Africa Yes yes yes
Tanzania Yes No No
Uganda No No No
Zambia Yes Yes Yes
Zimbabwe Yes Yes Yes
Source: DTMA National variety testing and release survey 2007/2008
4. Current status for distinctness, uniformity and stability (DUS) in DTMA project
countries
In the 13 DTMA countries surveyed, a new maize variety must be listed in the national variety
catalogue before it can be marketed. For a new variety to be registered, its DUS must be known.
e DUS in countries that have PBRs establish legal ownership of the variety. Of 13 DTMA
project countries, only seven have published guidelines on how the DUS tests must be conducted
and which traits should be recorded. Malawi is the only country that does not require DUS
testing for registration of new maize varieties (Table 3). Lack of published guidelines for DUS
in Angola, Benin, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria and Uganda makes it dicult for seed companies
to collect the necessary data to meet the requirements for DUS. In most countries, the DUS
is conducted solely by the NSA which makes it easier as NSA knows the data that should be
collected. A seed company is only required to submit a sample of seed which will be grown by
NSA for the DUS and also as a reference sample.
6
e DUS tests are mostly conducted by NSAs. e DUS tests vary from one to three seasons
depending on the country. Nigeria and Mali require that the DUS test be conducted for a
minimum of three seasons while Zimbabwe requires only one season. e DUS traits are not
aected by the environment and one season is usually sucient to provide the necessary data
to demonstrate that the new variety is distinct and uniform. As far as stability is concerned, it
may be observed through the years as it is done in South Africa. Recording DUS data for three
seasons delays the entry of new maize varieties into the market. e DUS from other countries
is not accepted for release which further increases the delay (Table 4). e DUS data have to be
collected for each country if a seed company wants to expand their market to other countries.
In Kenya, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe, the breeders are normally required to provide
their own DUS information which is compared with the information collected by the NSA.
e NSA follows the UPOV maize descriptors. Zambia records the highest number of maize
descriptors (68) and Mali the lowest (4) (Table 4). e number recorded by Zambia is much too
high and thus makes data collection dicult.
In Zimbabwe and South Africa the DUS information is recorded only on hybrids and OPVs. On
the other hand Ghana, Kenya and Zambia require that DUS information should also be recorded
on both hybrids and inbred lines. Recording of DUS on inbred lines and hybrids is costly in terms
of time and resources. Seed companies market only hybrid seed and it is usually dicult for other
companies to know the inbred combinations of a particular hybrid. is renders DUS for inbred
lines valueless.
In, Kenya, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia, the DUS tests are conducted at a
fee. Tanzania and Kenya have the highest fees while Zambia records the lowest. e fees may
discourage seed companies from submitting their samples for DUS. On the other hand, the Seed
Control and Certication Institute (SCCI) in Zambia considers the fees insucient to cover the
cost of conducting the DUS tests.
7
Table 4. Current status of DUS in DTMA project countries including South Africa.
Country
Published DUS
Guidelines
DUS require-
ment for Maize
OPVs
DUS require-
ment for Maize
hybrids
DUS require-
ment for maize
inbred lines
Number of
traits or char-
acteristics to be
measured for
DUS
Number of sea-
sons for DUS
Sample size
(kg)
Fees to be paid
for conducting
DUS data per
entry (US$)
Angola No Yes Yes No Not specied 2 15 Free
Benin No yes Yes No 6 2 5 Free
Ethiopia Yes Yes Yes Yes not specied not specied not specied Free
Ghana Yes Yes Yes Yes 36 2 20 Free
Kenya Yes Yes Yes Yes 34 2 2 600
Malawi No No No No not specied 2 10 Free
Mali No Yes Yes No 4 3 5 Free
Mozambique No Yes Yes No not specied not specied not specied Free
Nigeria No Yes Yes No not specied 3 not specied Free
South Africa Yes Yes Yes No 37 1 1 $300
Tanzania Yes Yes Yes No 20 2 2 $600
Uganda Yes Yes Yes Yes >20 2 2 $200
Zambia Yes Yes Yes Yes 68 2 1 $125
Zimbabwe Yes Yes Yes No 15-20 1 1 Free
Source: DTMA National variety testing and release survey 2007/2008
8
Current status of value for cultivation and use in
DTMA Project countries in SSA
Of the 13 DTMA project countries surveyed, 10 have published guidelines on how VCU data
should be recorded. ose that have no published guidelines are Angola, Benin and Mali. South
Africa is the only country that does not require VCU data for the registration and marketing of
new maize varieties (Table 4). In South Africa, the rationale for not requiring VCU data is based
on the fact that market forces should determine the best varieties. If a farmer buys a variety
that performs poorly from a given company, the farmer will not return, therefore the company
loses that particular customer forever. Lack of published guidelines pose a bottleneck to seed
companies as it is not clear which important traits should be presented for variety release.
In Benin, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Uganda, the VCU tests requirements range from two to three
seasons whereas Angola requires the data for one season. In Kenya, Ghana, Uganda and Zambia
the VCU tests are recorded for ve to six locations depending on the mega-environments for which
the variety is being recommended. In Benin, the VCU data have to be collected across 25 locations
which makes it expensive for a seed company to conduct VCU trials in all these locations. If the
locations were grouped according to mega-environment then a few but strategic locations could be
used to sample the relevant stress. By reducing the number of locations it will be easier and cheaper
for seed companies to test their varieties for release. If the mega-environments were to be used for
release, then data from other countries with similar mega-environments could be accepted to allow
cheaper and faster release of new maize varieties among countries.
In Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia, the NSA is responsible for assembling and conducting national
performance trials (NPTs) from which the VCU data is obtained. Once the VCU data have been
recorded, the data are then submitted to the NVRC for consideration. e NPT trials do not
guarantee that the variety will be released once the trials are complete. In Zambia, the breeder
may withdraw his or her variety if he/she feels that it did not perform well in the NPTs in the rst
year. In Kenya, Tanzania and Zambia the NPTs are conducted by NSA at a given fee. e fees paid
for the NPT may hinder some breeders especially those from the public sector from submitting
their maize varieties for release, thus delaying the release of a new maize variety .To complement
the VCU data from NPT, independent and on-farm trials are required to support the data from
NPTs. On-farm trials are used to assess the new maize varieties for farmer preferences.
e mother-baby trials (MBTs) scheme is used in most of the countries to evaluate varieties on
farm. e scheme was popularized during the Southern African Drought and Low Soil Fertility
Project (Bänziger 1998). is scheme is an innovative farmer-participatory scheme in which
a set of experiments are grown in a community by farming communities together with a local
partner, such as an extension agent, non-governmental organization (NGO), secondary school or
a research station (Figure 1). e MBTs concentrate on the collection of qualitative data. On-farm
testing increases the number of years required for variety registration as in most cases, breeders
carry out METs rst. Once they identify promising varieties, they are promoted to on-farm
testing. If on-farm testing could be done at the same time with METs, then the number of years
for release of a variety could be reduced. On the other hand, the MBTs have provided a forum
for farmers to raise their voice on the choice of the variety they want. is has resulted in fast
tracking of varieties for release.
9
Village A
M M Village C
M
Village B
Figure 1. Mother-Baby Trial design to evaluate maize cultivars by researchers and farmers.
Note: “M” indicates a Mother Trial.
e VCU data is recorded on important agronomic traits such as grain yield, disease resistance,
plant height and other traits. On average, 10 to 15 agronomic traits are recorded (Table 5). Of the
countries surveyed, Ghana records the highest number of agronomic traits at 36 while Zimbabwe
and Mali record the lowest number. Recording of agronomic traits is time-consuming and only
important ones should be collected.
In Angola, Benin, Mali, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe, VCU data from other countries with
similar agro-ecological zones may be used to complement in-country data. In Kenya, Tanzania
and Zambia, a fee is paid for a new maize variety to enter into NPTs. e highest fees for the NPT
are paid in Kenya and the lowest in Zambia.
Zimbabwe and Kenya have a stipulated number of varieties that can be registered at one time
by a seed company per year. On the other hand, Ethiopia allows only three varieties per agro-
ecological zone to be registered by a seed company. Once the VCU data have been collected, a
breeder is required to prepare a release proposal which is submitted to the VRC. e limit on
the number of maize varieties that a seed company may register per year is one of the major
bottlenecks as it limits the number of maize varieties that could enter the market in a given year.
On the other hand, dierent mega-environments require dierent types of germplasm e.g. early
maturing germplasm for lowlands and medium maturing for the mid-altitudes.
e release proposal consists of an abstract, introduction, breeding history of the variety, VCU
and DUS data and the recommended areas for production. In all the countries, the release
proposal is submitted only once a year. It is only in Malawi that it can be submitted upon request
(Table 5). If a seed company wants to release a variety, it is obliged to wait for another year. In
some of the countries, companies are restricted to bulk or multiply seed until the variety is
ocially released. It takes about two seasons for a seed company to bulk enough seed to enter the
market. Bulking of seed usually starts with the production of breeder and foundation seed. Only
when breeder and foundation seed is available can certied seed be produced. e process may
take even longer for hybrids compared to OPVs, as it takes longer to produce the seed of all the
parental inbreds of hybrids.
10
Once a variety is released, the NARS have to identify a seed company to market the variety. Only
Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe have PBRs that
allow them to charge royalties to any seed company that uses their varieties (Table 3). Royalties
provide an incentive to public institutions to market their varieties as opposed to cases where
once the variety is released, it sits on the shelf denying farmers access to improved germplasm.
Royalties may provide revenue to public research institutes and also oer incentives for
promotion of the adoption of released varieties. In most cases, rather than aggressively market the
variety, seed companies prefer to have exclusive rights to a variety in order to prevent competitors
from having access (Tripp 2001).
Maize varietal releases
Table 6 shows an estimated number of maize varieties released between 2002 and 2006. Nearly
600 maize varieties were released from the private and the public sector. e varietal release rates
uctuated between countries. South Africa had the highest average number of varietal release
rates at 60 per year followed by Kenya with 16 annually. On the other hand, in some years Ghana,
Mozambique, Nigeria and Uganda failed to release a single maize variety. Compared to other
countries Kenya, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have been more regular in the variety
releases per year. e high varietal release rates show the advanced development of the seed
industry compared to other countries which failed to release a single maize variety in several
years.
Benin has no seed companies and varietal release rates have been very low per year. e varietal
release rates were the highest in southern Africa—including South Africa—explaining why the
maize area planted to improved maize is the highest across the three regions (Hassan et al. 2001).
Besides southern Africa having the highest varietal release rates, it also had the highest adoption
rate (52%) compared to West Africa (4%) (Table1). is indicates that the more improved
maize varieties are released, the greater the chances of increased adoption. Where there are
high adoption rates of improved varieties, seed companies, extensionists and NGOs promote
them (Tripp 2000). Adoption of new varieties also depends on farmers recognizing one or more
characteristics that justify its inclusion into their portfolio of varieties or its displacement of
another.
Although a number of maize varieties have been released in several countries the time taken to
release them has been rather extended. South Africa had the shortest time for variety release and
Kenya the longest (Table 7). In Kenya, more time is taken because the variety has to be tested
by the breeder rst in METs and only when the breeder is satised with the performance of the
variety that it can be put into NPTs. e production of seed starts once the breeder is convinced
that his/her variety will make it through the NPTs. In South Africa, only DUS data are required
whereas in Kenya, both DUS and VCU data are required for the release. In most of the countries,
it takes two seasons to build enough quantities of foundation seed for certied seed production.
In Malawi, an increase in breeder or foundation seed is not allowed before a variety is registered.
11
Table 5. Current status of value for cultivation and use in DTMA Project countries and South Africa.
Country
Published
guide lines
for VCU
VCU
data
required
Number
of trial
sites
Number
of
seasons
Data
from
other
countries
allowed
Number
of traits
required
for VCU
Cost
per
entry
into
NPTs
(US$)
On farm
data
required
for
release
Number of
varieties
that can be
submitted
for
registration
Date to submit
application for
release
Royalties
on public
material
Varietal
registration
required
Angola No Yes 3 1 Yes
Not speci-
ed
No
NPTs Yes No limit Deadline not set No Yes
Benin No Yes 25 3 Yes 7
No
NPTs No On deadline No Yes
Ethiopia Yes Yes 3 to 5 2 to 3 No 10 $100 Yes 3 per ecology May No Yes
Ghana Yes Yes 6 2 No 36
No
NPTs No On deadline On deadline No Yes
Kenya Yes Yes 6 2 No
Not
specied $500 Yes No limit Deadline not set Yes Yes
Malawi Yes Yes 5 2 No 15
No
NPTs Yes No limit Oct-Nov No Yes
Mali No Yes 5 2 Yes 5 $1875 Yes No limit No deadline set No Yes
Mozambique Yes Yes 3 to 5 3 Yes 13
No
NPTs Yes No limit no deadline Yes Yes
Nigeria Yes Yes 3 2 to 3 No
Not
specied
No
NPTs Yes No limit no No Yes
South Africa No No No No No No
No
NPTs No No limit Aug Yes Yes
Tanzania Yes Yes 3 2 6 $600 Yes No Limit Sept No Yes
Uganda No Yes 5 3 Yes
Not
specied $150 Yes No limit April and Sept No Yes
Zambia Yes Yes 6 2 Yes 10 $125 No No Limit Aug No Yes
Zimbabwe Yes Yes 5 2 Yes 5
No
NPTs Yes 2 Oct Yes Yes
Source: DTMA National variety testing and release survey 2007/2008
12
Table 6. Average number of varieties released per year in DTMA Project countries including
South Africa, 2002–2006.
Number of varieties released per year Total number
of varieties
released from
2002-2006Country 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Angola 5 3 7 6 8 29
Benin 2 0 0 3 2 7
Ethiopia 4 0 6 8 0 18
Ghana 0 0 0 0 0 0
Kenya 10 22 25 21 4 82
Malawi 8 5 1 3 0 17
Mali 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mozambique 0 4 2 0 0 6
Nigeria 0 4 0 2 0 6
South Africa 68 67 79 69 59 342
Tanzania 2 3 4 0 0 9
Zambia 12 9 11 7 15 54
Uganda 0 0 0 0 0 0
Zimbabwe 2 5 4 3 8 22
Total 113 122 139 122 96 592
Source: DTMA National variety testing and release survey 2007/2008
Table 7. Time taken to release a maize variety in selected DTMA Project countries, including
South Africa.
Country
Actual time to seed release (years)
Time from release
to time seed is
available to farmers
in signicant
quantities (years)
Mean Min Max Mean
Kenya 3.1 1.5 6 2.4
Malawi 3 2 7 1.9
Tanzania 2.2 1 3 2
Uganda 2.2 1 4 2.1
Zambia 2.1 1 3.5 2.5
Zimbabwe 2.2 1 3 2.4
South Africa 2 2 2 2.5
Ghana 2 2 2 2
Nigeria 3 4 3 0.03
Source: DTMA seed sector survey, 2007/2008
13
Maize varietals release by region
Southern Africa had the highest number of maize varietal releases per year, followed by eastern
Africa and lastly, West Africa (Figure 2). e high rate of varietal releases in southern Africa was
mainly attributed to the high rate of release in Zambia. e rate of maize varietal release per year
ranged from a single maize variety release in western Africa to 31 in southern Africa. Varietal
release rates were the highest in 2004 in southern Africa and the lowest in West Africa across the
years. e maize varietal release rates peaked from 2002 to 2005 and dropped sharply in 2006
in eastern Africa while in West Africa the varietal release rates remained stagnant from 2004 to
2006. e peak in varietal release rates in eastern Africa from 2002 to 2005 may be explained
by the large number of seed companies that were established in the region during this period
compared to West Africa which had very few new seed companies established (Langyintuo et al.
2008).
In eastern Africa, the varietal release rates decreased from 2004 to 2005 and slowly increased
again aer 2005 (Figure 2). e uctuations in varietal release rates may be attributed to the fact
that aer a year of variety releases, seed companies and public institutions shied their focus from
variety release to seed production and marketing. e other reason is that varietal release rates are
unpredictable due to the nature of plant breeding—this is oen non-existent in small countries
with very few seed companies and those that lack breeding programs.
Taking into account the land area planted to maize in eastern, southern and West Africa, there
have been more maize variety releases in southern Africa per land area compared to the other
regions. is could be attributed to more variability in maize mega-environments compared
to eastern and West Africa and also to the large number of seed companies in southern Africa
(Setimela et al. 2005; Langyintuo et al. 2008).
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Eastern Africa Western Africa Southern Africa
Figure 2. e average maize varietals releases by region 2002–2006.
Source: DTMA National variety testing and release survey 2007/2008
14
Public and private sector releases
Summary information on maize varieties released by the public and private sector, during the
period 2002 to 2006 is shown in Figure 3. e public sector in Angola, Mozambique, Ethiopia,
Benin, and Nigeria dominated the maize varietal releases during the period although the number
of maize varieties released was very low. On the other hand, in Kenya, Malawi, South Africa,
Zambia and Zimbabwe, the private seed sector dominated the maize varietal releases. In southern
Africa, excluding South Africa, the private seed sector in Zambia and Zimbabwe had the highest
varietal release rates reecting not only the large area planted to maize but also the large number
of public and private breeding programs (Langyintuo et al. 2008; Figure 2). ese countries are
signatories to the UPOV convention and hence have PBRs which oer incentives for private
seed companies to increase their investment in maize breeding programs. is establishes legal
ownership of new maize varieties.
e high number of varietal releases by the private seed sector in southern and eastern Africa
shows that maize breeding programs are concentrated within the private sector unlike in West
Africa where the breeding programs are mostly concentrated in the public breeding programs.
e number of maize varieties released by the private sector also shows the volume of investment
this sector has made towards maize breeding. Scientists working in the private sector are strongly
supported by well-established testing, production, and marketing systems whose goal is to
increase and maximize prots. On the other hand, in the public sector there is no pressure to
increase prots.
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Private
Public
Angola
Benin
Ethiopia
Ghana
Kenya
Malawi
Mali
Mozambique
Nigeria
South Africa
Tanzania
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Figure 3. Percentage of public and private seed sector maize releases in DTMA Project countries including South
Africa, 2002–2006.
Source: DTMA National variety testing and release survey 2007/2008
15
Type of germplasm released in DTMA project countries in SSA
Table 6 shows the number of maize varieties released in the 13 DTMA project countries in SSA
disaggregated by type of material (OPVs vs. hybrids). White hybrids dominated the number of
maize varieties releases, followed by white OPVs. Most seed companies focus mainly on hybrid
seed. By region, countries in southern Africa have concentrated mainly on hybrid maize releases.
Across the regions, hybrids have constituted more than 60% of the maize releases. With hybrids,
farmers have to buy fresh seed every year while with OPVs, farmers can recycle the seed for
few seasons before having to buy fresh seed. Most of the OPVs have been released by public
institutions and small emerging seed companies targeting smallholder farmers. Small emerging
seed companies prefer to embark on the production of OPVs due to the simplicity in seed
production compared to hybrids. In southern Africa, seed companies place more emphasis on
hybrids.
Regarding yellow and white maize, South Africa is the only country that had an equal number of
white and yellow maize releases. In eastern and southern Africa, white maize is mostly preferred
for preparing the staple foods. In South Africa, yellow maize is mostly used for animal feed which
explains the high number of yellow maize releases. Apart from South Africa, Angola and Zambia
have a number of yellow maize variety releases. In Angola, white and yellow maize varieties are
preferred equally for making staple dishes.
Table 8. Estimated number of maize varieties by type released by public and private breeding programs in
DTMA Project countries including South Africa, 2002–2006.
OPVs Hybrids
Country White Yellow White Yellow Total
Angola 9 2 14 6 31
Benin 6 1 7
Ethiopia 6 0 12 0 18
Ghana 0 0 0 0 0
Kenya 6 0 49 0 55
Malawi 0 0 7 0 7
Mali 0 0 0 0 0
Mozambique 4 0 0 0 4
Nigeria 3 1 2 0 6
South Africa 19 6 134 154 313
Tanzania 1 0 6 0 7
Zambia 5 0 40 6 51
Uganda 0 0 0 0 0
Zimbabwe 5 0 13 1 19
Total 58 9 277 167 518
Source: DTMA National variety testing and release survey 2007/2008
16
Summary: organization and structure of variety
release system by countries
Angola
e Instituto de Investigação Agronómica de Angola (IIAA) has a breeding program for maize
and other crops. e institute conducts multi-locational trials and once a variety is found to
have a good agronomic performance, it is promoted to on-farm trials to get feedback on farmers’
preferences. When the on-station and on-farm testing is complete, the data are submitted to
the Scientic Council for scrutiny and nal decision on whether the variety should be released.
At least one season of testing is required for a new maize variety before it is considered for
release. e NVRC is made up of Crop Research, National Seed Services and Genetic Resources
personnel and the Deputy Minister of Agriculture. ere are no representatives from seed
companies on the variety release committee as in other countries. A number of new varieties
from Brazil along with varieties from seed companies normally enter the country’s market
without being subject to DUS and VCU testing (Figure 4). Procedures for a variety release system
are being developed.
Angola has performed poorly in variety releases (Table 5). is may be due to the fact that there
are no seed companies in the country and most of the seed is sold by companies operating from
outside the country. e guidelines for collection of data for DUS and VCU are not very clear and
this makes it dicult for seed companies to release new maize varieties.
IIA
Multi-location Trials
IIA, NGOs
On farm variety
testing
Seed companies, NGOs
Seed Relief
Scientic Council
Variety release
Farmers
Figure 4. Variety release channel in Angola.
e variety release system is very slow in Angola since there are no guidelines on how new
maize varieties should be released. e bulk of the seed is imported from South Africa and the
neighboring countries.
17
Benin
Maize improvement in Benin is the responsibility of the Institut National des Recherches
Agricoles du Benin (INRAB). INRAB develops maize varieties and conducts the national multi-
location variety trials in all maize growing ecologies of the country. e institute also conducts
extensive on-farm trials throughout the country in collaboration with the extension services
of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. Even though Benin does not yet have
a dened seed law and no formal varietal release mechanism is presently operational in the
country, the national scientists of INRAB conduct several on-station and on-farm trials annually.
However, there is no functional NVRC. Several varieties have been informally released and are in
the hands of Beninois farmers.
Ethiopia
e Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) has a national breeding program which
develops and conducts variety evaluation. An average of 50 on-station maize trials are conducted
annually. Before new varieties can be registered, they must be evaluated in the regional or national
trials for three seasons across three to ve locations. e new varieties must be distinct and
agronomically superior to the check by more than one characteristic. e DUS data should have
a complete morphological description of the candidate variety. Once the DUS and the VCU data
have been recorded, it is then submitted to the NVRC which is organized by the National Seed
Industry Agency under the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA). e NVRC is composed of a breeder,
a food scientist, an extensionist, an entomologist, a pathologist, an economist and a representative
from one of the crop improvement institutions. e NVRC is responsible for scrutinizing and
approving the release of new varieties based on the data submitted (Figure 5). e NVRC is
assisted by a technical committee that evaluates trial data, undertakes eld inspections, and makes
recommendations to the NVRC, who are responsible for the nal decision on whether to release a
variety. Maize varietal release rates in Ethiopia have been improving compared to other countries in
the same region.
National/Regional Trials
(3-5 locations/2-3 seasons)
NVRC/technical committee
Recommendations for release
DUS data
Figure 5. Variety release channel in Ethiopia.
About 18 varieties have been released in Ethiopia over the past ve years (Table 6). e release
process is slow as it allows only three varieties per ecology to be submitted for release by a given
seed company. If a seed company wants to release more than three varieties per ecology, it has to
wait for the following season.
18
Ghana
e Crops Research Institute (CRI) and the Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI) of
the Council for Scientic and Industrial Research (CSIR) are responsible for the development
and on-station evaluation of maize varieties and hybrids in Ghana (Figure 6). e two institutes
have several experiment stations scattered throughout Ghana for extensive multi-location trials.
At least two years on-station data, two years on-farm data, consumer preference data, physico-
chemical and economic analysis are required for the release of a variety. e on-farm trials are
conducted by the researchers of CRI and SARI in collaboration with the extension sta of the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA). e consumer preference data are collected by the
women sta of MOFA while the physico-chemical analyses are conducted by the Departments
of Food Science at the University of Ghana, and Food Science Research Institute of CSIR. e
economic analyses are carried out by the economists at CRI and SARI.
Once all the required data for the release of a variety have been assembled, an application for the
release of the variety is submitted to the NVRC which is composed of the Directors of CRI, SARI,
Department of Agricultural Extension Services, Women in Agricultural Development, Crops
Services Division, Grains and Legumes Development Board, Plant Protection Regulatory Services
Division, the representative of the Universities of Ghana, a plant breeder, a representative of the
Seed Growers’ Association, a seed technologist, Head of the Ghana Seed Inspection Division,
Head of the National Seed Service, a representative of the seed dealers’ association and a farmers’
representative.
e members of the NVRC visit the breeder seed eld twice during the growing season. e rst
visit is at the owering stage and the second is at harvesting. Based on these visits, the committee
decides whether or not the process for the release of the variety should go on. If the committee is
happy with the performance of the variety in the breeder seed plot, a date is xed for a committee
meeting to consider the release of the variety. e sponsoring breeder of the candidate variety is
responsible for the presentation of the necessary data during the meeting of the NVRC to support
the release of the variety.
Establishment of breeder seed multiplication
plots for inspection by NVRC
Consumer
preference
data, (Women
in Agricultural
Development
of MFA and,
Food Science
Departments
of Universities
of Ghana)
Meeting of NVRC
On-farm Trials
On-station Trials
Figure 6. Variety release channel in Ghana.
19
e rate of release of new maize varieties has been poor. In the past ve years, no maize varieties
have been released (Table 5). Poor rate of variety release may be due to the few seed companies
operating in the country. Ghana is the only country that requires an economic analysis before the
release of a new maize variety.
Kenya
Kenya’s national maize breeding program is responsible for developing and evaluating new maize
varieties. In addition to the national breeding program, a number of seed companies also evaluate
and conduct variety trials in various ecologies. When superior varieties with good agronomic traits
have been identied from multi-environmental trials (METs), they are included in the national
performance trials (NPTs) for further evaluation by the Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service
(KEPHIS). KEPHIS will then carry out its own independent VCU and DUS tests of the candidate
variety.
Table 9 shows that of the number of maize varieties submitted to KEPHIS for testing from 2000
to 2006, only about 10% were approved for release. e DUS and VCU tests are carried out for a
minimum of two seasons according to UPOV protocols. Besides VCU and DUS data, on-farm data
must also be submitted by the breeder. Aer completion of the DUS and VCU tests by KEPHIS, the
data are submitted to the National Performance Trials Committee (NPTC) for assessment. KEPHIS
chairs the NPTC meetings comprising various stakeholders from the seed sector. At the end of the
meeting, the NPTC makes its recommendation as to whether or not the variety should be approved
for full release, pre-release or rejected. e recommendations from NPTC are forwarded to the
NVRC for endorsement and nal recommendation and approval by the MoA. e released varieties
are then announced by the Minister of Agriculture before being entered into the national variety
catalogue.
In eastern Africa, Kenya leads in the number of maize variety releases. is is a reection of the
number of seed companies presently operating in the country.
Figure 7 shows the variety release channel in Kenya from METs to variety release. ere are delays
between variety identication and release. Once the variety has been identied by the breeder
it tested again on the NPTs for two seasons. e breeders may not have the funds to put their
candidate variety into NPTs as there are fees to be paid. e variety has to be released before seed
multiplication and marketing can start.
Table 9. e number of varieties tested and released by the KEPHIS.
Year
Number of varieties
tested
Number of released
varieties
2000 95 0
2001 153 14
2002 154 10
2003 140 22
2004 117 25
2005 114 21
2006 155 4
Total 928 96
Source: DTMA National variety testing and release survey 2007/2008
20
Figure 7. Variety release channel in Kenya.
Malawi
e Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) and seed companies annually evaluate
maize varieties. Once the varieties have been evaluated, the Agricultural Technology Clearing
Committee (ATCC) is responsible for approving maize varieties for release. e ATCC is
composed of the Director of Research and Technical Services, representatives of the Bunda
College of Agriculture, Agricultural Research and Extension Trust, the National Research Council
and the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. A minimum of
two to three years of VCU data are required, accompanied by on-farm trials data before a new
variety can be approved for release (Figure 8). e data from other countries with similar agro-
ecologies may be used to supplement national data for variety release. Unlike in other countries,
the DUS is not a requirement but a breeder must present morphological traits which will be used
by the seed inspectors for the purpose of seed inspection.
Multi-location Trials
(4 sesaon 10 locations)
Field testing in National Variety
Performance Trials (NPT)
2–3 Seasons
DUS testing
2 Seasons
Evaluation of NPT Results and Recommendation by National
Performance Trials Committee (NPTC)
Variety Released by MoA and entry into National Variety List
Application for Variety Release
On-farm
variety testing
Evaluation of NPTC recommendations and DUS Results by
National Variety Release Committee for recommendation for
release by the MoA
Application
for Variety
Release
Application
for Variety
Release
21
DAR, Seed companies
Multi-location trials
DAR, Seed companies
On-farm variety testing
ACCT
Variety release Farmers
Figure 8. Variety release channel in Malawi.
e rate of variety release in Malawi has been steady due to the number of seed companies that
are now operating in the country (Table 6). A number of OPVs and hybrids have been released.
On-farm variety testing can delay the release of a variety as transport and funding are not always
available to support on-farm testing.
Mali
e Institut d’Economie Rurale du Mali (IER) has the mandate for breeding and evaluation of
maize varieties in Mali. e institute carries out the national variety trials at multi-locations in the
Guinea and Sudan savanna ecologies of the country (Figure 9). In addition, IER carries out on-
farm trials and demonstrations in collaboration with the national extension systems, private seed
companies and NGOs such as Sasakawa Global 2000. e seed law has not yet been disseminated.
erefore, there is no formal variety release mechanism and varieties are informally released
to farmers through on-farm trials and demonstrations. Several improved varieties have been
released informally by IER and are presently in the farmers’ hands.
Informal release of variety to farmers
National Variety Trials DUS Data
On-farm Trials
Varietal Release Committee
Figure 9. Variety release channel in Mali.
22
Mozambique
e Instituto de Investigação Agrária de Moçambique (IIAM) is responsible for improving and
conducting maize variety trials in the country. e trials, conducted by the institute, provide data
for variety release although independent institutions may also submit their own data from variety
trials for variety release. e DUS and VCU are carried out for a minimum of two seasons. e
DUS tests may be carried out for one season if the breeder can provide the description of the
candidate variety to supplement the DUS tests (Figure 10). e Department of Seed Service (DSS)
must verify the data from the independent institutions before it is presented to the Variety Release
Committee. e Variety Release Committee is composed of the National Director of Agriculture
as the President, and representatives from IIAM, extension, research, farmers’ associations, seed
growers’ associations, seed companies, MoA policy and planning and the national seed services.
IIA or independent Institutions
Multi-location Trials
(2 seasons, 5 locations)
Multi-location trials
On-farm testing
(2 seasons, 10 locations)
Application for variety release
VCU
(One third of agro-ecologies,
2 seasons)
DUS
(2 or 1 seasons)
Variety release
Figure 10. Variety release channel in Mozambique.
Performance has been poor in terms of variety releases during the past ve years (Table 6). Only six
varieties were released. e poor performance may be attributed to the very few seed companies
in the country.
Nigeria
e Institute for Agricultural Research (IAR) of the Ahmadu Bello University, Samaru and the
Institute for Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T), Moore Plantation have the mandate
for maize research in Nigeria. In addition to the two institutions, the University of Maiduguri,
the University of Ilorin and seed companies such as the Premier Seed Company are also involved
in maize research and development. e nationally coordinated trial is conducted throughout
the country annually and is a major vehicle for testing maize varieties in multi-location trials
and identifying promising ones for release in Nigeria (Figure 11). In addition to the nationally
coordinated trial, varieties for release are tested on-farm for at least two years before release.
Apart from the yield and agronomic data required for varietal release, consumer preference
data and physico- chemical analysis data are also required for the release of varieties. A maize
breeder in a public research institute or a private seed company has to go through a number of
23
steps to get a new variety released and registered by the National Crop Varieties and Livestock
Breeds Registration and Release Committee (NCVLBRRC). e maize breeder, with the approval
of the research institute, submits the variety to the relevant Nationally Coordinated Research
Project (NCRP) for nationwide multi-location on-station trials managed by researchers in the
appropriate agro-ecologies. Aer the rst year of the NCRP on-station multi-location trials, if the
variety signicantly out-yields the commercial variety used as a check, the variety is submitted
to the appropriate national crop center for multi-location on-farm trials. ese trials may run
concurrently with the second year of NCRP on-station trials to conrm the results of the rst
year trials. In case there is an urgent need for the release of a variety, the rst year NCRP multi-
location trials may run concurrently with the on-farm testing of the variety slated for release. If
the performance of the variety in the two years of NCRP on-station and one year on-farm multi-
location trials is outstanding for the relevant traits, including yield and farmers’ preference, the
institution of the breeder in consultation with the National Coordinator of the NCRP of the crop
may apply to the Registrar of NCVLBRRC for consideration of the release and registration of the
new variety. e breeder then completes the relevant general and specic descriptors format of
the variety and submits it with comprehensive data from NCRP on-station and crop center and/
or on-farm trials to the Registrar not later than two weeks before the meeting of the Technical
Sub-Committee (TSC) Crops and the NCVLBRRC meeting scheduled to consider the application
for the release and registration of the variety. e breeder of the variety under consideration for
release must bring a prescribed quantity of seed of the variety for the national gene bank and also
make provision for sucient breeder seed for the National Agricultural Seed Council, for the
purposes of foundation seed production.
e NCVLBRRC comprises:
• the chairman who is appointed by the President of Nigeria,
• the Director of Agricultural Sciences, Federal Ministry of Science and Technology,
• the Director, Federal Department of Agriculture and Rural Development,
• the Head of the Genetic Resources Unit, Federal Ministry of Science and Technology,
• the Director, National Seed Services,
• the Chairman, Committee of Deans of the Faculties of Agriculture in Nigerian Universi-
ties,
• the President, Genetic Society of Nigeria,
• a representative of the Federal Agricultural Coordinating Unit,
• two experienced breeders appointed on their personal merit by the Minister, and
• two General Managers representing two River Basin Development Authorities from dif-
ferent ecological areas in rotation appointed by the Minister.
e committee is expected to meet annually but due to fund limitations, the meetings are
irregular. Following the release of a variety, it is entered into the National Variety Release
Catalogue. e rate of release of new maize varieties has been poor. e last maize variety was
released in 2005. In the past ve years only six varieties have been released (Table 6). e NVRC
has not met regularly, thus contributing to a poor rate of release. Only a few seed companies
operate in Nigeria, therefore, there has been little pressure to release new maize varieties.
24
Certied seed production (Seed Companies)
Introduction to the relevant nationally coordinated research programme (NCRPs)
Nomination of a new maize variety
developed by an institute or organization
Imported maize variety with plant
quarantine certicate
Multi-location trials by relevant NCRP for one
to two years
Concurrent on-farm trial with rst year
of NCRP multi-locational trial to meet
situation of urgent variety need
Release and/or registration or rejection of TSC (crops) recommended variety by the national crop
variety release committee
On-farm trials by the agricultural development projects/ national rice and
maize centre (FDA) in collaboration with variety development institute
and relevant NCRP
Consumer
preference data
and physico-
chemical analysis
Multiplication for seed increase (Breeder/breeding institution)
Submission of NCRP and on-farm trial data by the NCRP coordinator to technical sub-committee
(crops) for recommendation to the national variety release committee
Foundation seed production (National Agricultural Seed Council)
Figure 11. Variety release channel in Nigeria.
Tanzania
In Tanzania, maize breeding is carried out by the various agricultural research institutes under
the MoA. For new varieties to be released, they need to be tested by the breeder for VCU for
a minimum of three seasons. Once testing is complete, the grain is submitted to the Tanzania
Ocial Seed Certication Institute (TOSCI) for VCU and DUS tests for a minimum of one
season. e VCU and DUS tests are conducted by TOSCI in selected areas depending on the
recommended areas for the variety. Once the tests are complete, the Variety Release and Seed
Certication Committee evaluate the data in order to make recommendations for release
(Figure 12). e release committee is composed of the breeder of the variety, a pathologist, an
entomologist, an economist, Director of Crop Development as Chairperson, Assistant Deputy
Director of Research, and one member from the Seed Inspection Unit and TOSCI who also
presents the DUS certicate. e rate of variety release has been acceptable, given that there
are only a few seed companies in the country (Table 6). Unlike in Kenya, the NPT trials are
conducted for a single season, which may hasten the rate of release.
25
Multi-location Trials
(3 seasons, 3 locations)
TOSCI
Application for variety release
Evaluation and Recommendation
TOSCI
Variety Released
National Variety
Performance Trials (NPT)
1 Season, 3 locations
DUD testing
1 season
On -farm variety
testing
Figure 12. Variety release channel in Tanzania.
Uganda
Uganda has a maize breeding program. For new maize varieties to be released and marketed
in the country they must pass the DUS and VCU tests. e DUS tests are conducted by the
National Seed Certication Service Unit of the Ministry of Agriculture. e DUS data must be
collected for a minimum of two seasons across two locations. e NARS breeder is responsible
for collecting the VCU data for a minimum of three seasons across ve locations. e charges
for collecting VCU data are US$150 per variety while those for DUS data are US$200 per variety.
Once the data are ready, the breeder prepares a variety release proposal. e variety release
proposal comprises the following:
• introduction,
• pedigree of the variety,
• description of the variety,
• site description,
• results and discussion,
• agronomic package, and
• variety maintenance.
Once the release proposal is ready, it is presented to the NVRC which is composed of three
breeders (grain, forestry, and propagated crops), an agronomist, a biotechnologist, a representa-
tive of the private sector, three seed inspectors, DG National Agricultural Research Organization
(NARO), and Director of Research NARO. e NVRC is appointed by the Commissioner of Crop
Protection guided by the Seed Act. e variety release channel for Uganda is shown in Figure 13.
26
e rate of variety release has been poor in Uganda (Table 6).
Multi-location Trials
(3 seasons, 5 locations)
Application for variety release
Recommendations for release
National Seed Certication service (MOA)
DUS testing
2 season, 2 locations
On -farm variety
testing
Figure 13. Variety release channel in Uganda.
South Africa
South Africa requires that for new maize varieties to be marketed, they must pass the DUS test
before entry into the national variety list. e DUS tests focus on the new and distinctive aspects
of the variety. One season’s data for DUS is enough to meet the release requirements and for the
variety to be entered into the national variety catalogue and thus be granted registration and
PBRs. Unlike in other countries there is no NVRC, e department of Agriculture is responsible
for conducting DUS. e test of stability continues once the variety has been released as seed
inspectors continue to monitor seed production plots. e Agricultural Research Council (ARC)
coordinates the National Variety Performance Trials (NVPT), where seed companies may enter
their varieties to be evaluated for agronomic performance. ese NVPTs are not a requirement
but give the seed companies an opportunity to evaluate their varieties for yield performance
against other varieties from other seed companies. More than 60 to 80 maize varieties are released
every year. With the high number of variety releases it becomes dicult to conduct DUS. e
high rate of variety release is accounted for by the high number of seed companies in the country
and the liberal varietal release system.
27
Zambia
In Zambia there are a number of institutes and seed companies which have active breeding
programs. For new varieties to be registered and listed in the national catalogue they need
to pass DUS and VCU tests. e DUS and VCU tests are conducted by the Seed Control and
Certication Institute (SCCI) which is responsible for all variety release procedures in the
country. e variety release procedures are managed by a Variety Release Committee with the
SCCI as the Secretariat. e composition of the release committee includes representatives
of farmers’ associations, Zambia Seed Trade Association, University of Zambia Faculty of
Agriculture, Extension, and Farming systems research, a specialist in plant protection, a breeder,
a seed specialist, and seed certication agency as secretariat. e DUS and NPTs are conducted
for a minimum of one or two seasons, respectively by SCCI. e breeder is expected to provide
information about the variety to support data from NPTs (Figure 14). Aer the stipulated number
of years of testing, the variety owner applies for release and is expected to present data related to
VCU and DUS which are veried by independent data from the SCCI.
ere has been regular release of improved varieties of maize over the past ve years (Table
6). is is attributed to the large number of seed companies which have breeding programs
in the country. e variety release process can be slow because once a new variety has been
identied from METs it has to be tested again in the NPT for two consecutive seasons in similar
environmental conditions. e procedure allows “pre-release” in some cases with limited seed
production and marketing while the variety is still in NPTs.
Breeding Programmes
On-station and On-farm
Multi-location Trials
(3-5 seasons)
SCCI
DUS and NPTs
1 and 2 seasons, respectively
Recommendations for release
Variety Release committee
National Seed Certication service (MOA)
DUS testing
2 season, 2 locations
Figure 14. Variety release channel in Zambia.
28
Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, the Agricultural Research and Extension (AREX) under the Ministry of
Agriculture has a maize breeding program. Beside AREX, several seed companies have maize
breeding programs. Each year a number of on-station and on-farm trials are conducted by AREX
and seed companies. e certifying authority (Seed Services) requires that for new varieties to
be released they must pass DUS and VCU tests. Seed Services only carry out DUS tests while
the VCU tests are carried out by the maize breeder. e VCU trials should be conducted in
Zimbabwe for a minimum of two seasons (Figure 14). Once the data are complete, they are
presented by the breeder before the release committee which is appointed by the Minister of
Agriculture. e Committee comprises representatives from Seed Services, Farmers’ Union,
Grain Marketing Board, Crop Breeding Institute, processors, millers, merchants, extensionists
and researchers. Once the variety is released, seed multiplication can begin under the certication
scheme. e procedure for eligibility or recognition involves completion of an application
form, which requires the applicant to give details on the origin of the variety, breeding history,
procedure of maintenance of stock and performance data. Once the variety is released it is
entered into the national variety catalogue and given PBRs.
On-station
Multi-location Trials
(2 seasons)
Seed Services
Application for variety release
Recommendations for release
Seed Services
DUS testing
1 Season
On -farm variety
testing
Figure 15. Variety release channel in Zimbabwe.
In terms of variety release, only 22 new maize varieties have been released in the past ve years. e
few variety releases may be attributed to the relocation of some of the seed companies out of the
country due to the political situation. Unlike in Zambia and Kenya, the breeders in Zimbabwe can
use their own seed for variety release. ere is no need for national performance trials.
29
Conclusions and recommendations
e conclusions that emerged from this study are that for any new maize variety to be released
and registered for distribution, it must be distinct, uniform and stable (DUS) and have value
for cultivation and use (VCU). e national seed authorities (NSA) determine if the new maize
varieties are DUS and meet the criteria for VCU in the respective countries. Lack of an eective
variety release system is one of the major impediments in the transfer of available elite maize
varieties to smallholder farmers in DTMA Project countries in SSA. e long delay between
variety development, registration and the release constitutes a major constraint to increased
maize production and productivity. Lack of a functional variety release system has contributed
to a delay in varietal releases. Most of the VRCs lack good coordination and meet only once a
year to consider varieties for release. e seed laws are very rigid as the use of data from other
countries with similar agro-ecology cannot be used. is creates a delay, because re-testing has to
be done each time a new variety is released.
National variety lists are not updated regularly, making it dicult for seed companies to
commercialise improved varieties. Only a few countries have PBRs and the lack of PBRs
discourages many private seed companies from introducing their best products, since their
products are not protected. White hybrids dominated the number of maize varieties released,
followed by white OPVs. In southern Africa, the greatest focus has mainly been on hybrid maize
releases and hybrids constitute more than 50% of the releases. e private sector has dominated
the varietal release rates in eastern and southern Africa while in West Africa the variety release
has been mainly from the public sector, reecting few seed companies compared to the other two
regions. Beside southern Africa having the highest varietal release rates, it also has the highest
adoption rate of improved maize varieties.
Based on the ndings of the study the following recommendations are made to improve the
varietal release rates in the DTMA Project countries in SSA:
• Promotion of regional standards for PBRs: Regional standards for PBR should be promoted
to allow plant breeding programs to generate income from the products of their research
through royalties. is will allow the private and the public sector to benet from the
product of research and lead to more investments in variety improvement. erefore the
study recommends the development of PBRs in each country.
• Regional harmonization of seed laws: e three regions—eastern, southern and West
Africa—will benet from free ow of germplasm across national boundaries if the regional
variety release process is harmonized. Maize varieties released in one country should
be considered automatically released in other countries with similar ecologies. Mega-
environments cut across country boundaries and adaptation zones. ey are not country
specic so varieties should be released based on mega-environments to create a larger seed
market and quicken variety release. erefore, this study supports regional variety release
based on mega-environments.
• Promoting the use of data from other countries: Only a few countries accept data from other
countries for variety release. Testing should not be mandatory for varieties already released
in other countries if the recommendation domain is the same. If data from other countries
are accepted for variety release this will eliminate the need for re-testing of varieties from
country to country, thus saving resources and quickening variety release.
30
• Simplication of variety testing: A number of agronomic and DUS data are required for
variety release. Registration should be simplied so that only important VCU and DUS
information would be required to distinguish the new variety from the others. e DUS
information should be from one season since DUS is not aected much by the environment.
DUS testing should be conducted along with METs to shorten time of variety release.
• Promotion of the use of breeders’ own data: Breeders’ own data should be used to support
variety release thereby eliminating the need for NPTs. e number of locations required
for release should be few and emphasis should be on locations where the variety will be
recommended for production.
• Production of breeders’ seed: Breeders should embark on limited breeder seed production
and marketing instead of waiting until the variety is fully released as this prolongs the time
taken for a variety to reach farmers.
• Variety release guidelines: In some cases the NVRC rejects the variety and asks the breeder
to improve a specic trait thus delaying the release of a new variety. e decision to release
a variety should be based on merit and uniqueness. e new variety should contribute
new trait(s) that the existing one does not possess. Governments should therefore develop
variety release guidelines in those countries in which they are lacking to ensure fairness and
transparency in the variety release process.
• Frequency of the meetings of NVRC: e variety release meetings have been irregular in
some countries. erefore, this study encourages governments to ensure that the NVRC
meets regularly and that funds are made available for the meetings.
31
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ISBN: 978-92-9059-252-5
