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Proceedings of the 17th Annual Temple
University Japan Campus Applied Linguistics
Colloquium
Temple University Japan Campus
Proceedings of the 17th Annual Temple University Japan Campus Applied
Linguistics Colloquium
Editor: David Beglar
Published by: Temple University Japan Campus, TESOL Program
Address: 2-8-12 Minami-Azabu, Minato-ku, Tokyo 106-0047 〒 106-0047 東京都
港区南麻布 2-8-12
© 2015, Temple University Japan Campus and the respective authors.
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A Proposal to Investigate Japanese Technical High School Student
English Motivation
J. Tyler Kinkade
Abstract
Motivational strategies have been linked with secondary students’ English learning motivation (Guilloteaux &
Dörnyei, 2008). Japanese technical high school students have been reported to generally have low motivation for
learning English; however, the nature and underlying causes of their low motivation has not been fully explored
(Soda & Esaki, 2005). Furthermore, the effectiveness of motivational strategies has not been studied for this
particular group of learners. Drawing on research on the possible selves of five-year technology college and
university science and engineering students (Apple, Falout, & Hill, 2013), I present a research proposal to
investigate the effect of an eight-lesson instructional unit exploring the role of English as a lingua franca in
Japanese industry on technical high school students’ English motivation and achievement. English motivational
state is measured by a motivational state questionnaire (Kinkade, 2015a), and written English language
examinations are used to measure the achievement of 120 first-year technical high school students divided into two
treatment groups and one control group taught by the same Japanese teacher of English. The proposed research
might contribute to understanding the English motivation of Japanese technical high school students and to
determining the effectiveness of instructional intervention in increasing motivation for these students.
Motivation is a vital element of successful second language (L2) learning (Guilloteaux & Dörnyei,
2008; Nakata, 2013; Ushioda, 2012). Motivation has been shown to predict L2 achievement (Masgoret
& Gardner, 2003), yet Japanese technical high school students often display low motivation in required
English classes (Soda & Esaki, 2005). My technical high school colleagues and I have often asked
what practices English teachers can implement to improve students’ motivation in this setting; however,
the effectiveness of motivational strategies has not been studied for this group of learners.
In this paper I propose a research project to investigate technical high school student L2
motivation and the effect of an instructional unit, focusing on the role of English in Japanese industry,
based on current L2 motivation research. Before describing the research proposal, I first give an
overview of the typical English learning experience for Japanese technical high school students
followed by a review of L2 motivation research relevant to that setting. This is followed by a
description of the proposed research. Lastly, I discuss the desired outcomes and possible limitations of
the project.
Overview of Japanese Technical High Schools
Before attempting to improve Japanese technical high school students’ motivation in English classes, it
is important to understand the factors that influence their learning experience. This experience is
shaped not only by English classrooms, but also by the nature of technical schools and the students’
learning histories. In this section, I give a general overview of technical high schools, summarize
aspects of the English curriculum relevant to L2 motivation, and discuss the impact of this learning
experience on the students’ L2 motivation.
High school in Japan is not compulsory (Okano & Tsuchiya, 1999), but in 2014, 98% of eligible
students enrolled (Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology, 2014).
Admission is generally determined through a competitive entrance exam system, which includes an
English assessment, although many schools also have recommendation systems for a small number of
candidates. Performance on the entrance exams limits the schools that students can attend, and as a
result, the choices that are available to students after graduating (Okano & Tsuchiya, 1999). Only the
highest performing students can elect to attend high-level academic schools for university-bound
students. Lower exam performance limits students to vocational schools, such as technical and
commercial schools, and lower-ranked general education schools (Okano & Tsuchiya, 1999). Male
students tend to choose technical schools over commercial schools (Okano & Tsuchiya, 1999), and in
2013, 90% of technical high school students were male (Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science, and Technology, 2013).
Japanese technical high schools prepare students for careers in the industrial sector. Typical
fields of study include mechanics, electrical and information technology, chemistry and materials,
construction and civil engineering, and design. Approximately two-thirds of the students enter
employment directly after graduation, and roughly one-third continue on to tertiary-level trade schools,
universities, and junior colleges (Okano & Tsuchiya, 1999). In order for schools to maintain enrollment
and to satisfy parent and students’ expectations, there is considerable pressure to graduate every student,
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maximize the number of students going on to higher education, and maximize the employment rate of
those students that do not go on to tertiary education. As a result, teachers are sometimes pressured to
pass students that have failed their classes (Okano & Tsuchiya, 1999). Ultimately, more than 95% of
students graduate from high school (Ellington, 2005).
Most students that wish to enter higher education must take either the Japanese National Center
Test for University Admission, which includes English reading and listening exams (Underwood,
2010), or an entrance exam, which often includes an English portion (Kikuchi, 2006), administered by
the institution they wish to attend, or in some cases both exams, although recommendation systems
exist at many tertiary level institutions for a select number of candidates. Similarly, most Japanese
companies require prospective employees to pass entrance exams (Rosenbaum & Kariya, 1989), which
often include an English test. The format of each test varies with each employer, but in general, the
English portion assesses knowledge of conversational English phrases, writing skills, and reading and
listening comprehension.
Extracurricular activities are another aspect of technical high schools that impact student
learning. Extracurricular athletic and cultural club activities are an important aspect of Japanese high
schools and take up a considerable amount of time (Cave, 2004). This is especially true for technical
schools. Some clubs practice every day of the week and late into the night making it difficult for
students to find time for homework and too tired to concentrate in classes.
English Curriculum
The Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) requires
English study for all three years of high school as well as the preceding three years of junior high
school (2011a). Beginning in 2016, students entering high school will have had five years of
compulsory English classes beginning in the fifth grade of elementary school (MEXT, 2011a).
The overall aim of Japanese junior high school foreign language (English) instruction is “to
develop students’ basic communication abilities” as mandated by MEXT (2011b, p.1). Similarly, the
overall aim of high school English courses is “to develop students’ communication abilities such as
accurately understanding and appropriately conveying information, ideas, etc., deepening their
understanding of language and culture, and fostering a positive attitude toward communication through
foreign languages” (2011c, p. 1). Ostensibly, English classes should be conducted with this aim in
mind. In practice, however, other factors influence the way English is actually taught.
Despite the communicative aims specified by MEXT, grammar and translation are the primary
focus of both junior and senior high school English instruction (Falout, Elwood, & Hood, 2009). This
is often implemented by studying grammar through the Japanese translation of English texts—known
as yakudoku in Japanese (Gorsuch, 1998). Teachers often cite preparation for university entrance
exams as the rationale for the use of such methods, but in fact, this choice is most often based on
teachers’ personal beliefs and educational background rather than actual university entrance exam
content (Watanabe, 2004).
Impact on Students’ L2 Motivation
Japanese junior high school students begin with high levels of interest in learning English, but for most
students this interest declines markedly throughout junior and senior high school (Falout et al., 2009;
Tachibana, Matsukawa, & Zhong, 1996). Indeed, of the 113 second-year technical high school students
surveyed by Soda and Esaki (2005), over 80% responded that they did not like English, with 60%
saying they strongly disliked it; however, when asked an open-ended question about the ‘motive’ or
‘cause’ (i.e., 動機, douki) of their dislike, no one responded. The researchers did not suggest reasons
for the lack of responses to this item, but fear of reprisal, low motivation, or lack of self-reflection are
potential explanations.
Could the competitive, exam-oriented, grammar and translation-focused learning experience
described in the previous sections have any impact on the students’ L2 motivation? Soda and Esaki’s
survey offers a small clue to answering this question. Over 87% of the students surveyed did not like
studying grammar, 79% did not like studying vocabulary and idiomatic phrases, and over 47% did not
think they would need English in their life (Soda & Esaki, 2005). Thus, one hypothesis is that grammar
and vocabulary study and perceived irrelevance to students’ futures contribute to the students’ dislike
of English, but unfortunately, no correlation analysis was provided to test that conjecture, and I was
unable to find any other research focusing specifically on the L2 motivation of technical high school
students. Clearly, more research is needed in this area; however, it is possible to gain some insights
through research on Japanese high school students in general. One such resource is demotivation
research.
Demotivation researchers look for common reasons for decreases in learner motivation. In the
Japanese high school context, teacher behavior, grammar and translation-focused teaching methods,
exam-oriented classes, an emphasis on rote memorization of vocabulary and texts, and unsuitable
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materials have been identified as demotivating for university students reflecting on their high school
experience (Falout, Murphey, Elwood, & Hood, 2008; Kikuchi, 2009). This appears to substantiate the
hypothesis that grammar and vocabulary study contribute to technical students’ low motivation. What
about the hypothesized effect of the perceived irrelevance of English? I address this question after
elaborating on the other demotivating factors in the following subsections.
Demotivators
Negative teacher behaviors are the most common demotivator for Japanese high school students
(Falout et al., 2008), yet teachers do not always realize that their behavior is demotivating (Kikuchi,
2009). Examples of demotivating behaviors, include unenthusiastic, teacher-centered instruction, being
too strict, and shouting in anger (Falout et al., 2008). As another example, by criticizing student
pronunciation errors, teachers that do not have perfect pronunciation are seen as hypocritical (Kikuchi,
2009).
Falout et al (2009) claimed that grammar and translation-focused teaching poses “the largest
threat to student motivation, particularly because it is the sole method of instruction for the first six
years—all of secondary school—of most learners’ experience with English” (p. 409). This teaching
approach results in unengaging, teacher-centered lessons in which students passively take notes (Falout,
Fukada, Murphey, & Fukuda, 2013). As a result, the lack of opportunities to use English for real
communication can be demotivating to students (Kikuchi, 2009).
The focus on exams in Japanese high schools can result in non-communicative, unengaging
classes focused on cramming information (Falout et al., 2013). Moreover, the focus on exam
preparation serves no purpose to the students that do not enter universities (Gorsuch, 1998), which
accounts for two-thirds of technical high school students. Poor exam performance and penalties further
demotivate students (Kikuchi, 2009). Exam performance also determines intra-school placement in
ranked courses (LeTendre, 1996) and is sometimes used for classroom seating arrangements making
students’ academic performances obvious to their peers and teachers.
Tied to the use of grammar and translation teaching methods and exams is an emphasis on rote
memorization. High school tests often only require students to memorize the textbook (Kikuchi, 2009)
and a Japanese translation, rather than test L2 abilities. Students are also demotivated by the quantity of
memorization required to pass daily vocabulary quizzes (Kikuchi, 2013).
It is worth noting here that, despite citing the technical high school students’ low motivation and
finding that the students disliked vocabulary learning, Soda and Esaki (2005) perplexingly
recommended frequent vocabulary quizzes to address the students’ low motivation. Perhaps the
emphasis on memorization is so pervasive in English as a foreign language (EFL) education in Japan
that the researchers were unable to imagine any other possibility.
Students complained that textbooks were dated or boring (Kikuchi, 2009) and found the content
irrelevant to their lives (Yamada, 2014). This effect is compounded by the reuse of the same topics in
Japanese EFL textbook series (Siegel, 2014) as students encounter the same topics over their six years
of secondary school. In addition, the level of the texts was sometimes inappropriate for students’
abilities (Kikuchi, 2009). They also disliked that teachers passed over fictional excerpts, focusing only
on expository texts (Kikuchi, 2009).
Returning to the question of the perceived irrelevance of English to students’ lives, this issue
appeared in the demotivation studies as a consequence of the demotivating factors cited above. Because
grammar and translation-focused and exam-oriented instruction fails to impart communicative skills
considered useful in the real world, students found secondary school English classes to be meaningless
to their lives (Falout et al., 2008). In addition, many students do not have opportunities to use English
outside of class (Yamada, 2014). This situation lends support to the hypothesis that technical students’
low motivation is a result of the perceived irrelevance of English to their lives.
Thus, teacher behavior, grammar and translation teaching methods, exam-oriented teaching, rote
memorization, irrelevant materials, and a perceived irrelevance to students’ lives can be seen as reasons
for Japanese high school students’ lack of motivation in English classes. Furthermore, grammar and
translation-focused teaching, cramming for tests, and rote memorization are not supported by current
second language acquisition research, do not lead to successful language learning, and demotivate
learners as a result (Falout et al., 2008). Can anything be done to reverse demotivation? I review
current research on improving Japanese students’ motivation in the next section.
L2 Motivation Research
L2 motivation research can offer insights into ways to motivate Japanese technical high school students
in English classes. In this section, I first give a brief overview of a current L2 motivation theory: the L2
motivational self system (Dörnyei, 2009). This overview is followed by a discussion of the relevance of
L2 motivation theory to EFL education in Japan. Lastly, I summarize current research on motivating
practices relevant to technical high school student L2 motivation.
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L2 Motivational Self System
Current L2 motivation research is focused on the dynamic and complex nature of L2 motivation in
relation to the social, physical, and temporal situation of the self (Ushioda, 2012). In this view, L2
self-concept, (i.e., beliefs and feelings about oneself in regards to the L2) and one’s sense of personal
agency (i.e., an individual’s capacity to act independently) are central to human motivation (Ushioda,
2012). Drawing on Markus and Nurius’ (1986) possible selves theory of motivation from general
psychology, Dörnyei (2009) proposed an L2 motivational self system made up of three components:
the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self, and the L2 learning experience. The ideal L2 self is the L2 user
one would like to become, the ought-to L2 self is the L2 user one thinks one should be in order to avoid
negative repercussions, and the L2 learning experience is the specific context of the L2 user’s learning
environment (Dörnyei, 2009). Each of these components is seen as determining the nature of an
individual’s motivation (or lack thereof), and each depends on the perspective of the individual, who
can change his or her view through personal agency. Thus, any attempt to change an L2 learner’s
motivation is only effective if the learner’s perspective changes. Furthermore, for L2 motivation to
manifest, the individual must have a strong, clear, realistic, and active image of his or her ideal L2 self,
accompanied by a plan to achieve that self (Dörnyei, 2009).
Applying this framework to technical high school students’ L2 motivation, it is possible that the
perceived irrelevance of English to their lives implies that the L2 is not a part of their ideal selves. The
pressures of graduating and passing entrance exams might imply that students are impelled by their
ought-to L2 selves to study English. Lastly, the third component of this framework, the students’ L2
learning experience, was described in the first section of this paper.
Apple, Falout, and Hill (2013) have proposed another interpretation for understanding Japanese
students’ L2 motivation: the probable L2 self, which is the future L2 user that one believes one is most
likely to become. Along with the ideal and ought-to self, the probable self was another component of
Markus and Nurius’ (1986) possible selves theory, which Dörnyei (2009) discarded in his L2
motivational self system. In fact, Fukada’s (2009) study of Japanese university students majoring in
international studies indicated that this more probable self was more relevant than an ideal L2 self to
the students’ L2 motivation. Therefore, further investigation of the possible relevance of an L2
probable self, or of a general L2 possible self, in the Japanese L2 learning context is merited (Apple,
Falout, & Hill, 2013).
Relevance of L2 Motivation Theory to the Japanese EFL Context
The degree to which motivational theories developed in the West can be applied to non-Western
cultures is frequently discussed in the literature (Noels, 2013; Ryan, 2009). Differences in cultural
values and teaching practices are often cited in arguments against the validity of Western theories in
non-Western cultures (McKay, 2002). East Asian societies (i.e., Japan, China, Korea, and Taiwan) are
often described as having collectivist values in comparison to an individualistic Western society (Noels,
2013). It is argued that the Confucian values of these countries dictate that students constrain their
views in deference to the teacher and group (Flowerdew & Miller, 1995; Miller, 1995). Despite these
claims, Japanese primary school curriculum promotes creativity, original thinking, and self-expression
(Kubota, 1999). Indeed, autonomy, which might be perceived as an individualistic Western value, has
been shown to be relevant to learner motivation in both Western and Japanese contexts (Noels, 2013).
In regards to L2 motivation theory, research has shown the relevance of the L2 motivational self
system (Ryan, 2009; Taguchi, Magid, & Papi, 2009) to the Japanese EFL learning context.
Furthermore, Guilloteaux and Dörnyei (2008) presented empirical evidence of the correlation between
teachers’ use of motivational strategies that have been implemented in the West to students’ L2
motivation in Korean secondary schools, which share similarities with Japanese schools in terms of an
emphasis on exams (Ju-Ho, 2004) and Confucian values.
Motivating Practices for Japanese High School Students
A great deal of research on the effect of motivating practices on Japanese EFL learners has focused on
university and adult learners (e.g., Noels, 2013; Ushioda, 2012; Yashima, 2002) or on tertiary and
secondary students grouped together (e.g., Apple, Falout, & Hill, 2013). A smaller number of studies
have focused specifically on Japanese secondary learners, and I was unable to find any specifically
investigating motivating practices for technical high school students. In this section, I review research
on motivating practices that might be relevant for technical high school students: eliminating
demotivators, fostering international posture, and possible engineering and science L2 selves.
One of the best strategies for enhancing motivation is eliminating demotivators. The absence of
demotivators has a greater positive effect on motivation than the presence of motivators, and thus,
learner motivation can be promoted by preventing demotivation (Gorham & Christophel, 1992).
Therefore, researchers recommend that Japanese high school teachers support students’ affective needs,
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vary teaching methods, incorporate student-centered interactive activities, avoid focusing exclusively
on entrance exams, stop using tests that require large amounts of memorization, and select materials
relevant to learners (Falout et al., 2009; Kikuchi, 2009).
Studies in Japanese EFL contexts show that international posture (i.e., an interest in connecting
with the international community) motivates high school students and leads to higher proficiency and
self-confidence in L2 communication (Yashima, 2002; Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide, & Shimizu, 2004).
International posture has been correlated with self-determined motivation as well as the ideal L2 self
(Yashima, 2009). Yashima and Zenuk-Nishide (2008) found that Japanese high school curriculum that
focuses on participation in an imagined international community through a content-based, thematic
global studies EFL program can increase proficiency, and improve attitude and behavior.
In a large-scale study, Apple, Falout, and Hill (2013) investigated the L2 motivation of Japanese
students enrolled in either university engineering and science programs or in five-year college-high
school technology programs (kōtō-senmon-gakkō). For this group of learners, the ought-to L2 self was
more relevant than the ideal L2 self. The researchers conjectured that this might be a result of the
importance of fulfilling one’s role in a Confucian society. Based on this finding, they suggested that
coursework focusing on the authentic use of English by Japanese engineering and science workers
might motivate the students by strengthen the students’ concept of possible L2 selves.
Apple and his colleagues’ recommendations for engineering and science students might feasibly
be extended to technical high school students, who share similar academic and career interests. To
compensate for its decreasing population, Japan increasingly relies on foreign labor (Japan Times,
2014). Therefore, technical high school students might work with these foreign workers in their future
careers in Japan. Although the workers might come from non-English speaking countries, it is possible
that English as a lingua franca (ELF) is necessary for communication. In addition, industrial companies
send some employees to work in overseas facilities where ELF is sometimes used (Tyndall, 2014, May;
K. Yamamoto, personal communication, November 6, 2014). Therefore, coursework that shows
examples of the use of ELF by Japanese workers in these situations might increase students’ awareness
of the relevance of English to their future careers and thereby generate and strengthen the students’
possible L2 selves and increase their L2 motivation. To that end, Kinkade (2015b) presented an
example of how such coursework might be integrated into a one-year English Communication I
curriculum for first-year technical high school students.
This review of L2 motivation research presented current L2 motivation theory, discussed its
relevance to the Japanese EFL context, and reviewed research on motivating practices relevant to
technical high school students. Eliminating demotivators by incorporating student-centered interactive
activities based on content relevant to students, supporting students’ psychological needs, teaching
learning strategies, fostering an international posture, and providing examples of engineering and
science workers using English offer promising ideas for improving technical high school students’
motivation. Based on the literature review, the following section outlines a research proposal to
investigate technical high school student L2 motivation and the effect of an instructional unit on the
role of English in Japanese industry.
Research Questions
The proposed research project is designed to address the following two research questions:
1. Does instruction focusing on Japanese technical employees’ use of English increase technical high
school students’ motivational state in English classes?
2. Does technical high school students’ motivational state in English classes correlate with or predict
English test performance?
Methodology
Participants
The target participants are 120 first-year students in a technical high school situated in a predominately
rural prefecture in western Japan. The participants are divided into three classes of 40 students each
taught by the same teacher. Two of the classes receive the treatment and the remaining class serves as a
control group receiving no treatment.
Instrumentation
An English motivational state questionnaire (EMSQ), translated into Japanese by a third-party, (see the
Appendix for an English language version of the EMSQ) and school-wide second and third trimester
final examinations are the primary instruments for the study. The EMSQ was piloted in a previous
study to 190 students from technical, academic, and vocational high schools (Kinkade, 2015a). The
EMSQ consists of 20 six-point Likert items intended to measure four constructs: attitude toward
English class (four items), self-confidence in English class (seven items), English class anxiety (four
items), and possible English selves and expectations (five items). The items were adapted from four
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motivational state questionnaires used in previous studies (Apple, Falout, & Hill, 2013; Apple, Hill,
Shimo, & Falout, 2013, August; Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008; Soda & Esaki, 2005) and modified
based on the results of the Rasch principal components analysis (PCA, Linacre, 2012) performed in the
pilot study (Kinkade, 2015a).
Instructional Treatment
The instructional treatment is an eight-lesson task-based unit on ELF in Japanese industry adapted from
Kinkade (2015b). The purpose of the unit is to explore the role of ELF within Japanese industry and its
relevance to students’ future careers. As the unit is incorporated into high school English classes, it is
designed to meet MEXT’s overall aims “to develop students’ communication abilities” and to foster “a
positive attitude toward communication through foreign languages” (2011c, p. 1). The unit is intended
to increase the students’ English motivation through the concepts of possible English selves,
international posture, and eliminating demotivators. By exploring clear and realistic examples of ELF
in Japanese industry, the students are given the opportunity to consider and imagine possible English
selves relevant to their career paths and develop an international posture. The unit also utilizes content
relevant to students’ needs in a student-centered, task-based, interactive instructional approach to
eliminate the demotivating effect of irrelevant materials and teacher-centered, grammar and
translation-focused and exam-oriented teaching methods. Table 1 outlines the instructional treatment.
The unit is comprised of three main parts: examples of ELF in Japanese industry; poster presentations
on ELF in Japanese industry; and reflection on ELF, future studies, and career. The following
subsections describe each of these parts.
Table 1. Instructional Treatment Outline
Part
Lesson
Main tasks
Part I: Examples of ELF
in Japanese Industry
1-3
Investigation of examples of ELF in Japanese industry and
reflection
Part II: Poster
Presentations on ELF in
Japanese Industry
4-6
Team poster presentation preparation
7
Team poster presentation, information gathering, peer teaching,
and reflection
Part III: Reflection on
ELF, Future Studies, and
Career
8
Small group discussion and summary writing
Part I: Examples of ELF in Japanese Industry
In Part I, the students study examples of the high school alumni using ELF in Japanese industry. Part I
is designed to be taught over the span of three 50-minute lesson periods. The primary aim is to learn
how English is used in Japanese industry companies through examples collected from the school’s
alumni. These examples are presented through a combination of written text excerpts, photos, and
video recordings. The students form teams of five and select a company and individual to investigate.
These tasks are continued in the second and third lessons as students continue to learn about examples
of EFL in industrial technology and summarize the information. The information they collect is used
for the second part of the unit. The third lesson ends with students reflecting on the insights gained
from their investigation.
Part II: Poster Presentations on ELF in Japanese Industry
In Part II, students present group poster presentation on the alumni and company they studied in Part I.
Part II is implemented over four 50-minute lesson periods. This part is focused on applying the
information learned in the first part to create a group poster presentation on ELF in Japanese industry.
In the first three lessons, the students prepare their team posters, prepare speaking points, and practice
their presentations. In the fourth lesson, students present their posters with four teams presenting in
each corner of the room and the members of the other four teams divided into audience groups with
one or two members from each team represented. These audience groups interact with the presenting
groups for 10 minutes. The students in the audience groups take notes as an information-transfer task
with their original team members in a peer-teaching task. This process is repeated with the presenting
and audience groups changing roles. At the end of the presentations, students return to their original
teams and share the information they learned from the respective poster presentations they attended for
the peer-teaching task. The teams then summarize this information in writing.
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Part III: Reflection on ELF, Future Studies, and Career
In Part III, students reflect on the insights gained from the ELF unit and discuss how they might be
applied to their future studies and career during the final 50-minute lesson. The students share opinions
in small groups and summarize the discussion in writing. Finally, the groups share their ideas with the
rest of the class.
Procedure
The testing and instructional procedures are summarized in Table 2. The pre-test EMSQ is
administered immediately following the second trimester final exam, which is held in the last week of
November. The treatment begins the following week and is implemented during the first three weeks of
December. The third trimester final exam and post-test EMSQ are administered 10 weeks later in the
last week of February.
Table 2. Testing and Instructional Schedule
Week
Treatment group
Control group
1
Second trimester final exam
Second trimester final exam
EMSQ
EMSQ
2-4
Instructional Treatment
Normal English curriculum
14
Third trimester final exam
Third trimester final exam
EMSQ
EMSQ
Analysis
To analyze the collected data, the EMSQ and trimester final exam responses will be coded, scored, and
subjected to Rasch analysis to check for item fit, person and item reliability, and for the EMSQ, Likert
scale category functioning and PCA of item residuals (Linacre, 2012). Factor analysis will also be
applied to check the dimensionality of the hypothesized constructs on the EMSQ. To address the first
research question (Does instruction focusing on Japanese technical employees’ use of English increase
technical high school students’ motivational state in English classes?) the difference in each
participant’s pre-test and post-test EMSQ scores will be calculated, and the treatment and control
groups will be compared using analysis of variance (ANOVA). To address the second research
question (Does technical high school students’ motivational state in English classes correlate with or
predict English test performance?) ANOVA and regression analysis will be applied to participants’
EMSQ scores and second and third trimester final exam scores to look for possible interactions.
Possible Outcomes and Limitations
A number of possible outcomes and limitations can be anticipated for this study, which I discuss in the
following subsections organized by the research questions.
Research Question 1: Does Instruction Focusing on Japanese Technical Employees’ Use of English
Increase Technical High School Students’ Motivational State in English Classes?
The instructional treatment might have a positive impact on the students’ reported English motivational
state, as measured by the EMSQ, as well as the students’ behavior in class. In Guilloteaux and
Dörnyei’s (2008) study, Korean secondary students’ motivated classroom behavior (operationalized as
student volunteering, engagement, and attention and measured by an independent observer) correlated
with the students’ self-reported motivational state. Thus, an increase in active participation in the
Japanese technical high school English classroom might also be a possible outcome for the treatment.
Care must be taken in interpreting such potential outcomes, however. Differences between the
control and treatment groups, such as student aptitude and classroom atmosphere, cannot be ignored as
well as other possible outside influences, such as the advice of a teacher or parent, during the span of
the study. This possibility is increased by the 10-week delay between the treatment and the post-test
EMSQ and trimester final exam; however, including an immediate post-treatment EMSQ test might
introduce a test fatigue effect from three administrations. Another limitation is that differences might
also exist between students’ self-reported motivation on the EMSQ and their actual motivation.
Without an independent observer to document the students’ behavior any changes observed by the
teacher must necessarily be regarded as anecdotal. Therefore, even if significant differences between
the treatment and control groups are found, causality cannot be assumed, although students’ written
statements might provide some insight in this regard.
A number of factors might also diminish the effectiveness of the proposed instructional
treatment. Because the unit must be designed to fit within a short period of time due to curricular
85
constraints, it might not have the intended impact on students’ motivation. Spreading the parts
throughout the school year is an alternative approach but might also result in a diminished effect and
present problems in terms of the students’ ability to recall the information from previous parts. The
students’ English communicative abilities might also present a challenge if they lack the vocabulary
and skills to convey their ideas in discussions and reflections. This limitation might be addressed by
using Japanese for these portions of the lessons although this also affects the extent to which the unit
meets English curriculum objectives.
Research Question 2: Does Technical High School Students’ Motivational State in English Classes
Correlate with or Predict English Test Performance?
Independent of the results of the first research question, it is possible that students’ motivation
as measured by the EMSQ might correlate with or even predict academic English test performance. It
is also possible that changes in motivation are linked to changes in test performance. Furthermore,
these potential links might be found between an overall motivational state loading on a single factor, as
in Guilloteaux and Dörnyei (2008), or with more specific aspects of motivation, such as possible
English selves or attitude toward the English class.
As with the first research question, isolating the effect of motivation from other possible factors
is complex, and a causal relationship cannot be expected to be established due to the limitations of the
proposed research design. Furthermore, any interpretation of the results are limited to performance on
the trimester exams utilized in the high school, which might be found to be unreliable in the Rasch
analysis, or limited in the degree to which they measure English proficiency (e.g., reading, grammar,
and translation skills as opposed to general communicative ability).
Conclusion
I began this paper with a review of the literature relevant to technical high school students’ English
learning motivation. Based on this review, a research proposal was presented to investigate the effect of
an instructional unit about the role of ELF in Japanese industry on the students’ English classroom
motivation. Lastly, I discussed the possible outcomes and limitations of the proposed unit.
There are a number of possible reasons for Japanese technical high school students’ perceived
low motivation including teaching methods, exams, and perceived irrelevance. Fortunately, L2
motivation research suggests a number of ways to remedy this situation: from using relevant
instructional materials to strengthening students’ images of possible L2 selves. Although L2 motivation
research has begun to focus on the effectiveness of motivational practices for Japanese students, very
little has focused specifically on Japanese secondary students, and to my knowledge, no studies have
been conducted on the impact of motivational practices in the technical high school setting. Further
research is needed to establish whether the motivational practices proposed for tertiary students, such
as possible engineering and science L2 selves (Apple, Falout, & Hill, 2013) can be extended to the
specific needs of these learners.
The instructional treatment put forward in the research proposal incorporates the suggestions
offered by L2 motivation research and, thus, offers a possible means of testing their effectiveness for
these learners. Regardless of whether any link between the students’ English motivational state and the
treatment or test performance is discovered, the research might potentially provide insight into
Japanese technical high school students’ English learning motivation. Such insight can be used to guide
future research and pedagogical approaches for this group of learners.
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Appendix: English Motivational State Questionnaire (EMSQ)
(English language version; hypothesized constructs based on analysis in Kinkade, 2015a.)
Attitude toward English Class (AC) (Adapted from Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008)
1. I like English class. (Also in Soda & Esaki, 2005)
2. I would rather spend time on subjects other than English. [reverse scored]
3. When the English lesson ends, I wish it could continue.
4. Learning English at school is a burden for me. [reverse scored]
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English Class Self-Confidence (SC) (Adapted from Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008)
5. This semester, I think I am good at learning English.
6. The level of English lessons this semester is just right. (AC in Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008)
7. I understand how to do most of my classwork and homework this semester.
8. I believe I will receive good grades in English this semester.
9. I often volunteer to speak in English lessons.
10. I feel I am making progress in English this semester.
11. I often experience a feeling of success in my English lessons this semester.
English Class Anxiety (CA) (Adapted from Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008)
12. I am worried about making mistakes during English lessons.
13. I am afraid that my classmates will laugh at me when I have to speak in English lessons. (Speaking anxiety in
Apple, Falout, & Hill, 2013)
14. I am worried about my ability to do well in English this semester. (SC, reverse scored, in Guilloteaux &
Dörnyei, 2008)
15. I feel more nervous in English class than in my other classes.
Possible Selves and Expectations (PS)
16. I am sure that one day I will be able to speak English well. (SC in Guilloteaux & Dörnyei, 2008)
17. I can imagine using English in the future. (Adapted from Apple, Hill, et al., 2013, August; Soda & Esaki,
2005)
18. In English lessons, we are learning things that will be useful in the future. (AC in Guilloteaux & Dörnyei,
2008)
19. I can imagine being required to use English in the future. (Adapted from Apple, Hill, et al., 2013, August)
20. I think society expects me to use English. (Adapted from Apple, Hill, et al., 2013, August)
